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org/wiki/Cloud_computing

Cloud computing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Cloud computing is Internet-based computing, whereby

shared resources, software, and information are provided to
computers and other devices on demand, like the electricity
grid.

Cloud computing is a paradigm shift following the shift from

mainframe to client–server in the early 1980s. Details are
abstracted from the users, who no longer have need for
expertise in, or control over, the technology infrastructure
"in the cloud" that supports them.[1] Cloud computing
describes a new supplement, consumption, and delivery
model for IT services based on the Internet, and it typically Cloud computing conceptual diagram
involves over-the-Internet provision of dynamically scalable
and often virtualized resources.[2][3] It is a byproduct and consequence of the ease-of-access to remote
computing sites provided by the Internet.[4] This frequently takes the form of web-based tools or applications
that users can access and use through a web browser as if it were a program installed locally on their own
computer.[5] NIST provides a somewhat more objective and specific definition here.[6] The term "cloud" is used
as a metaphor for the Internet, based on the cloud drawing used in the past to represent the telephone
network,[7] and later to depict the Internet in computer network diagrams as an abstraction of the underlying
infrastructure it represents.[8] Typical cloud computing providers deliver common business applications online
that are accessed from another Web service or software like a Web browser, while the software and data are
stored on servers. A key element of cloud computing is customization and the creation of a user-defined
experience.

Most cloud computing infrastructures consist of services delivered through common centers and built on servers.
Clouds often appear as single points of access for all consumers' computing needs. Commercial offerings are
generally expected to meet quality of service (QoS) requirements of customers, and typically include service
level agreements (SLAs).[9] The major cloud service providers include Microsoft,[10] Salesforce, Amazon and
Google.[11][12]

Contents
1 Overview
1.1 Comparisons
1.2 Characteristics
1.3 Economics
1.4 Architecture
2 History
3 Key features
4 Layers

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4.1 Client
4.2 Application
4.3 Platform
4.4 Infrastructure
4.5 Server
5 Deployment models
5.1 Public cloud
5.2 Community cloud
5.3 Hybrid cloud
5.4 Private cloud
6 Cloud Storage
7 The Intercloud
8 Issues
8.1 Privacy
8.2 Compliance
8.3 Legal
8.4 Open source
8.5 Open standards
8.6 Security
8.7 Availability and Performance
8.8 Sustainability and siting
9 Research
10 Criticism of the term
11 References

Overview
Comparisons

Cloud computing derives characteristics from, but should not be confused with:

1. Autonomic computing — "computer systems capable of self-management".[13]

2. Client–server model – Client–server computing refers broadly to any distributed application that
distinguishes between service providers (servers) and service requesters (clients).[14]
3. Grid computing — "a form of distributed computing and parallel computing, whereby a 'super and virtual
computer' is composed of a cluster of networked, loosely coupled computers acting in concert to perform
very large tasks"
4. Mainframe computer — powerful computers used mainly by large organizations for critical applications,
typically bulk data processing such as census, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource
planning, and financial transaction processing.[15]
5. Utility computing — the "packaging of computing resources, such as computation and storage, as a
metered service similar to a traditional public utility, such as electricity";[16]
6. Peer-to-peer – a distributed architecture without the need for central coordination, with participants being
at the same time both suppliers and consumers of resources (in contrast to the traditional client–server
model).

Characteristics

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In general, cloud computing customers do not own the physical infrastructure, instead avoiding capital
expenditure by renting usage from a third-party provider. They consume resources as a service and pay only for
resources that they use. Many cloud-computing offerings employ the utility computing model, which is
analogous to how traditional utility services (such as electricity) are consumed, whereas others bill on a
subscription basis. Sharing "perishable and intangible" computing power among multiple tenants can improve
utilization rates, as servers are not unnecessarily left idle (which can reduce costs significantly while increasing
the speed of application development). A side-effect of this approach is that overall computer usage rises
dramatically, as customers do not have to engineer for peak load limits.[17] In addition, "increased high-speed
bandwidth" makes it possible to receive the same response times from centralized infrastructure at other sites.
[citation needed]

The cloud is becoming increasingly associated with small and medium enterprises (SMEs) as in many cases they
cannot justify or afford the large capital expenditure of traditional IT. SMEs also typically have less existing
infrastructure, less bureaucracy, more flexibility, and smaller capital budgets for purchasing in-house
technology. Similarly, SMEs in emerging markets are typically unburdened by established legacy infrastructures,
thus reducing the complexity of deploying cloud solutions.[18]

Economics

Cloud computing users avoid capital expenditure (CapEx) on hardware, software, and services when they pay a
provider only for what they use. Consumption is usually billed on a utility (resources consumed, like electricity)
or subscription (time-based, like a newspaper) basis with little or no upfront cost. Other benefits of this approach
are low barriers to entry, shared infrastructure and costs, low management overhead, and immediate access to a
broad range of applications. In general, users can terminate the contract at any time (thereby avoiding return on
investment risk and uncertainty), and the services are often covered by service level agreements (SLAs) with
financial penalties.[19][20]

According to Nicholas Carr, the strategic importance of information technology is diminishing as it becomes
standardized and less expensive. He argues that the cloud computing paradigm shift is similar to the
displacement of electricity generators by electricity grids early in the 20th century.[21]

Although companies might be able to save on upfront capital expenditures, they might not save much and might
actually pay more for operating expenses. In situations where the capital expense would be relatively small, or
where the organization has more flexibility in their capital budget than their operating budget, the cloud model
might not make great fiscal sense. Other factors impacting the scale of any potential cost savings include the
efficiency of a company's data center as compared to the cloud vendor's, the company's existing operating costs,
the level of adoption of cloud computing, and the type of functionality being hosted in the cloud.[22][23]

Among the items that some cloud hosts charge for are instances (often with extra charges for high-memory or
high-CPU instances); data transfer in and out; storage (measured by the GB-month); I/O requests; PUT requests
and GET requests; IP addresses; and load balancing. In some cases, users can bid on instances, with pricing
dependent on demand for available instances.[citation needed]

Architecture

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Cloud architecture,[24] the systems architecture of the

software systems involved in the delivery of cloud
computing, typically involves multiple cloud
components communicating with each other over
application programming interfaces, usually web
services.[25] This resembles the Unix philosophy of
having multiple programs each doing one thing well and
working together over universal interfaces. Complexity
is controlled and the resulting systems are more
manageable than their monolithic counterparts. The two
most significant components of cloud computing
(http://www.optimip.co.uk/) architecture are known as
the front end and the back end. The front end is the part Cloud computing sample architecture
seen by the client, i.e. the computer user. This includes
the client’s network (or computer) and the applications
used to access the cloud via a user interface such as a web browser. The back end of the cloud computing
architecture is the ‘cloud’ itself, comprising various computers, servers and data storage devices.

History
The underlying concept of cloud computing dates back to 1960s, when John McCarthy opined that
"computation may someday be organized as a public utility". Almost all the modern day characteristics of cloud
computing (elastic provision, provided as a utility, online, illusion of infinite supply), the comparison to the
electricity industry and the use of public, private, government and community forms was thoroughly explored in
Douglas Parkhill's, 1966 book, "The Challenge of the Computer Utility".

The actual term "cloud" borrows from telephony in that telecommunications companies, who until the 1990s
primarily offered dedicated point-to-point data circuits, began offering Virtual Private Network (VPN) services
with comparable quality of service but at a much lower cost. By switching traffic to balance utilization as they
saw fit they were able to utilise their overall network bandwidth more effectively. The cloud symbol was used to
denote the demarcation point between that which was the responsibility of the provider from that of the user.
Cloud computing extends this boundary to cover servers as well as the network infrastructure.[26]

Amazon played a key role in the development of cloud computing by modernizing their data centers after the
dot-com bubble, which, like most computer networks, were using as little as 10% of their capacity at any one
time just to leave room for occasional spikes. Having found that the new cloud architecture resulted in
significant internal efficiency improvements whereby small, fast-moving "two-pizza teams" could add new
features faster and easier, Amazon initiated a new product development effort to provide cloud computing to
external customers and launched Amazon Web Service (AWS) on a utility computing basis in 2006.[27][28]

In 2007, Google, IBM, and a number of universities embarked on a large scale cloud computing research
project.[29] In early 2008, Eucalyptus became the first open source AWS API compatible platform for deploying
private clouds. By mid-2008, Gartner saw an opportunity for cloud computing "to shape the relationship among
consumers of IT services, those who use IT services and those who sell them",[30] and observed that
"[o]rganisations are switching from company-owned hardware and software assets to per-use service-based
models" so that the "projected shift to cloud computing ... will result in dramatic growth in IT products in some
areas and significant reductions in other areas."[31]

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In March 2010, Microsoft's CEO, Steve Ballmer, made his strongest statement of betting the company's future in
the cloud by proclaiming "For the cloud, we're all in" and further stating "About 75 percent of our folks are
doing entirely cloud based or entirely cloud inspired, a year from now that will be 90 percent."[32]

Key features
Agility improves with users' ability to rapidly and inexpensively re-provision technological infrastructure
resources.[33]
Cost is claimed to be greatly reduced and capital expenditure is converted to operational expenditure.[34]
This ostensibly lowers barriers to entry, as infrastructure is typically provided by a third-party and does
not need to be purchased for one-time or infrequent intensive computing tasks. Pricing on a utility
computing basis is fine-grained with usage-based options and fewer IT skills are required for
implementation (in-house).[35]
Device and location independence[36] enable users to access systems using a web browser regardless of
their location or what device they are using (e.g., PC, mobile). As infrastructure is off-site (typically
provided by a third-party) and accessed via the Internet, users can connect from anywhere.[35]
Multi-tenancy enables sharing of resources and costs across a large pool of users thus allowing for:
Centralization of infrastructure in locations with lower costs (such as real estate, electricity, etc.)
Peak-load capacity increases (users need not engineer for highest possible load-levels)
Utilization and efficiency improvements for systems that are often only 10–20% utilized.[27]
Reliability is improved if multiple redundant sites are used, which makes well designed cloud computing
suitable for business continuity and disaster recovery.[37] Nonetheless, many major cloud computing
services have suffered outages, and IT and business managers can at times do little when they are
affected.[38][39]
Scalability via dynamic ("on-demand") provisioning of resources on a fine-grained, self-service basis
near real-time, without users having to engineer for peak loads. Performance is monitored, and consistent
and loosely coupled architectures are constructed using web services as the system interface.[35] One of
the most important new methods for overcoming performance bottlenecks for a large class of applications
is data parallel programming on a distributed data grid.[40]
Security could improve due to centralization of data,[41] increased security-focused resources, etc., but
concerns can persist about loss of control over certain sensitive data, and the lack of security for stored
kernels.[42] Security is often as good as or better than under traditional systems, in part because providers
are able to devote resources to solving security issues that many customers cannot afford.[43] Providers
typically log accesses, but accessing the audit logs themselves can be difficult or impossible. Furthermore,
the complexity of security is greatly increased when data is distributed over a wider area and / or number
of devices.
Maintenance cloud computing applications are easier to maintain, since they don't have to be installed on
each user's computer. They are easier to support and to improve since the changes reach the clients
instantly.
Metering cloud computing resources usage should be measurable and should be metered per client and
application on daily, weekly, monthly, and annual basis. This will enable clients on choosing the vendor
cloud on cost and reliability (QoS).

Layers

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Client

See also: Category:Cloud clients

A cloud client consists of computer hardware and/or computer

software that relies on cloud computing for application delivery, or
that is specifically designed for delivery of cloud services and that, in
either case, is essentially useless without it. Examples include some
computers, phones and other devices, operating systems and
browsers.[44][45][46][47][48]

Application

See also: Category:Cloud applications

Cloud application services or "Software as a Service (SaaS)" deliver

software as a service over the Internet, eliminating the need to install and run the application on the customer's
own computers and simplifying maintenance and support. People tend to use the terms ‘SaaS’ and ‘cloud’
interchangeably, when in fact they are 2 different things.[49] Key characteristics include:[50]

Network-based access to, and management of, commercially available (i.e., not custom) software
Activities that are managed from central locations rather than at each customer's site, enabling customers
to access applications remotely via the Web
Application delivery that typically is closer to a one-to-many model (single instance, multi-tenant
architecture) than to a one-to-one model, including architecture, pricing, partnering, and management
characteristics
Centralized feature updating, which obviates the need for downloadable patches and upgrades.

Platform

See also: Category:Cloud platforms

Cloud platform services or "Platform as a Service (PaaS)" deliver a computing platform and/or solution stack
as a service, often consuming cloud infrastructure and sustaining cloud applications.[51] It facilitates
deployment of applications without the cost and complexity of buying and managing the underlying hardware
and software layers.[52][53]

Infrastructure

See also: Category:Cloud infrastructure

Cloud infrastructure services, also known as "Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)", delivers computer
infrastructure - typically a platform virtualization environment - as a service. Rather than purchasing servers,
software, data-center space or network equipment, clients instead buy those resources as a fully outsourced
service. Suppliers typically bill such services on a utility computing basis and amount of resources consumed
(and therefore the cost) will typically reflect the level of activity. IaaS evolved from virtual private server
offerings.[54]

Server

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The servers layer consists of computer hardware and/or computer software products that are specifically
designed for the delivery of cloud services, including multi-core processors, cloud-specific operating systems
and combined offerings.[44][55][56][57]

Deployment models
Public cloud

Public cloud or external cloud describes

cloud computing in the traditional
mainstream sense, whereby resources are
dynamically provisioned on a fine-grained,
self-service basis over the Internet, via web
applications/web services, from an off-site
third-party provider who bills on a
fine-grained utility computing basis.[35]

Community cloud

A community cloud may be established Cloud computing types

where several organizations have similar
requirements and seek to share infrastructure so as to realize some of the benefits of cloud computing. With the
costs spread over fewer users than a public cloud (but more than a single tenant) this option is more expensive
but may offer a higher level of privacy, security and/or policy compliance. Examples of community cloud
include Google's "Gov Cloud".[58]

Hybrid cloud

See also: Cloud storage gateway

A hybrid cloud environment consisting of multiple internal and/or external providers[59] "will be typical for
most enterprises".[60] By integrating multiple cloud services users may be able to ease the transition to public
cloud services while avoiding issues such as PCI compliance.[61]

Another perspective on deploying a web application in the cloud is using Hybrid Web Hosting, where the
hosting infrastructure is a mix between Cloud Hosting for the web server, and Managed dedicated server for the
database server.

Private cloud

The concept of a Private Computer Utility was first described by Douglas Parkhill in his 1966 book "The
Challenge of the Computer Utility". The idea was based upon direct comparison with other industries (e.g. the
electricity industry) and the extensive use of hybrid supply models to balance and mitigate risks.

Private cloud and internal cloud have been described as neologisms, however the concepts themselves pre-date
the term cloud by 40 years. Even within modern utility industries, hybrid models still exist despite the formation
of reasonably well functioning markets and the ability to combine multiple providers.

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Some vendors have used the terms to describe offerings that emulate cloud computing on private networks.
These (typically virtualisation automation) products offer the ability to deliver some benefits of cloud computing
whilst mitigating some of the pitfalls. These offerings capitalise on data security, corporate governance, and
reliability concerns during this time of transition from a product to a functioning service based industry
supported by competitive marketplaces.

They have been criticized on the basis that users "still have to buy, build, and manage them" and as such do not
benefit from lower up-front capital costs and less hands-on management,[60] essentially "[lacking] the economic
model that makes cloud computing such an intriguing concept".[62][63]

Cloud Storage
Main article: Cloud Storage

Cloud Storage is a model of networked computer data storage where data is stored on multiple virtual servers,
generally hosted by third parties, rather than being hosted on dedicated servers. Hosting companies operate large
data centers; and people who require their data to be hosted buy or lease storage capacity from them and use it
for their storage needs. The data center operators, in the background, virtualize the resources according to the
requirements of the customer and expose them as virtual servers, which the customers can themselves manage.
Physically, the resource may span across multiple servers.

The Intercloud
Main article: Intercloud

The Intercloud[64] is an interconnected global "cloud of clouds"[65][66] and an extension of the Internet
"network of networks" on which it is based.[67] The term was first used in the context of cloud computing in
2007 when Kevin Kelly stated that "eventually we'll have the intercloud, the cloud of clouds. This Intercloud
will have the dimensions of one machine comprising all servers and attendant cloudbooks on the planet.".[65] It
became popular in 2009[68] and has also been used to describe the datacenter of the future.[69]

The Intercloud scenario is based on the key concept that each single cloud does not have infinite physical
resources. If a cloud saturates the computational and storage resources of its virtualization infrastructure, it
could not be able to satisfy further requests for service allocations sent from its clients. The Intercloud scenario
aims to address such situation, and in theory, each cloud can use the computational and storage resources of the
virtualization infrastructures of other clouds. Such form of pay-for-use may introduce new business
opportunities among cloud providers if they manage to go beyond theoretical framework. Nevertheless, the
Intercloud raises many more challenges than solutions concerning cloud federation, security, interoperability,
QoS, vendor's lock-ins, trust, legal issues, monitoring and billing.[citation needed]

The concept of a competitive utility computing market which combined many computer utilities together was
originally described by Douglas Parkhill in his 1966 book, the "Challenge of the Computer Utility". This concept
has been subsequently used many times over the last 40 years and is identical to the Intercloud.

Issues
Privacy

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The Cloud model has been criticized by privacy advocates for the greater ease in which the companies hosting
the Cloud services control, and thus, can monitor at will, lawfully or unlawfully, the communication and data
stored between the user and the host company. Instances such as the secret NSA program, working with AT&T,
and Verizon, which recorded over 10 million phone calls between American citizens, causes uncertainty among
privacy advocates, and the greater powers it gives to telecommunication companies to monitor user activity.[70]
While there have been efforts (such as US-EU Safe Harbor) to "harmonise" the legal environment, providers
such as Amazon still cater to major markets (typically the United States and the European Union) by deploying
local infrastructure and allowing customers to select "availability zones."[71]

Compliance

In order to obtain compliance with regulations including FISMA, HIPAA and SOX in the United States, the Data
Protection Directive in the EU and the credit card industry's PCI DSS, users may have to adopt community or
hybrid deployment modes which are typically more expensive and may offer restricted benefits. This is how
Google is able to "manage and meet additional government policy requirements beyond FISMA"[72][73] and
Rackspace Cloud are able to claim PCI compliance.[74] Customers in the EU contracting with Cloud Providers
established outside the EU/EEA have to adhere to the EU regulations on export of personal data.[75]

Many providers also obtain SAS 70 Type II certification (e.g. Amazon,[76] Salesforce.com,[77] Google[78] and
Microsoft[79]), but this has been criticised on the grounds that the hand-picked set of goals and standards
determined by the auditor and the auditee are often not disclosed and can vary widely.[80] Providers typically
make this information available on request, under non-disclosure agreement.[81]

Legal

In March 2007, Dell applied to trademark the term "cloud computing" (U.S. Trademark 77,139,082
(http://tarr.uspto.gov/servlet/tarr?regser=serial&entry=77139082) ) in the United States. The "Notice of
Allowance" the company received in July 2008 was cancelled in August, resulting in a formal rejection of the
trademark application less than a week later.

Since 2007, the number of trademark filings covering cloud computing brands, goods and services has increased
at an almost exponential rate. As companies sought to better position themselves for cloud computing branding
and marketing efforts, cloud computing trademark filings increased by 483% between 2008 and 2009. In 2009,
116 cloud computing trademarks were filed, and trademark analysts predict that over 500 such marks could be
filed during 2010.[82]

Open source

Open source software has provided the foundation for many cloud computing implementations.[83] In
November 2007, the Free Software Foundation released the Affero General Public License, a version of GPLv3
intended to close a perceived legal loophole associated with free software designed to be run over a network.[84]

Open standards

See also: Category:Cloud standards

Most cloud providers expose APIs which are typically well-documented (often under a Creative Commons

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license[85]) but also unique to their implementation and thus not interoperable. Some vendors have adopted
others' APIs[86] and there are a number of open standards under development, including the OGF's Open Cloud
Computing Interface. The Open Cloud Consortium (OCC) [87] is working to develop consensus on early cloud
computing standards and practices.

Security

Main article: Cloud computing security

The relative security of cloud computing services is a contentious issue which may be delaying its adoption.[88]
Some argue that customer data is more secure when managed internally, while others argue that cloud providers
have a strong incentive to maintain trust and as such employ a higher level of security.[89]

The Cloud Security Alliance is a non-profit organization formed to promote the use of best practices for
providing security assurance within Cloud Computing.[90]

Availability and Performance

In addition to concerns about security, businesses are also worried about acceptable levels of availability and
performance of applications hosted in the cloud.[91]

There are also concerns about a cloud provider shutting down for financial or legal reasons, which has happened
in a number of cases.[92]

Sustainability and siting

Although cloud computing is often assumed to be a form of "green computing", there is as of yet no published
study to substantiate this assumption.[93] Siting the servers affects the environmental effects of cloud
computing. In areas where climate favors natural cooling and renewable electricity is readily available, the
environmental effects will be more moderate. Thus countries with favorable conditions, such as Finland,[94]
Sweden[95] and Switzerland,[96] are trying to attract cloud computing data centers.

Research
A number of universities, vendors and government organizations are investing in research around the topic of
cloud computing.[97] Academic institutions include University of Melbourne (Australia), Georgia Tech, Yale,
Wayne State, Virginia Tech, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Boston University, Carnegie Mellon, MIT,
Indiana University, University of Massachusetts, University of Maryland, North Carolina State, Purdue,
University of California, University of Washington, University of Virginia, University of Utah, University of
Minnesota, among others.[98]

Joint government, academic and vendor collaborative research projects include the IBM/Google Academic
Cloud Computing Initiative (ACCI). In October 2007 IBM and Google announced the multi- university project
designed to enhance students' technical knowledge to address the challenges of cloud computing.[99] In April
2009, the National Science Foundation joined the ACCI and awarded approximately $5 million in grants to 14
academic institutions.[100]

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In July 2008, HP, Intel Corporation and Yahoo! announced the creation of a global, multi-data center, open
source test bed, called Open Cirrus,[101] designed to encourage research into all aspects of cloud computing,
service and data center management.[102] Open Cirrus partners include the NSF, the University of Illinois
(UIUC), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, the Infocomm Development Authority (IDA) of Singapore, the
Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute (ETRI) in Korea, the Malaysian Institute for
Microelectronic Systems(MIMOS), and the Institute for System Programming at the Russian Academy of
Sciences (ISPRAS).[103]

In July 2010, HP Labs India announced a new cloud-based technology designed to simplify taking content and
making it mobile-enabled, even from low-end devices.[104] Called SiteonMobile, the new technology is designed
for emerging markets where people are more likely to access the internet via mobile phones rather than
computers.[105]

The IEEE Technical Committee on Services Computing[106] in IEEE Computer Society sponsors the IEEE
International Conference on Cloud Computing (CLOUD).[107] CLOUD 2010 was held on July 5–10, 2010 in
Miami, Florida.

Criticism of the term

During a video interview, Forrester Research VP Frank Gillett expresses criticism about the nature of and
motivations behind the push for cloud computing. He describes what he calls "cloud washing" in the industry
whereby companies relabel their products as cloud computing resulting in a lot of marketing innovation on top
of real innovation. The result is a lot of overblown hype surrounding cloud computing. Gillett sees cloud
computing as revolutionary in the long term but over-hyped and misunderstood in the short term, representing
more of a gradual shift in our thinking about computer systems and not a sudden transformational change.
[108][109]

Larry Ellison, CEO of Oracle Corporation has stated that cloud computing has been defined as "everything that
we already do" and that it will have no effect except to "change the wording on some of our ads".[110][111]
Oracle Corporation has since launched a cloud computing center and worldwide tour. Forrester Research
Principal Analyst John Rymer dismisses Ellison's remarks by stating that his "comments are complete nonsense
and he knows it".[112][113][114]

Richard Stallman said that cloud computing was simply a trap aimed at forcing more people to buy into locked,
proprietary systems that would cost them more and more over time. "It's stupidity. It's worse than stupidity: it's a
marketing hype campaign", he told The Guardian. "Somebody is saying this is inevitable – and whenever you
hear somebody saying that, it's very likely to be a set of businesses campaigning to make it true." [115]

References
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/blogs/saasweek/2008/03/distinguishing_cloud_computing/) . Ebizq.net. http://www.ebizq.net/blogs/saasweek
/2008/03/distinguishing_cloud_computing/. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
2. ^ "Gartner Says Cloud Computing Will Be As Influential As E-business" (http://www.gartner.com
/it/page.jsp?id=707508) . Gartner.com. http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=707508. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
3. ^ Gruman, Galen (2008-04-07). "What cloud computing really means" (http://www.infoworld.com/d/cloud-
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Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing"
Categories: Centralized computing | Cloud computing

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