Adolescence is the life stage that bridges childhood and adulthood.

In general, it represents the

second decade of life. Many psychologists have begun to seperate this life stage into several,
including early adolescence (10-13 yrs), traditional or mid-adolescence (14-18 yrs), and late
adolescence or youth (19-23 yrs).

The development of adolescents is characterized by continuity and discontinuity. Physically,

adolescents are still influenced by their inherited genes, but now the inheritance interacts with
new social conditions with family, peers, school, dating, and friendships. Socially, an adolescent
has already spent years interacting with parents, friends, and teachers. Now, though, new
experiences arise and relationships take on a different form, especially concerning dating and
intimacy. And lastly, the cognitive development of adolescents involves thought processes that
are more abstract and idealistic.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Puberty and Sexual Development

Puberty is a period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation. It is not a single, sudden event, buy
rather it is a gradual process. It is hard to pinpoint the beginning and end of puberty, however
menarche (first menstruation) for girls, or the first few whiskers for boys can mark its
appearance. Testosterone (males) and estradiol (females) play important roles in pubertal
development. Growth spurts that accompany puberty occur at the average age of 12.5 years for
boys and 10.5 years for girls

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Formal Operational Thought

Jean Piaget, a famous Swiss psychologist and theorist, placed adolescents in a cognitive stage he
called formal operational thought. In between ages 11 and 15 Piaget believed that thought
became more abstract than a childs, more idealistic, and more logical.

Social Cognition

Adolescents begin to develop a type of egocentrism characterized by two parts: an imaginary

audience and a personal fable. An imaginary audience is the youth's belief that others are as
preoccupied with them as they are. The personal fable is characterized by the thought, "That
would never happen to me." Adolescents have a sense of personal uniqueness that leads them to
believe no one can really understand them.

Schooling

The transition to middle or junior high school is a stressful time characterized by the top-dog
phenomenon. Adolescents move from the top position in elementary school to the lowest
position in middle or junior high school. They are the youngest, smallest, and least powerful in
their new school.

Dropping out of high school has been a serious problem for decades. Causes of dropping out
include school related problems such as not liking school, and being expelled or suspended.
There are also economic reasons, and personal reasons such as pregnancy or marriage.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Families

Within the family there is a greater transfer of control from the parents to the adolescent, but
there is still the boundary of coregulation. Adolescents begin to push for autonomy and
responsibility which can puzzle and anger parents, and often causes some conflict. This push for
automony by the adolescent is a process, though, and they continue to keep some strong
attachments to their parents.The best change then, is a gradual one wherein the parent
relinquishes control step by step, and retains a secure attachment or connectedness to the teen,
which will promote more competent relationships for the adolescent later in life.

Some adolescents experience the divorce of their parents. This raises a number of other developmental
challenges.

Peers

Teens spend much more time with their peers during adolescence, with popularity being a strong
motivation for many of them. Peer pressure is strong during this age, cliques become visible,
groups and crowds become more heterogenous and heterosexual, and dating becomes very
important. Youth organizations can have an important influence on adolescents.

Culture & Ethnicity

In our diverse world there is increasing contact between adolescents of different cultures and
ethnic groups. Cross-cultural studies have become very important. In many societies there are
rites of passage that mark the adolescent's transition from one status to another (usually adult
status). In many small-scale societies these transitions are well defined, but in America, rites of
passage to adulthood are ill defined. Ethnic and social class influence the development of
adolescents. Poverty, for example, can increase the stress among ethnic minorities. Also, there
are special concerns about the diversity among teens that can lead to value conflicts, assimilation
(the absorption of ethnic minority groups into the dominant group), or pluralism (coexistence
among ethnic groups).
 Identity

Erik Erikson's stage of "identity vs. identity confusion" is the fifth of his eight developmental
stages in his life-cycle theory. During adolescence, world views become important and the
individual enters what is called a "psychological moratorium". This refers to a period of
exploring different roles, values, and skills.

As part of identity formation, adolescents often affiliate with different groups. It is a time
between childhood security and the responsibilities of adulthood.

Canadian psychologist James Marcia has proposed four stages of identity development: identity
diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium and identity achievment. Overall, researchers
say that this development of identity happens during the latter half of adolescence.

Spirituality and Religion

Teens show more of an interest in religion during adolescence, and religious institutions are
often designed to introduce them to religion. Adolescence can be an important time for religious
development, and Piaget's theory provides a cognitive basis for their understanding of religion
(abstract thought).

Problems and Disorders

Drug and Alcohol Abuse: The U.S. has the highest rate of adolescent drug use than any other
industrialized nation. The 1960s and 1970s marked a sharp increase in drug use that
accompanied the social and political unrest of the time. After a slight decrease in the 80s and
early 90s, the use of drugs is rising again. Drugs used include marijuana, stimulants, LSD,
inhalants and cocaine, but by far alcohol is the most commonly abused drug.

Juvenile Delinquency: Juvenile delinquency refers to a variety of behaviors, ranging from

socially unacceptable behavior (such as acting out in school) to status offenses (such as running
away) to criminal acts (such as burglary). For some, these criminal behaviors become acts of
violence.

Adolescent Pregnancy: Adolescent pregnancy has become a national dilemma. 4 out of 5 of

the1 million American teens who become pregnant are unmarried. 30,000 of them are under the
age of 15. Overall, 1 of every 10 adolescent females becomes pregnant each year. Consequences
include the increased possibility of health risks, and the mother usually drops out of school, fails
to gain employment, and becomes dependent on welfare.

Depression and Suicide: Suicide is a growing problem in the U.S. The rate has tripled in the
past 30 years. Suicide accounts for about 12% of deaths among adolescents and young adults.
Worse, for every successful suicide, 6 to 10 attempts are made. Factors that can trigger suicide
include high stress, loss of a boyfriend or girlfriend, poor grades, an unwanted pregnancy, or
earlier experiences such as family instability and unhappiness.
 Eating Disorders: Two types of eating disorders are anorexia nervosa and bulimia. Anorexia
nervosa is an eating disorder that involves the relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation.
Bulimia involves a binge-and-purge sequence on a regular basis. These are primarily female
disorders caused by societal, psychological, and physiological factors.

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The major task of adolescence is to become 'your own person'. Adolescents learn to make choices and
commitments, follow through with them, and stand up independently in the world.
 
They need to be respected for taking on these tasks.  After all, we respect adults who can do these
things.  They are complicated and courageous actions.
 
But teenagers swing back and forth between dependence and independence as they work on these
tasks.  It's easy for parents to get frustrated.  And it's easy for a parent to assume that if the teenager
would simply follow the plan that makes sense to a parent, things would be all right in the end.
 
Life is not so simple, of course -- not for teenagers and not for adults. In many ways, adults carry on
the very same tasks of growth and development themselves -- after adolescence.  Adults, however,
usually have a greater sense of who they are -- what they value, what they need, and how best to get what
they need -- than do teenagers.
 
False starts, mistakes, poor judgment, or impulsive action are part of growing up.  And like
teenagers, adults encounter these same challenges.  It's just that adults are usually better prepared to meet
the challenges.

Early Adolescence (ages 11-14)

Physical Growth
 Wide variation in onset of puberty and growth spurt.
 Appetite increases during growth spurts and decreases markedly between them.
 Increased need for sleep.
 Evident sexual development, voice changes, and increased body odor are common.
Cognitive Stage
 Individual variation between some children who are still focused on logic and others who are able to
combine logical and abstract thinking.
 Some early adolescents can't think ahead to consequences of their actions.
 Developing new thinking skills, such as thinking more about possibilities, thinking more abstractly,
thinking more about the process of thinking itself, thinking in multiple dimensions, and seeing things as
relative rather than absolute.
 Practicing new thinking skills through humor and by arguing with parents and others. Use of humor
focused on satire, sarcasm, and sex (often irritating to adults).
Moral Development
 Continuing egocentrism.  Often believes self to be invulnerable to negative events.
 Increasing ability to take perspective of others into account with own perspective.
  In addition to concern about gaining social approval, morals begin to be based on respect for the social
order and agreements between people: "law and order" morality.
 Begins to question social conventions and re-examine own values and moral/ethical principles, sometimes
resulting in conflicts with parents.
Self-Concept
 Self-image can be challenged by body changes during puberty and social comparisons.
 Youth begin long-term process of establishing own identity separate from family.
 With the onset of puberty, many girls experience pressure to conform to gender stereotypes, might show
less interest in math and science.
 With puberty, normal increases in girls' body fat can impact body image and self-concept negatively for
many. Both boys and girls might be concerned with skin problems, height, weight, and overall
appearance.
Psychological and Emotional Traits
 Intense self-focus.
o Worrying about what others think about them.
o Increased desire for privacy and sensitivity about body.
 Frequent mood swings with changes in activities and contexts. Too much time spent alone can contribute to
moodiness.
 Height of forgetfulness.
Relationship to Parents and Other Adults
 Changes in own and parental expectations alter previous patterns of relationships with parents, often
resulting in greater conflict.
 Greater focus on peer friendships as youth develops an identity outside of the role of a child in a family.
 Often rebuffs physical affection (but still needs it).
 Increased interest in making own decisions; benefits from increased opportunities to make own decisions
within scope of current abilities.
 Youth objects more often to parental limitations (but still needs some), resulting in conflict.
 New thinking abilities are practiced in increased use of humor and arguments (or "talking back") with
parents/other adults, which may result in conflicts.
 parental listening skills and nurturing continue to be important.
Peer Relationships
 Changes due to puberty and peer reactions commonly alter peer relationships.
 Friendships still begin with perceived commonalities, but increasingly involve sharing of values and
personal confidences.
 Might develop cliques of three to six friends (usually same gender), providing greater sense of security. 
Antisocial cliques can increase antisocial behaviors.
 Romantic crushes common, and some dating begins

Middle Adolescence (ages 15-18)

Physical Growth
 Most youth have entered or completed puberty.
 Less variation in levels of growth and sexual development.
 Many youth have achieved their full adult height and other adult physical development milestones.
Cognitive Stage
 Major broadening of thinking abilities for many youth: can think abstractly and hypothetically; can discern
the underlying principles of various phenomena and apply them to new situations; and can think about the
future, considering many possibilities and logical outcomes of possible events.
 Greater perspective-taking ability can result in increased empathy and concern for others, and new interest
in societal issues for many.
Moral Development
 Less egocentric with age. Increased emphasis on abstract values and moral principles.
 Increased ability (for some) to take another's perspective; can see the bigger societal picture and might
value moral principles over laws: "principled" morality.
 Different rates of cognitive and emotional development. For example, often advocates for specific values
and violates them at the same time.
Self-Concept
 Process of identity formation is intense. Experimentation with different roles: looks, sexuality, values,
friendships, ethnicity, and especially occupations.
 Some girls might experience obsessive dieting or eating disorders, especially those who have higher body
fat, are chronically depressed, or who have highly conflicted family relationships.
 Minority youths might explore several patterns of identity formation:
o a strong ethnic identity
o bi-cultural identity
o assimilation into the majority culture
o alienation from the majority culture
Psychological and Emotional Traits
 For some, increased ability to empathize with others; greater vulnerability to worrying, depression, and
concern for others, especially among girls.
 Many show an increase in responsible behaviors.
Relationship to Parents and Other Adults
 Conflicts with parents often decreases with age.
o Improved ability to see parents as individuals and take their perspectives into account.
o Most maintain good relationship with parents.
 Greater interest in taking on "adult-type" responsibilities (own checking account, doing own laundry,
buying own clothes, cooking meals, making repairs, etc.).
 Commonly makes most of own decisions, preparing for eventual family.
 Needs balance between time spent with adults and with peers.
 Continue to benefit from some parental limits and monitoring, while often objecting to them.
 Common conflicts over money, curfews, chores, appearance, and activities with peers.
Peer Relationships
 Peers help youth explore and develop own identity.
 Cross-gender friendships become more common.
 Antisocial peer groups can increase antisocial behaviors.
 Close friendships help youth with process of developing an individual identity separate from that of a child
in a family.

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Adolescence, stage of maturation between childhood and adulthood. The term denotes the period from the beginning
of puberty to maturity; it usually starts at about age 14 in males and age 12 in females. The transition to adulthood
varies among cultures, but it is generally defined as the time when individuals begin to function independently of
their parents.

I Physical Development
I
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Dramatic changes in physical stature and features are associated with the onset of pubescence. The activity of the
pituitary gland at this time results in the increased secretion of hormones, with widespread physiological effects.
Growth hormone produces a rapid growth spurt, which brings the body close to its adult height and weight in about
two years. The growth spurt occurs earlier among females than males, also indicating that females mature sexually
earlier than males. Attainment of sexual maturity in girls is marked by the onset of menstruation and in boys by the
production of semen. The main hormones governing these changes are androgen in males and estrogen in females,
substances also associated with the appearance of secondary sex characteristics: facial, bodily, and pubic hair and a
deepening voice among males; pubic and bodily hair, enlarged breasts, and broader hips among females. Physical
changes seem to be related to psychological adjustment; studies suggest that earlier-maturing individuals are better
adjusted than their later-maturing contemporaries.

See also Growth, Human.

II Intellectual Development
I
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Throughout adolescence the ability to think and reason, or cognition, develops considerably. While children think in
concrete ways, adolescents begin to acquire more complex cognitive abilities, including abstract thinking and
debating varying viewpoints. The ability to understand complex problems develops gradually. The French
psychologist Jean Piaget determined that adolescence is the beginning of the stage of formal operational thought,
which may be characterized as thinking that involves deductive logic. Piaget assumed that this stage occurs among
all people regardless of educational or related experiences. Research evidence, however, does not support this
hypothesis; it shows that the ability of adolescents to solve certain types of complex problems is a function of
accumulated learning and education.

I Sexual Development
V
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The physical changes that occur at pubescence are responsible for the appearance of the sex drive. The gratification
of sex drives is still complicated by many social taboos, as well as by a lack of accurate knowledge about sexuality.
Since the 1960s, however, sexual activity has increased among adolescents; recent studies show that almost 50
percent of adolescents under the age of 15 and 75 percent under the age of 19 report having had sexual intercourse.
Despite their involvement in sexual activity, some adolescents are not interested in, or knowledgeable about, birth-
control methods or the symptoms of sexually transmitted disease. Consequently, the rate of illegitimate births and
the incidence of sexually transmitted disease are increasing.

V Emotional Development
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The American psychologist G. Stanley Hall asserted that adolescence is a period of emotional stress, resulting from
the rapid and extensive physiological changes occurring at pubescence. Studies by the American anthropologist
Margaret Mead, however, showed that emotional stress is not inevitable, but culturally determined; she found that
difficulties in the transition from childhood to adulthood varied from one culture to another. The German-born
American psychologist Erik Erikson saw development as a psychosocial process going on throughout life. All three
insights are valuable in their own way, but each adolescent shares a unique task: to develop from a dependent to an
independent person who relates to others in a humane and well-socialized fashion.