ENVI Tutorials

September, 2001 Edition

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Tutorial 12:
Introduction to
Hyperspectral Data and
Analysis
The following topics are covered in this tutorial:

Overview of This Tutorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Compare Radiance and ATREM . . . . . . . 279

Introduction to Basic ENVI Spectral Compare Atmospheric Corrections . . . . . 283
Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

ENVI Tutorials 263

264 Tutorial 12: Introduction to Hyperspectral Data and Analysis

Overview of This Tutorial

This tutorial is designed to introduce you to the concepts of Imaging Spectrometry,
hyperspectral images, and selected spectral processing basics using ENVI. For this
exercise, we will use Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) data
to familiarize you with spatial and spectral browsing of imaging spectrometer data.
We will start with 1995 AVIRIS radiance data for Cuprite, Nevada, USA, provided
by Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and then compare the results of several
reflectance calibration procedures.

Files Used in This Tutorial

CD-ROM: ENVI Tutorial and Data CD No. 2
Path: envidata/c95avsub

File Description

Required Files
cup95_rd.int Cuprite AVIRIS radiance data. 400 samples x 350
lines x 50 bands (Integer).
cup95_rd.hdr ENVI Header for above
cup95_at.int Cuprite ATREM-calibrated apparent reflectance data.
50 bands (Integer).
cup95_at.hdr ENVI Header for above

cup95cal.sli Spectral Library of calibration results for selected

minerals (Integer).
cup95cal.hdr ENVI Header for above
jpl1sli.dat Spectral Library in ENVI format.
jpl1sli.hdr ENVI Header for above
usgs_sli.dat USGS Spectral Library in ENVI format
usgs_sli.hdr ENVI Header for above

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Tutorial 12: Introduction to Hyperspectral Data and Analysis 265

File Description

Optional Files
cup95_ff.int Cuprite Flat-Field-calibrated apparent reflectance data.
50 bands (Integer).
cup95_ff.hdr ENVI Header for above
cup95_ia.int Cuprite Internal Average Relative Reflectance (IARR)
data. 50 bands (Integer).
cup95_ia.hdr ENVI Header for above
cup95_el.int Cuprite Empirical Line calibrated apparent reflectance
data. 50 bands (Integer).
cup95_el.hdr ENVI Header for above

Note
Optional files listed may also be used if more detailed calibration comparisons are
desired. All image data files have been converted to integer format by multiplying
the reflectance values by 1000 because of disk space considerations. A value of
1000 therefore represents apparent reflectance of 1.0.

Background: Imaging Spectrometry

Imaging spectrometers or “hyperspectral sensors” are remote sensing instruments
that combine the spatial presentation of an imaging sensor with the analytical
capabilities of a spectrometer. They may have up to several hundred narrow spectral
bands with spectral resolution on the order of 10 nm or narrower (Goetz et al., 1985).
Imaging Spectrometers produce a complete spectrum for every pixel of the image
(Figure 12-1).

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266 Tutorial 12: Introduction to Hyperspectral Data and Analysis

Figure 12-1: The imaging spectrometer concept; hundreds of spectral images,

thousands to millions of individual spectra (from Vane, 1985).

Compare this to broad-band multispectral scanners such as Landsat Thematic

Mapper (TM), which only has 6 spectral bands and spectral resolution on the order of
100 nm or greater (Figure 12-2). The end result of the high spectral resolution of
imaging spectrometers is that we can identify materials, where with broad-band
sensors we could previously only discriminate between materials.

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Tutorial 12: Introduction to Hyperspectral Data and Analysis 267

Figure 12-2: Comparison of a simulated Landsat TM spectrum to the

corresponding laboratory spectrum.

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268 Tutorial 12: Introduction to Hyperspectral Data and Analysis

Introduction to Basic ENVI Spectral

Processing
This portion of the tutorial is designed to familiarize you with ENVI features that are
useful for spectral processing of imaging spectrometer data.

Start ENVI
Before attempting to start the program, ensure that ENVI is properly installed as
described in the installation guide.
• To open ENVI in Unix, enter envi at the UNIX command line.
• To open ENVI from a Windows or Macintosh system, double-click on the
ENVI icon.
The ENVI main menu appears when the program has successfully loaded and
executed.
1. Select File → Open Image File and navigate to the c95avsub subdirectory of
the ENVI Tutorial and Data CD No. 2.
2. Choose cup95_rd.int as the input file name.
The file contains 50 bands (1.99 - 2.48 µm) of JPL-calibrated AVIRIS radiance for
the Cuprite Mining District, Nevada, USA.
The Available Bands List dialog will appear, listing the 50 spectral band names.

Display a Gray Scale Image

1. Use the scroll bar on the right side of the Available Bands List dialog to scroll
through the list until Band 193 (2.2008 µm) is displayed.
2. Click on the Gray Scale radio button, then select Band 193 and click on the
Load Band button at the bottom of the dialog.
The Main Image window containing the selected band will appear.
3. Position the red box outlining the Zoom window by clicking the left mouse
button at the desired location in the Main Image window.
The Zoom window will be automatically updated.
4. Change the zoom factor by clicking the left mouse button in + graphic located
in the lower left hand corner of the zoom window to zoom up or on the - button
to zoom down.

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Tutorial 12: Introduction to Hyperspectral Data and Analysis 269

• Clicking the left mouse button in the Zoom window centers the selected
pixel.
• The Zoom window can also be changed by dragging the red outlining box
within the Main Image window by using the left mouse button.

Display a Color Image

1. Load a color composite image by clicking on the RGB Color radio button in
the Available Bands List dialog.
2. Click sequentially on Band 183, Band 193, and Band 207 (2.10, 2.20, and 2.35
µm).
3. Select New Display from the Display pull-down button at the bottom of the
dialog to start a new display.
4. Click Load RGB at the bottom of the dialog.
The color image will be loaded into the new (second) image display.

Link Two Displays

Images can be linked to allow simultaneous, identical user action on multiple images.
Once linked, moving the zoom box, the scroll box, changing the zoom factor, or
resizing any of the image windows causes the same actions to occur in the linked
windows.
1. Place the cursor in the Display #1 Main Image window and select
Tools → Link → Link Displays.
The Link Displays dialog will appear (Figure 12-3).
2. Use the defaults and click OK to enable the link.

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270 Tutorial 12: Introduction to Hyperspectral Data and Analysis

Figure 12-3: The Link Displays dialog.

3. Position the Zoom window for Display #1 by clicking the left mouse button in
the red Zoom Window outlining box in the #1 Main Image Display and
dragging it to a new location.
Note how the Display #2 Zoom window updates to correspond with the first
display.
Multiple Dynamic Overlays are available when two or more images are
linked, allowing real-time overlay and flicker of multiple gray scale or color
images. Dynamic overlays are activated automatically when two or more
windows are first linked.
4. Click the left mouse button in either of the linked images to cause the second
linked image (the overlay) to appear in the first image (the base).
5. You can make a quick visual comparison of the images by repeatedly clicking
and releasing the left mouse button, which causes the overlay area to flicker.
6. Change the size of the overlay by pressing the middle mouse button and
dragging the corner of the overlay to the desired location.
7. After trying the different possibilities, turn off dynamic linking in the
displayed color image by selecting Tools → Link → Unlink Display.

Extract Spectral Profiles

ENVI’s Z-profile capabilities provide integrated spectral analysis. You can extract
spectra from any multispectral data set including MSS, TM, and higher spectral
dimension data such as GEOSCAN (24 bands), GERIS (63 bands), and AVIRIS (224

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Tutorial 12: Introduction to Hyperspectral Data and Analysis 271

bands). From the displayed color image, you can select Tools → Profiles → Z
Profile (Spectrum) in the Main Image window menu bar to start a spectral profile.

Current Spectrum
The spectrum for the current cursor location will be plotted in a plot window. A
vertical line on the plot is used to mark the wavelength position of the currently
displayed band. If a color composite image is displayed, three colored lines will
appear, one for each displayed band in the band’s respective color (red, green, or
blue).
1. Select Tools → Profiles → Z Profile (Spectrum) in the Main Image window
menu bar to start a spectral profile.
2. Move the cursor position in the Main Image or Zoom window.
The spectrum will be extracted and plotted for the new location.
3. Browse the spectral profile by clicking and holding the left mouse button in the
Main Image window and dragging the box across the image.
The spectrum will be updated as the Zoom window box moves. Note that the
spectra you are viewing are radiance—not reflectance—spectra, as you are
currently working with Cuprite radiance data.
4. Save spectra for comparison using the File → Save Plot As option from the
menu bar at the top of the plot window.

Collect Spectra
1. Select Options → Collect Spectra in the Spectral Profile window to
accumulate spectra in this plot (Figure 12-4).
Optionally, to collect spectra in another plot window, open a new plot window
and save image spectra from the Spectral Profile window.
2. Select Options → New Window: Blank from the plot menu to open a new
plot window to contain saved image spectra.
3. Click the right mouse button in the previous plot to display the spectrum name
to the right of the plot window.
4. Click and hold the left mouse button on the first character of the spectrum
name, drag the name to the new plot window, and release the mouse button.
5. Select a new spectrum from the image by moving the current pixel location in
either the Main Image or Zoom window and repeat the drag-and-drop process
to build a collection of spectra in the new plot window.

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272 Tutorial 12: Introduction to Hyperspectral Data and Analysis

6. Once you have several plots in the plot window, select Options → Stack Data
in new plot window. The spectra will be offset vertically to allow
interpretation.

Figure 12-4: An ENVI Spectral Profile window with collected spectra.

7. To change the color and line style of the different spectra, select Edit → Data
Parameters in the new plot window.
Each spectrum is listed by name/location in the Data Parameters dialog.
8. Select a line and change its properties as desired.
9. When completed, click Cancel to close the dialog.
10. Select File → Cancel to close the plots after completing this section.

Animate the Data

You can animate gray scale images to make the spatial occurrence of spectral
differences more obvious.
1. In the Main Image window of the previous gray scale image (Display #1),
select Tools → Animation to create a movie using the Cuprite AVIRIS data.

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Tutorial 12: Introduction to Hyperspectral Data and Analysis 273

The Animation Input Parameters dialog will appear (Figure 12-5). This dialog lists
all the bands provided in the Available Bands List.

Figure 12-5: The Animation Input Parameters dialog.

2. Choose a subset of the full set of bands for animation. Click and drag to select
a desired range of bands, or use Control-Click to select specific bands. For the
purposes of this exercise, select bands 197 - 216 (20 bands).
3. Change the Window Size field to 200 x 175 to reduce the size of the image to
be animated (and thus increase the speed of the animation).
4. Click OK to start the animation loading process.
The Animation Window and the Animation Controls dialog will appear. The
selected bands are loaded individually into the Animation Window. A status
bar appears as each image is processed. You can cancel the animation in
progress at any time by clicking Cancel in the status window.
Once all of the selected images have been loaded, the animation will start
automatically. Selected bands are displayed sequentially.

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274 Tutorial 12: Introduction to Hyperspectral Data and Analysis

The Animation Controls dialog (Figure 12-6) are used to specify the
animation characteristics. The animation speed is varied from 1 to 100 using
the spin box labeled Speed.

Figure 12-6: The Animation Controls dialog.

5. Use the control buttons (which look like CD player buttons) to run the
animation forward and reverse and to pause a specific bands. When paused,
click and drag the slider to manually select the band to display.
6. Choose the File → Cancel to end the animation.

Working with Cuprite Radiance Data

Continue this exercise using the images displayed in the first section.
1. If you have quit ENVI and IDL, restart ENVI and select File → Open Image
File.
2. Navigate to the c95avsub subdirectory of the envidata directory on the
ENVI Tutorial and Data CD No. 2. Choose cup95_rd.int as the input file
name.

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Tutorial 12: Introduction to Hyperspectral Data and Analysis 275

Load AVIRIS Radiance Data

1. If you don’t already have this image displayed, load a color composite image
by clicking on the RGB Color radio button in the Available Bands List
dialog.
2. Click sequentially on Band 183, Band 193, and Band 207 and then Load RGB
at the bottom of the dialog.
The color image will be loaded into the current image display.
Extract Radiance Spectra
You can extract selected image radiance spectra for specific targets in the AVIRIS
radiance data with the following steps:
1. From the Main Image window menu bar, select Tools → Pixel Locator.
2. Position the Zoom window over Stonewall Playa, centered around the pixel at
sample 590 and line 570 by entering these pixel coordinates in the Pixel
Locator and clicking Apply.
3. Extract the radiance spectrum for this location by selecting the
Tools → Profiles → Z-Profile (Spectrum) option.
4. Select Options → Collect Spectra to extract radiance spectra for the
following locations and load into the same plot window for comparison
(Figure 12-7).

Sample Line
Location Name
(with offset) (with offset)

Stonewall Playa 590 570

Varnished Tuff 435 555
Silica Cap 494 514
Opalite Zone with Alunite 531 541
Strongly Argillized Zone 502 589
with Kaolinite
Buddingtonite Zone 448 505
Calcite 260 613

5. Use the Pixel Locator dialog to obtain the spectra for the other locations.

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276 Tutorial 12: Introduction to Hyperspectral Data and Analysis

6. Select Options → Stack Data to be able to separately view each spectrum and
right-click in the plot display to show the legend for the spectra.
7. Change the colors of the individual plots if necessary by selecting
Edit → Data Parameters and making the appropriate changes in the
subsequent dialog.

Figure 12-7: AVIRIS Radiance Spectra.

Compare the Radiance Spectra

Note how similar the radiance spectra appear. The overall shape of the spectra is
caused by the typical combined solar/atmospheric response. Note small absorption
features (minima) near 2.2 micrometers that may be attributable to surface
mineralogy.

Load Spectral Library Reflectance Spectra

Now compare apparent reflectance spectra from the image to selected library
reflectance spectra.
1. Select Spectral → Spectral Libraries → Spectral Library Viewer from the
ENVI main menu.
2. When the Spectral Library Input File dialog appears, click Open Spec Lib
and select jpl1.sli from the spec_lib/jpl_lib subdirectory.
3. Click OK. The jpl1.sli file will appear in the Select Input File field of the
dialog.

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Tutorial 12: Introduction to Hyperspectral Data and Analysis 277

4. Click on the file name and click OK to open the Spectral Library Viewer
dialog (Figure 12-8).

Figure 12-8: The Spectral Library Viewer dialog.

5. Plot the following spectra in the Spectral Library Viewer window by clicking
on the appropriate mineral name in the list of spectra:
• ALUNITE SO-4A
• BUDDINGTONITE FELDS TS-11A
• CALCITE C-3D
• KAOLINITE WELL ORDERED PS-1A
• If desired, change the X-Axis scale by choosing Plot Parameters from the
Edit menu and entering the values 2.0 and 2.5 for the range.
This allows direct visual comparison of radiance (Figure 12-7) and reflectance
(Figure 12-9), though the Y-axes will not have the same scale.

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278 Tutorial 12: Introduction to Hyperspectral Data and Analysis

6. Click Cancel to close the Plot Parameters dialog.

Figure 12-9: Library Spectra.

Compare Image and Library Spectra

When visually comparing and contrasting the corresponding AVIRIS radiance
spectra with the laboratory measurements for alunite, buddingtonite, calcite, and
kaolinite, you should notice how difficult it is to visually identify the minerals by
comparing features in the radiance spectra to absorption features shown in the
laboratory spectra. You should also notice the effect of the superimposed convex-
upward solar-atmospheric signature in the AVIRIS radiance data on visual
identification.

Close the Windows

When you are finished with this section, close all of the plot windows by choosing
Windows → Close All Plot Windows from the ENVI main menu.

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Tutorial 12: Introduction to Hyperspectral Data and Analysis 279

Compare Radiance and ATREM

In this portion of the tutorial you will extract selected image radiance spectra and
compare them to ATREM apparent reflectance spectra for specific targets in the
AVIRIS radiance data.

Background: ATREM Calibration

The ATmospheric REMoval Program (ATREM) is a radiative transfer model-based
technique for deriving scaled surface reflectance from AVIRIS data without a priori
knowledge of surface characteristics (Gao and Goetz, 1990, CSES, 1992). It utilizes
the 0.94 and 1.1 micrometer water vapor bands to calculate water vapor on a pixel-
by-pixel basis from the AVIRIS data, the solar irradiance curve above the
atmosphere, and transmittance spectra for each of the atmospheric gases CO2, O3,
N 2O, CO, CH4, and O 2. At the time this tutorial was released, ATREM was
unavailable for distribution. Additional information is available at
http://cires.colorado.edu/cses/atrem.html (Center for the Study of Earth from Space,
University of Colorado). The ATREM-calibrated data used for this tutorial were
reduced to apparent reflectance using ATREM 1.3.1.
Note
ATREM is not included as part of ENVI. The other calibration methods examined
in this tutorial and described here are implemented within ENVI.

Continue or Restart ENVI

Continue this exercise using the images displayed in the first section.
1. If you have quit ENVI and IDL, restart ENVI and select File → Open Image
File and navigate to the c95avsub subdirectory of the envidata directory on
the ENVI Tutorial and Data CD No. 2.
2. Choose cup95_rd.int as the input file name.

Load Radiance Data and Start the Z-Profiler

1. If it is not already loaded, load a color composite image by clicking on the
RGB Color radio button in the Available Bands List dialog.
2. Click sequentially on Band 183, Band 193, and Band 207.
3. Click Load RGB at the bottom of the dialog.
The color image will be loaded into the current image display.

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280 Tutorial 12: Introduction to Hyperspectral Data and Analysis

4. Extract the radiance spectrum by selecting Tools → Profiles → Z Profile

(Spectrum) from the Main Image window menu bar.
5. Move the Z-Profile window to the bottom of the screen for easy access.

Load ATREM Apparent Reflectance Data and Start the Z

Profiler
Now open a second AVIRIS data set.
1. Select File → Open Image File and choose cup95_at.int as the second
input file name.
This is 50 bands (1.99 - 2.48 µm) of AVIRIS data calibrated to apparent
reflectance using the atmospheric model ATREM to process the AVIRIS
radiance data. The 50 band names will be added to the Available Bands List
dialog.
2. Use the scroll bar on the right side of the Available Bands List dialog to scroll
through the list until Band 193 of cup95_at.int is listed.
3. Click on the Gray Scale radio button and select band 193.
4. Select New Display from the Display pull-down button at the bottom of the
dialog, and then Load Band to start a second ENVI image display and load the
selected band.
5. Extract the radiance spectrum by selecting Tools → Profiles → Z Profile
(Spectrum) in the second Main Image window.
6. Move the Z-Profile window to the bottom of the screen next to the Z-Profile
from the radiance data for easy comparison.

Link Images and Compare Spectra

1. Link the two AVIRIS images together by selecting Tools → Link → Link
Displays from the first Main Image window and clicking OK in the
subsequent Link Displays dialog.
2. Now turn the dynamic overlay off in the first Main Image window by selecting
Tools → Link → Dynamic Overlay Off.
3. Once the images are linked and the overlay is turned off, positioning the
current pixel in one image (either by clicking the left mouse button in the
image, dragging the Zoom window box using the left mouse button, or by
using the Pixel Locator) will also position the cursor in the second image.

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Tutorial 12: Introduction to Hyperspectral Data and Analysis 281

The Z profiles for both images will change to show the radiance and apparent
reflectance spectra at the current location.
4. Position the zoom window over Stonewall Playa, centered around the pixel at
sample 590 and line 570 (use the Pixel Locator dialog found in the Tools
menu of the Main Image window).
Visually compare both radiance and apparent reflectance spectrum for this
location using the two Z-Profiles. If you wish, save the radiance spectrum in
one new plot window and the reflectance spectrum in a second new plot
window.
5. Now extract radiance and apparent reflectance spectra for the following
locations and visually compare.

Sample Line
Location Name
(with offset) (with offset)

Stonewall Playa 590 570

Varnished Tuff 435 555
Silica Cap 494 514
Opalite Zone with Alunite 531 541
Strongly Argillized Zone 502 589
with Kaolinite
Buddingtonite Zone 448 505
Calcite 260 613

Note
An alternate method for getting linked spectral profiles simultaneously from two or
more images is to select Tools → Profiles → Additional Z Profile and choose
additional datasets for extraction of profiles.

6. Select Options → Stack Data to offset data vertically for comparison.

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282 Tutorial 12: Introduction to Hyperspectral Data and Analysis

7. Load the corresponding spectral library spectra into the apparent reflectance
plot window for direct comparison of image apparent reflectance spectra
(Figure 12-10) with laboratory spectra.

Figure 12-10: ATREM Apparent Reflectance Spectra.

Close the Windows

When you are finished with this section, you can close all of the plot windows by
choosing Windows → Close All Plot Windows. Then you can close all of the image
displays by choosing Windows → Close all Displays.

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Tutorial 12: Introduction to Hyperspectral Data and Analysis 283

Compare Atmospheric Corrections

Background: Atmospheric Correction
This section of the tutorial compares several image apparent reflectance spectra. You
will use a spectral library of apparent reflectance spectra generated using ENVI’s Flat
Field Correction, Internal Average Relative Reflectance (IARR) Correction, and
Empirical Line Correction functions to compare the characteristics of the various
calibration methodologies. The calibration techniques used are briefly described
below.

Flat Field Correction

The Flat Field Correction technique is used to normalize images to an area of known
“flat” reflectance (Goetz and Srivastava, 1985; Roberts et al., 1986). The method
requires that you locate a large, spectrally flat, spectrally uniform area in the AVIRIS
data, usually defined as a Region of Interest (ROI). The radiance spectrum from this
area is assumed to be composed of primarily atmospheric effects and the solar
spectrum. The average AVIRIS radiance spectrum from the ROI is used as the
reference spectrum, which is then divided into the spectrum at each pixel of the
image. The result is apparent reflectance data that can be compared with laboratory
spectra.

Internal Average Relative Reflectance (IARR)

The IARR calibration technique is used to normalize images to a scene average
spectrum. This is particularly effective for reducing imaging spectrometer data to
relative reflectance in an area where no ground measurements exist and little is
known about the scene (Kruse et al., 1985; Kruse, 1988). It works best for arid areas
with no vegetation. The IARR calibration is performed by calculating an average
spectrum for the entire AVIRIS scene and using this as the reference spectrum.
Apparent reflectance is calculated for each pixel of the image by dividing the
reference spectrum into the spectrum for each pixel.

Empirical Line Calibration

The Empirical Line correction technique is used to force image data to match
selected field reflectance spectra (Roberts et al., 1985; Conel et al., 1987; Kruse et
al., 1990). This method requires ground measurements and/or knowledge. Two or
more ground targets are identified and reflectance is measured in the field. Usually
the targets consist of at least one light and one dark area. The same two targets are
identified in the AVIRIS images and average spectra are extracted for Regions of

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284 Tutorial 12: Introduction to Hyperspectral Data and Analysis

Interest. A linear regression is calculated between the field reflectance spectra and the
image radiance spectra to determine a linear transform from radiance to reflectance
for each band of the AVIRIS data set. Gains and offsets calculated in the regression
are applied to the radiance spectra for each pixel to produce apparent reflectance on a
pixel-by-pixel basis.

Continue or Restart ENVI and Select Spectral Library of

Calibration Results Spectra
1. If you have quit ENVI and IDL, restart ENVI and select Spectral → Spectral
Libraries → Spectral Library Viewer.
The Spectral Library Input File dialog will appear to allow selection of a
spectral library.
2. Click Open File at the bottom center of the dialog to start a standard file
selection dialog.
3. Navigate to the c95avsub subdirectory of the envidata directory on the
ENVI Tutorial and Data CD No. 2, and select the file cup95cal.sli.
This is the spectral library containing the results from the various calibration
methods.
4. In the Spectral Library Input File dialog, select the open library file name
and click OK.
The Spectral Library Viewer will appear with a list of the available spectra (Figure
12-11).

Select Atmospherically Corrected Spectra from Spectral

Library
1. Select the ATREM, Flat Field, IARR, and Empirical Line corrected spectra for
the mineral Alunite.
The spectra are plotted in a Spectral Library Viewer plot (Figure 12-12).
Visually compare the various calibrations and note and compare their
characteristics.
2. Attempt to explain some of the differences in terms of the correction
methodology used (see the above brief descriptions of the various methods).

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3. When finished, select Options → Clear Plots in the menu bar at the top of the
Spectral Library Viewer to clear the spectra.

Figure 12-11: The Spectral Library Viewer dialog showing spectra from various
calibrations.

Compare Corrected Spectra

Repeat the procedure for the minerals kaolinite, buddingtonite, calcite, and silica.
What general conclusions can you draw about the quality of the different calibration
procedures?
You can also compare the laboratory spectra for these minerals to the AVIRIS
spectra by opening the jpl1.sli or the usgs_sli.dat spectral libraries, plotting

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the corresponding spectra, and dragging and dropping into the Spectral Library
Viewer plot for direct comparison.

Figure 12-12: Comparison of Apparent Reflectance Spectra.

Optional: Browse Corrected Data Files

The corrected data files for all of the different corrections are available for spectral
browsing if desired. All files have been converted to integer format by multiplying
the reflectance values by 1000 because of disk space considerations. Values of 1000
in the data indicate apparent reflectances of 1.0.

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1. Open and load the files listed in the table below if desired.

File Type File Name

ATREM cup95_at.int

Flat Field cup95_ff.int

IARR cup95_ia.int

Emp. Line cup95_el.int

2. Use the Z-profiling and multiple linked images to compare apparent

reflectance spectra for specific areas of interest.
3. After comparison of all of the correction methods for a variety of minerals,
which calibration method(s) best reproduce(s) the laboratory spectra for all
minerals? Is there one best calibration method?

End the ENVI Session

This concludes the Tutorial. You can quit your ENVI session by selecting
File → Exit (Quit on UNIX) on the ENVI main menu, then click OK to exit IDL. If
you are using ENVI RT, quitting ENVI will take you back to your operating system.

References
Conel, J. E., Green, R. O., Vane, G., Bruegge, C. J., Alley, R. E., and Curtiss, B., J.,
1987, Airborne imaging spectrometer-2: radiometric spectral characteristics and
comparison of ways to compensate for the atmosphere: in Proceedings, SPIE, v. 834,
p. 140 - 157.
CSES (Center for the Study of Earth from Space), 1992, Atmospheric REMoval
Program (ATREM), version 1.1, University of Colorado, Boulder, 24 p.
Gao, B. C., and Goetz, A. F. H., 1990, Column atmospheric water vapor and
vegetation liquid water retrievals from airborne imaging spectrometer data: Journal
of Geophysical Research, v. 95, no. D4, p. 3549-3564.
Goetz, A. F. H., Vane, G., Solomon, J. E., and Rock, B. N., 1985, Imaging
spectrometry for Earth remote sensing: Science, v. 211, p. 1147 - 1153.
Goetz, A. F. H., and Srivastava, V., 1985, Mineralogical mapping in the Cuprite
Mining District, Nevada: in Proceedings of the Airborne Imaging Spectrometer Data
Analysis Workshop, JPL Publication 85-41, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena,
CA, p. 22-29.

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Kruse F. A., Raines, G. l., and Watson, K., 1985, Analytical techniques for extracting
geologic information from multichannel airborne spectroradiometer and airborne
imaging spectrometer data: in Proceedings, 4th Thematic Conference on Remote
Sensing for Exploration Geology, Environmental Research Institute of Michigan
(ERIM), Ann Arbor, p. 309 - 324.
Kruse, F. A., 1988, use of Airborne Imaging Spectrometer data to map minerals
associated with hydrothermally altered rocks in the northern Grapevine Mountains,
Nevada and California: Remote Sensing of Environment, v. 24, no. 1, p. 31 - 51.
Kruse, F. A., Kierein-Young, K. S., and Boardman, J. W., 1990, Mineral mapping at
Cuprite, Nevada with a 63 channel imaging spectrometer: Photogrammetric
Engineering and Remote Sensing, v. 56, no. 1, p. 83-92.
Roberts, D. A., Yamaguchi, Y., and Lyon, R. J. P., 1985, Calibration of Airborne
Imaging Spectrometer data to percent reflectance using field measurements: in
Proceedings, Nineteenth International Symposium on Remote Sensing of
Environment, Ann Arbor, MI, October 21-25, 1985.
Roberts, D. A., Yamaguchi, Y., and Lyon, R. J. P., 1986, Comparison of various
techniques for calibration of AIS data: in Proceedings, 2nd AIS workshop, JPL
Publication 86-35, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA, p. 21-30.
Vane, Gregg, and Goetz, 1985, Introduction to the proceedings of the Airborne
Imaging Spectrometer (AIS) data analysis workshop: in Proceedings of the Airborne
Imaging Spectrometer Data Analysis Workshop, JPL Publication 85-41, Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA p. 1 - 21.

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Tutorial 13:
Basic Hyperspectral
Analysis
The following topics are covered in this tutorial:

Overview of This Tutorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

Spectral Libraries / Reflectance Spectra . . 291

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290 Tutorial 13: Basic Hyperspectral Analysis

Overview of This Tutorial

This tutorial is designed to introduce you to the concepts of Spectral Libraries,
Region of Interest (ROI) extraction of spectra, Directed Color composites, and to the
use of 2-D scatter plots for simple classification. We will use 1995 Airborne
Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) apparent reflectance data of
Cuprite, Nevada, USA, calibrated using the ATREM atmospheric modeling software.
The subsetted data cover the 1.99 to 2.48 µm range in 50 spectral bands
approximately 10 nm wide. You will extract ROIs for specific minerals, compare
them to library spectra, and design RGB color composites to best display the spectral
information. You will also use 2-D scatter plots to locate unique pixels, interrogate
the data distribution, and perform simple classification.

Files Used in This Tutorial

CD-ROM: ENVI Tutorial and Data CD No. 2
Path: envidata/c95avsub

File Description
cup95_at.int Cuprite ATREM calibrated reflectance data. 50 bands
(integer)
cup95_at.hdr ENVI Header for above
jpl1sli.dat JPL Spectral Library in ENVI format
jpl1sli.hdr ENVI Header for above
usgs_min.sli USGS Spectral Library in ENVI format
usgs_min.hdr ENVI Header for above
cup95_av.roi Saved ROI locations.

Note
The files listed are required to run this exercise. Selected data files have been
converted from floating-point to integer format by multiplying by 1000 to conserve
disk space. Data values of 1000 represent apparent reflectances of 1.0.

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Spectral Libraries / Reflectance Spectra

This portion of the tutorial is designed to familiarize you with Spectral Libraries,
browsing and extraction of image reflectance spectra, Region of Interest (ROI)
definition in ENVI, and directed design of color composite images for spectral
discrimination.

Start ENVI and Load AVIRIS data

Before attempting to start the program, ensure that ENVI is properly installed as
described in the installation guide.
• To open ENVI on UNIX, enter envi at the UNIX command line.
• To open ENVI on Windows or Macintosh, double-click on the ENVI icon.
The ENVI main menu appears when the program has successfully loaded and
executed.
1. On the ENVI main menu, select File → Open Image File and navigate to the
envidata/c95avsub directory on the ENVI Tutorial and Data CD No. 2.
2. Choose cup95_at.int as the input file name and click Open. The Available
Bands List dialog will appear, listing the 50 spectral band names.

Display a Grayscale Image

1. In the Available Bands List dialog, select Band 193 (2.2008 µm).
2. Click the Gray Scale radio button and click Load Band. An ENVI image
display containing the selected band will appear.
3. From the Main Image window menu, select Tools → Profiles → Z Profile
(Spectrum) to extract an apparent reflectance spectrum.

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Browse Image Spectra and Compare to Spectral Library

1. Move the Zoom window indicator box around the image while looking at the
#1 Spectral Profile window to browse through image apparent reflectance
spectra.
2. In the Main Image window, drag the box by grabbing and dragging with the
left mouse button or click the middle mouse button to center the Zoom
Indicator box on the selected pixel.
3. Compare apparent reflectance spectra from the image to selected library
reflectance spectra.
ENVI includes several spectral libraries. For the purposes of this exercise, you
will use the JPL Spectral Library (Groves et al., 1992) and the USGS Spectral
Library (Clarke et al., 1993).
4. Select Spectral → Spectral Libraries → Spectral Library Viewer from the
ENVI main menu.
5. In the Spectral Library Input File dialog, click Open File, select jpl1.sli
from the spec_lib/jpl_lib subdirectory, and click OK.
6. Click on jpl1.sli in the Select Input File field and click OK.
7. In the Spectral Library Viewer dialog, select Options → Edit (x, y) Scale
Factors, enter a value of 1000 into the Y Data Multiplier field to match the
image apparent reflectance range (0 – 1000), and click OK.
8. Plot the following spectra by selecting the spectra names in the Spectral
Library Viewer dialog:
• ALUNITE SO-4A
• BUDDINGTONITE FELDS TS-11A
• CALCITE C-3D
• KAOLINITE WELL ORDERED PS-1A
The following plot is produced:

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Figure 13-1: Library Spectra

9. Customize the plot by selecting Edit → Plot Parameters from the plot
window menu. In the Plot Parameters dialog, do the following:
• Reduce the Charsize to 0.50.
• Select the X-Axis radio button, and adjust the Range to 1.90 to 2.45.
• With the X-Axis radio button selected, change the Margin fields until the
X margins are as desired.
• Select the Y-Axis radio button, and change the Axis Title to
“Reflectance”.
• With the Y-Axis radio button selected, change the Margin fields until the
Y margins are as desired.
• Click Apply then Cancel.
10. To display a legend of the spectra names, right click in the plot window. Drag
the plot window to the desired size to accommodate the spectra names.
11. In the plot window, offset the plot data by selecting Options → Stack Data.
The plot now looks like the following:

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Figure 13-2: Customized Plot Parameters

12. Right click in the #1 Spectral Profile window to display a legend of X and Y
pixel locations.
13. In the #1 Spectral Profile window, select Options → New Window: Blank to
open a new plot window. Position the #1 Spectral Profile window and the new
plot window so you can see both windows.
14. From the Main Image window menu, select Tools → Pixel Locator. We will
use the Pixel Locator dialog to locate the exact pixels for the following
locations:

Sample Line
Location Name
(with offset) (with offset)

Stonewall Playa 590 570

Varnished Tuff 435 555
Silica Cap 494 514
Opalite Zone with Alunite 531 541
Strongly Argillized Zone 502 589
with Kaolinite
Buddington ZOne 448 505

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Sample Line
Location Name
(with offset) (with offset)

Calcite 260 613

15. In the Pixel Locator dialog, enter 590 in the Sample field and enter 570 in the
Pixel field to center the Zoom Indicator on pixel 590, 570 (Stonewall Playa).
Click Apply to move to that location. The #1 Spectral Profile window updates
to show the spectrum for this pixel. The legend should read “X:590 Y:570”.
16. Right click in the new plot window to display a legend of X and Y pixel
locations.
17. In the #1 Spectral Profile window, click and hold the left mouse button on the
legend item “X:590 Y:570”. Drag and drop this spectrum into the new plot
window.
18. Repeat the previous steps for each site in the above table until the new plot
window contains all 7 spectra.
19. In the new plot window, select Options → Stack Data. The new plot window
should now look like the following:

Figure 13-3: Individual ATREM Image Apparent Reflectance Spectra

20. Visually compare these spectra to the library spectra extracted previously.
Note the similarity of shape and absorption features between the laboratory
spectra and the individual image apparent reflectance spectra.

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Based on these similarities, we conclude that the image spectra similar to the
alunite, buddingtonite, calcite, and kaolinite laboratory spectra represent pixels
predominantly of the above minerals.
21. Drag and drop spectra from the Spectral Library Plots window into the #1
Spectral Profile window for direct comparison.

Identify Spectra
Use the Spectral AnalystTM to identify spectra:
ENVI has a spectral matching tool that provides a score with respect to the library
spectra. The spectral analyst uses several methods to produce a score between 0 and
1, with 1 equaling a perfect match.
1. Select Spectral → Spectral Analyst from the ENVI main menu.
2. Click on the Open Spec Lib button at the bottom of the Spectral Analyst
Input Spectral Library dialog.
3. Navigate to the usgs_min spectral library directory, select the
usgs_min.sli spectral library, and click Open.
4. The file usgs_min.sli should now appear in the Spectral Analyst Input
Spectral Library dialog. Select this file and click OK.
5. In the Edit Identify Methods Weighting dialog, click OK.
6. From the Main Image window menu, select Tools → Profiles → Z Profile
(Spectrum). Right click in the #1 Spectral Profile window to display the
legend of spectra.
7. From the Main Image window menu, select Tools → Pixel Locator.
8. Enter the pixel 502, 589 in the Pixel Locator dialog and click Apply.
9. In the Spectral Analyst dialog, select Options → Edit Method Weights.
10. In the Edit Identify Methods Weighting dialog, enter 0.33 in each of the
Weight fields click OK. The different matching methods are described in the
ENVI 3.5 User’s Guide.
11. In the Spectral Analyst dialog, click Apply. If more than one spectrum is
displayed in the #1 Spectral Profile window, a list of spectra will appear. If this

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list appears, select the spectrum for pixel 502, 589. The Spectral Analyst
dialog shows the following:

Figure 13-4: The Spectral Analyst dialog, showing a high match to the mineral
kaolinite for pixel 502, 589.

The Spectral Analyst scores the unknown spectrum against the library. The
previous figure shows an identification for pixel 502, 589. Note the high
number of kaolinite spectra at the top of the list. This, and the relatively high
scores, indicates a high likelihood of kaolinite.
12. Now double click on the first spectrum name in the list. This will plot the
unknown and the library spectrum in the same plot for comparison, as shown
in the following figure:

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Figure 13-5: Comparison plot of the unknown against the best-match library
spectrum for kaolinite showing a high degree of match.

13. Use the Spectral Analyst and the comparison plots to verify the mineralogy for
the image spectra you have extracted. When you have identified several
minerals, continue with the next section.
14. Optionally, compare spectra from the USGS Spectral Library usgs_min.sli
with image spectra and the JPL Spectral library.

Close Windows and Plots

1. Close the Spectral Library Viewer and Pixel Locator dialogs.
2. Close all of the previous plot windows by selecting Window → Close All Plot
Windows.

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Define Regions of Interest

Regions of Interest (ROIs) are used to extract statistics and average spectra from
groups of pixels. You can define as many ROIs as you wish in any displayed image.
Select Overlay → Region of Interest from the Main Image window menu to start
the ROI Tool.

Figure 13-6: Region of Interest Tool

Create New Region of Interest

1. Click the left mouse button in the image.
2. Draw the ROI by clicking the left mouse button at the axes of a polygon, or
draw continuously by clicking and dragging the left mouse button.
3. Complete the ROI by clicking the right mouse button to close the polygon and
the right mouse button a second time to lock-in the ROI.
4. Click on the Stats button to calculate the statistics and plot a mean spectrum
(white), the first standard deviation above and below the mean spectrum
(green), and the Min/Max envelope containing all of the spectra in the ROI
(red).
5. Select File → Cancel in the File Statistics Report dialog, and select
File → Cancel in the Avg Spectrum plot.
6. Click Delete in the ROI Tool dialog to delete the selected ROI.

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Load Previously Saved Regions of Interest

1. From the ROI Tool dialog menu, select File → Restore ROIs.
2. In the Enter ROI Filename dialog, navigate to the envidata/c95avsub
directory, select the file cup95_av.roi, and click Open. Regions previously
defined for known areas of specific minerals will be listed in an ENVI message
dialog, and loaded into the ROI Tool dialog as shown in the following figure:

Figure 13-7: ROI Tool showing restored regions

3. Select the Off radio button at the top of the ROI Tool dialog to enable pixel
positioning within the Main Image display.
4. Start a Z-Profile window by selecting Tools → Profiles → Z-Profile
(Spectrum) in the Main Image window.
5. Move the current pixel position/cursor location into each ROI by clicking the
middle mouse button on a pixel in the ROI.
6. Click on different pixels in the ROI to move the cursor position and display a
new spectral profile in the Spectral Profile window.
Note that the y-axis plot range is automatically rescaled to match the spectral profile
for each new ROI. Examine the spectral variability within each ROI.
Extract Mean Spectra from ROIs
1. Select an ROI name in the ROI Tool dialog, then click Stats to extract
statistics and a spectral plot of the selected ROI.

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2. Examine the spectral variability of each ROI by comparing the mean spectrum
(white) with the 1st standard deviation spectra (green above and below the
mean) and the envelope spectra (red above and below the mean).
3. Repeat for each ROI.
4. If you wish, load the corresponding library signatures from the jpl1.sli
library into the plot window for direct comparison/identification. Don’t forget
to use a Y-Scaling Factor of 1000 when loading the library spectra.
5. When you have finished, close all of the File Statistics Report dialogs and
plot windows.
6. In the ROI Tool dialog, select Options → Mean for All Regions to plot the
average spectrum for each ROI in the same plot window.
7. In the plot window, select Options → Stack Data to offset spectra for
comparison, as shown in the following figure:

Figure 13-8: ROI Mean ATREM Image Apparent Reflectance Spectra

8. Compare the spectral features of each spectrum and note unique characteristics
that might allow identification.
9. If desired, load the corresponding spectral library signatures from the
jpl1.sli library for direct comparison of image apparent reflectance spectra

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with laboratory spectra. Don’t forget to use a Y Factor of 1000 when loading
the library spectra.
10. Optionally, compare spectra from the USGS Spectral Library usgs_min.sli
with image spectra and the JPL Spectral library.

Discriminate Mineralogy
Design color images to discriminate mineralogy:
1. In the Available Bands List dialog, select the RGB Color radio button, and
click sequentially on Band 183, Band 193, and Band 207.
2. Click Load RGB to load the color image into the current image display.
3. In the Main Image window, select Tools → Profiles → Z-Profile (Spectrum).
Note that the positions of the bands used to make the RGB color composite
image are marked in the Z-Profile with vertical red, green, and blue lines.
4. In the ROI Tool dialog, select the Off radio button and use the Z profiler
accessed through the Main Image window to browse spectra at or near your
ROI locations from above.
Note where the selected RGB bands fall with respect to spectral features in the
previously displayed mean spectra and how the spectral features affect the
color observed in the image.
5. Change the plot bars in the spectral profile to the desired bands by clicking and
dragging the plot bars with the left mouse button.
Note
(Note: one way to enhance specific materials is by centering one color bar in
an absorption feature and the other two on opposite shoulders of the feature.)

6. Double click the left mouse button within the Z Profile plot window to load the
new bands into the display window.
After inspecting a few sites, you should begin to understand how the color composite
colors correspond with the spectral signature. For instance, the alunitic regions
appear magenta in the RGB composite because the green band is within the alunite
absorption feature, giving a low green value, while the red and blue bands are of
almost equal reflectance. The combination of red and blue results in a magenta color
for pixels containing alunite.
Based on the above results, try these exercises:

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1. Predict how certain spectra will look, given a particular pixel’s color in the
RGB image.
2. Explain the colors of the training sites, in terms of their spectral features.
3. Design and test specific RGB band selections that maximize your ability to
map certain minerals, like kaolinite and calcite.
Close Plot Windows and ROI Controls
1. Close all open plot windows by selecting Window → Close All Plot
Windows.
2. Close the ROI Tool dialog by selecting File → Cancel.

2-D Scatter Plots

Examine 2-D Scatter Plots
1. In the Main Image window, select Tools → 2-D Scatter Plots to start a 2-D
scatter plot for the apparent reflectance image.
2. Select band 193 in the Choose Band X list and select band 207 in the Choose
Band Y list.
3. Click OK.
The following scatter plot is displayed with a plot of the X vs. Y apparent reflectance
values:

Figure 13-9: Scatter Plot of bands 193 and 207 (ATREM Apparent Reflectance)

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Density Slice the Scatter Plot

1. From the scatter plot menu, select Options → Density On to automatically
density-slice the scatter plot. The colors show the frequency of occurrence of
specific apparent reflectance combinations for the two bands being scatter
plotted. Purple is the lowest frequency, progressing through the colors blue,
green, yellow, to red as the highest frequency of occurrence.
2. From the scatter plot menu, select Options → Density Off to turn off the color
slice.
Scatter Plot Dancing Pixels
1. In the Main Image window, click and drag the left mouse button to toggle
“Dancing Pixels” in the scatter plot. The red pixels in the scatter plot
correspond to those pixels within a 10 x 10 box around the cursor in the Main
Image window.
2. Try to predict the locations of certain image colors in the scatter plot, then
check them. Notice the shape of the red sub-scatter plot of dancing pixels.
3. Change the box-cursor size in the scatter plot window by selecting
Options → Set Patch Size, and observe the difference.
Image Dancing Pixels
1. In the scatter plot window, click and drag the middle mouse button over any
portion of the white scatter plot to toggle “Dancing Pixels” in the Main Image
window. The red pixels in the image correspond to those pixels within a 10 x
10 box around the cursor in the scatter plot window. Note the spatial
distribution and coherency of the selected pixels.
2. Change the box-cursor size in the scatter plot window by selecting
Options → Set Patch Size, and observe the difference.
Scatter Plots Linked to a Spectral Profile
1. From the scatter plot window menu, select Options → Z Profile, select an
input file from which to extract the spectral profile, and click OK. This starts a
blank ENVI spectral profile linked to the 2-D scatter plot.
2. Position the cursor in the 2-D scatter plot and click the right mouse button to
extract the spectrum for the corresponding spatial pixel with those scatter plot
characteristics.
3. Compare spectra from the different parts of the scatter plot and note what sorts
of spectra appear at the “points” of the plot versus the center of the plot.

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Scatter Plot ROIs

The scatter plot tool can also be used as a quick classifier.
1. Click the left mouse button in the scatter plot to select the first point of a
Region of Interest (ROI).
2. Draw an ROI polygon in the scatter plot by selecting the desired line segments
using the left mouse button.
3. Click the right mouse button to close the polygon. Image pixels with the two-
band characteristics outlined by the polygon will be color-coded red in the
Main Image window.
4. Choose another color from the Class pulldown menu in the scatter plot
window.
5. Draw another polygon and the corresponding pixels will be highlighted in the
selected color on the image.
6. To remove a class, select Options → Clear Class. You can also clear the
current class by clicking the middle mouse button outside (below) the plot
axes.
7. Use the 2-D scatter plot tool to work backwards from the scatter plot to see
where certain pixels occur in the image.
8. Classes can be converted to ROIs to act as training sets for classification using
all of the bands by selecting Options → Export Class or Export All from the
scatter plot menu bar. ROIs exported in this fashion will appear in the ROI
Tool dialog and be available for subsequent supervised classification. They can
also be converted to a classification image by choosing
Classification → Create Class Image from ROIs from the ENVI main menu.
9. Select Options → Clear All in the scatter plot to clear both scatter plot and
image.

Image ROIs
The scatter plot tool also functions as a simple classifier from the image.
1. Choose Options → Image ROI in the scatter plot.
2. Draw polygons in the Main Image window using the left mouse button to draw
lines and the right button to close and lock-in the polygon. They will be
mapped to the scatter plot and highlighted in the currently selected color. After
the pixels are highlighted on the scatter plot, all of the matching pixels in the
image will be inverse-mapped to the Main Image window and highlighted in

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the same color, as though you had drawn the scatter plot region yourself. This
is the simplest form of 2-band classification, but it is still a powerful tool.
3. Draw a few image regions and note the correspondence between image color
and scatter plot characteristics.
Scatter Plots and Spectral Mixing
Can you explain the overall diagonal shape of the scatter plot in terms of spectral
mixing? Where do the purest pixels in the image fall on the scatter plot? Are there
any secondary “projections” or “points” on the scatter plot?
1. Choose some other band combinations for scatter-plotting by selecting
Options → Change Bands in the scatter plot. Try at least one pair of adjacent
bands and other pairs that are far apart spectrally.
How do the scatter plots change shape with different band combinations? Can
you describe the n-Dimensional “shape” of the data cloud?

End the ENVI Session

This concludes the tutorial. You can quit your ENVI session by selecting File → Exit
(Quit on UNIX) from the ENVI main menu, then click Yes. If you are using ENVI
RT, quitting ENVI will take you back to your operating system.

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References
Clark, R. N., Swayze, G. A., Gallagher, A., King, T. V. V., and Calvin, W. M., 1993,
The U. S. Geological Survey Digital Spectral Library: Version 1: 0.2 to 3.0 mm: U. S.
Geological Survey, Open File Report 93-592, 1340 p.
Clark, R. N., Gallagher, A. J., and Swayze, G. A., 1990, Material absorption band
depth mapping of the imaging spectrometer data using a complete band shape least-
squares fit with library reference spectra: in Proceedings of the Second Airborne
Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) Workshop, JPL Publication 90-54,
p. 176 - 186.
Clark, R.N., T.V.V. King, M. Klejwa, G. Swayze, and N. Vergo, 1990, High Spectral
Resolution Reflectance Spectroscopy of Minerals: J. Geophys Res. 95, 12653-12680.
Grove, C. I., Hook, S. J., and Paylor, E. D., 1992, Laboratory reflectance spectra of
160 minerals, 0.4 to 2.5 Micrometers: JPL Publication 92-2.
Kruse, F. A., Lefkoff, A. B., and Dietz, J. B., 1993, Expert System-Based Mineral
Mapping in northern Death Valley, California/Nevada using the Airborne
Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS): Remote Sensing of Environment,
Special issue on AVIRIS, May-June 1993, v. 44, p. 309 - 336.
Kruse, F. A., and Lefkoff, A. B., 1993, Knowledge-based geologic mapping with
imaging spectrometers: Remote Sensing Reviews, Special Issue on NASA Innovative
Research Program (IRP) results, v. 8, p. 3 - 28.

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References ENVI Tutorials