Artificial Intelligence

About the Tutorial

This tutorial provides introductory knowledge on Artificial Intelligence. It would come to a
great help if you are about to select Artificial Intelligence as a course subject. You can briefly
know about the areas of AI in which research is prospering.

Audience
This tutorial is prepared for the students at beginner level who aspire to learn Artificial
Intelligence.

Prerequisites
The basic knowledge of Computer Science is mandatory. The knowledge of Mathematics,
Languages, Science, Mechanical or Electrical engineering is a plus.

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 Artificial Intelligence

Table of Contents
About the Tutorial ......................................................................................................................................... i

Audience ....................................................................................................................................................... i

Prerequisites ................................................................................................................................................. i

Disclaimer & Copyright .................................................................................................................................. i

Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................................... ii

1. OVERVIEW OF AI ...................................................................................................................... 1

What is Artificial Intelligence? ...................................................................................................................... 1

Philosophy of AI ........................................................................................................................................... 1

Goals of AI .................................................................................................................................................... 1

What Contributes to AI? ............................................................................................................................... 2

Programming Without and With AI .............................................................................................................. 2

What is AI Technique? .................................................................................................................................. 3

Applications of AI ......................................................................................................................................... 3

History of AI ................................................................................................................................................. 4

2. INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS ............................................................................................................. 6

What is Intelligence? .................................................................................................................................... 6

Types of Intelligence..................................................................................................................................... 6

What is Intelligence Composed of? .............................................................................................................. 7

Difference between Human and Machine Intelligence ................................................................................. 9

3. RESEARCH AREAS OF AI.......................................................................................................... 10

Real Life Applications of Research Areas .................................................................................................... 11

Task Classification of AI .............................................................................................................................. 12

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4. AGENTS AND ENVIRONMENTS ............................................................................................... 14

What are Agent and Environment? ............................................................................................................ 14

Agents Terminology ................................................................................................................................... 14

Rationality .................................................................................................................................................. 15

What is Ideal Rational Agent? .................................................................................................................... 15

The Structure of Intelligent Agents ............................................................................................................. 15

The Nature of Environments ...................................................................................................................... 18

Properties of Environment ......................................................................................................................... 19

5. POPULAR SEARCH ALGORITHMS ............................................................................................ 20

Single Agent Pathfinding Problems............................................................................................................. 20

Search Terminology .................................................................................................................................... 20

Brute-Force Search Strategies .................................................................................................................... 20

Informed (Heuristic) Search Strategies ....................................................................................................... 23

Local Search Algorithms ............................................................................................................................. 24

6. FUZZY LOGIC SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................... 27

What is Fuzzy Logic? ................................................................................................................................... 27

Why Fuzzy Logic? ........................................................................................................................................ 27

Fuzzy Logic Systems Architecture ............................................................................................................... 28

Example of a Fuzzy Logic System ................................................................................................................ 29

Application Areas of Fuzzy Logic ................................................................................................................. 32

Advantages of FLSs ..................................................................................................................................... 33

Disadvantages of FLSs ................................................................................................................................ 33

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7. NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING........................................................................................ 34

Components of NLP .................................................................................................................................... 34

Difficulties in NLU ....................................................................................................................................... 34

NLP Terminology ........................................................................................................................................ 35

Steps in NLP................................................................................................................................................ 35

Implementation Aspects of Syntactic Analysis............................................................................................ 36

8. EXPERT SYSTEMS.................................................................................................................... 40

What are Expert Systems? .......................................................................................................................... 40

Capabilities of Expert Systems .................................................................................................................... 40

Components of Expert Systems .................................................................................................................. 41

Knowledge Base ......................................................................................................................................... 41

Inference Engine......................................................................................................................................... 42

User Interface ............................................................................................................................................. 43

Expert Systems Limitations......................................................................................................................... 44

Applications of Expert System .................................................................................................................... 44

Expert System Technology .......................................................................................................................... 45

Development of Expert Systems: General Steps ......................................................................................... 45

Benefits of Expert Systems ......................................................................................................................... 46

9. ROBOTICS .............................................................................................................................. 47

What are Robots?....................................................................................................................................... 47

What is Robotics? ....................................................................................................................................... 47

Difference in Robot System and Other AI Program ..................................................................................... 47

Robot Locomotion ...................................................................................................................................... 48

Components of a Robot .............................................................................................................................. 50

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Computer Vision ......................................................................................................................................... 50

Tasks of Computer Vision ........................................................................................................................... 50

Application Domains of Computer Vision ................................................................................................... 51

Applications of Robotics ............................................................................................................................. 51

10. NEURAL NETWORKS............................................................................................................... 53

What are Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs)? ............................................................................................. 53

Basic Structure of ANNs.............................................................................................................................. 53

Types of Artificial Neural Networks ............................................................................................................ 54

Working of ANNs ........................................................................................................................................ 55

Machine Learning in ANNs ......................................................................................................................... 55

Bayesian Networks (BN) ............................................................................................................................. 56

Applications of Neural Networks ................................................................................................................ 59

11. AI ISSUES ................................................................................................................................ 61

12. AI TERMINOLOGY................................................................................................................... 62

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 1. Overview of AI Artificial Intelligence

Since the invention of computers or machines, their capability to perform various tasks went
on growing exponentially. Humans have developed the power of computer systems in terms
of their diverse working domains, their increasing speed, and reducing size with respect to
time.

A branch of Computer Science named Artificial Intelligence pursues creating the computers
or machines as intelligent as human beings.

What is Artificial Intelligence?

According to the father of Artificial Intelligence John McCarthy, it is “The science and
engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs”.

Artificial Intelligence is a way of making a computer, a computer-controlled robot, or a

software think intelligently, in the similar manner the intelligent humans think.

AI is accomplished by studying how human brain thinks, and how humans learn, decide, and
work while trying to solve a problem, and then using the outcomes of this study as a basis of
developing intelligent software and systems.

Philosophy of AI
While exploiting the power of the computer systems, the curiosity of human, lead him to
wonder, “Can a machine think and behave like humans do?”

Thus, the development of AI started with the intention of creating similar intelligence in
machines that we find and regard high in humans.

Goals of AI
 To Create Expert Systems: The systems which exhibit intelligent behavior, learn,
demonstrate, explain, and advice its users.
 To Implement Human Intelligence in Machines: Creating systems that
understand, think, learn, and behave like humans.

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 Artificial Intelligence

What Contributes to AI?

Artificial intelligence is a science and technology based on disciplines such as Computer
Science, Biology, Psychology, Linguistics, Mathematics, and Engineering. A major thrust of AI
is in the development of computer functions associated with human intelligence, such as
reasoning, learning, and problem solving.

Out of the following areas, one or multiple areas can contribute to build an intelligent system.

Programming Without and With AI

The programming without and with AI is different in following ways:

Programming Without AI Programming With AI

A computer program without AI can

A computer program with AI can answer the
answer the specific questions it is meant
generic questions it is meant to solve.
to solve.
AI programs can absorb new modifications by
putting highly independent pieces of
Modification in the program leads to
information together. Hence you can modify
change in its structure.
even a minute piece of information of program
without affecting its structure.

Modification is not quick and easy. It may

Quick and Easy program modification.
lead to affecting the program adversely.

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 Artificial Intelligence

What is AI Technique?
In the real world, the knowledge has some unwelcomed properties:

 Its volume is huge, next to unimaginable.

 It is not well-organized or well-formatted.
 It keeps changing constantly.

AI Technique is a manner to organize and use the knowledge efficiently in such a way that:

 It should be perceivable by the people who provide it.

 It should be easily modifiable to correct errors.
 It should be useful in many situations though it is incomplete or inaccurate.

AI techniques elevate the speed of execution of the complex program it is equipped with.

Applications of AI
AI has been dominant in various fields such as:

 Gaming
AI plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker, tic-tac-toe, etc., where
machine can think of large number of possible positions based on heuristic knowledge.
 Natural Language Processing
It is possible to interact with the computer that understands natural language spoken
by humans.
 Expert Systems
There are some applications which integrate machine, software, and special
information to impart reasoning and advising. They provide explanation and advice to
the users.
 Vision Systems
These systems understand, interpret, and comprehend visual input on the computer.
For example,
o A spying aeroplane takes photographs which are used to figure out spatial
information or map of the areas.
o Doctors use clinical expert system to diagnose the patient.
o Police use computer software that can recognize the face of criminal with the
stored portrait made by forensic artist.

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 Speech Recognition
Some intelligent systems are capable of hearing and comprehending the language in
terms of sentences and their meanings while a human talks to it. It can handle different
accents, slang words, noise in the background, change in human’s noise due to cold,
etc.

 Handwriting Recognition
The handwriting recognition software reads the text written on paper by a pen or on
screen by a stylus. It can recognize the shapes of the letters and convert it into editable
text.

 Intelligent Robots
Robots are able to perform the tasks given by a human. They have sensors to detect
physical data from the real world such as light, heat, temperature, movement, sound,
bump, and pressure. They have efficient processors, multiple sensors and huge
memory, to exhibit intelligence. In addition, they are capable of learning from their
mistakes and they can adapt to the new environment.

History of AI
Here is the history of AI during 20th century:

Year Milestone / Innovation

Karel Čapek’s play named “Rossum's Universal Robots” (RUR) opens in London,
1923
first use of the word "robot" in English.
1943 Foundations for neural networks laid.
1945 Isaac Asimov, a Columbia University alumni, coined the term Robotics.

Alan Turing introduced Turing Test for evaluation of intelligence and published
1950 Computing Machinery and Intelligence. Claude Shannon published Detailed
Analysis of Chess Playing as a search.

John McCarthy coined the term Artificial Intelligence. Demonstration of the first
1956
running AI program at Carnegie Mellon University.

1958 John McCarthy invents LISP programming language for AI.

Danny Bobrow's dissertation at MIT showed that computers can understand

1964
natural language well enough to solve algebra word problems correctly.

Joseph Weizenbaum at MIT built ELIZA, an interactive problem that carries on

1965
a dialogue in English.

Scientists at Stanford Research Institute Developed Shakey, a robot, equipped

1969 with locomotion, perception, and problem solving.

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 Artificial Intelligence

The Assembly Robotics group at Edinburgh University built Freddy, the Famous
1973 Scottish Robot, capable of using vision to locate and assemble models.

1979 The first computer-controlled autonomous vehicle, Stanford Cart, was built.

1985
Harold Cohen created and demonstrated the drawing program, Aaron.

Major advances in all areas of AI:

 Significant demonstrations in machine learning
 Case-based reasoning
 Multi-agent planning
 Scheduling
1990
 Data mining, Web Crawler
 natural language understanding and translation
 Vision, Virtual Reality
 Games

The Deep Blue Chess Program beats the then world chess champion, Garry
1997 Kasparov.

Interactive robot pets become commercially available. MIT displays Kismet, a

2000 robot with a face that expresses emotions. The robot Nomad explores remote
regions of Antarctica and locates meteorites.

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 2. IntelligenT Systems Artificial Intelligence

While studying artificially intelligence, you need to know what intelligence is. This chapter
covers Idea of intelligence, types, and components of intelligence.

What is Intelligence?
The ability of a system to calculate, reason, perceive relationships and analogies, learn from
experience, store and retrieve information from memory, solve problems, comprehend
complex ideas, use natural language fluently, classify, generalize, and adapt new situations.

Types of Intelligence
As described by Howard Gardner, an American developmental psychologist, the Intelligence
comes in multifold:

Intelligence Description Example

The ability to speak, recognize, and use mechanisms

Linguistic
of phonology (speech sounds), syntax (grammar), Narrators, Orators
intelligence
and semantics (meaning).

The ability to create, communicate with, and Musicians,

Musical intelligence understand meanings made of sound, understanding Singers,
of pitch, rhythm. Composers

Logical- The ability of use and understand relationships in the

Mathematicians,
mathematical absence of action or objects. Understanding complex
Scientists
intelligence and abstract ideas.

The ability to perceive visual or spatial information,

Map readers,
change it, and re-create visual images without
Spatial intelligence Astronauts,
reference to the objects, construct 3D images, and
Physicists
to move and rotate them.

The ability to use complete or part of the body to

Bodily-Kinesthetic
solve problems or fashion products, control over fine Players, Dancers
intelligence
and coarse motor skills, and manipulate the objects.

Intra-personal The ability to distinguish among one’s own feelings,

Gautam Buddha
intelligence intentions, and motivations.

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Mass
Interpersonal The ability to recognize and make distinctions among
Communicators,
intelligence other people’s feelings, beliefs, and intentions.
Interviewers

You can say a machine or a system is artificially intelligent when it is equipped with at
least one and at most all intelligences in it.

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