The Brownstone Guide

Maintenance & Repair Facts

for Historic Property Owners

New York Landmarks Conservancy

Technical Services Center
 Contents

Brownstone as a Building Material 1

Inspecting the Condition of Brownstone 2
Protection and Maintenance Strategies 3
Causes of Brownstone Deterioration 4
Composite Repairs 5
Alternative Repair Methods 7
Inappropriate Repair Methods 9
The Future of Brownstone Preservation 10

Acknowledgements

The Brownstone Guide is more a consumer’s

handbook than a technical manual. Rather than
a source of step-by-step instructions for repair
materials and techniques, the Guide is designed
to help owners of historic properties understand
the character of sandstone and the basic causes
of its decay. In addition, it provides an
introduction to the various methods and
materials for sandstone repair and restoration.
With this background, building owners can
make more informed choices about maintaining
and repairing historic brownstone.

The Brownstone Guide was funded by a grant

from the New York State Council on the Arts.
Richard D. Pieper, Ward Dennis, and William J.
Higgins consulted on the development of the
contents. Alex Herrera, Director of Technical
Services, and Erin Tobin, Manager of Grants and
Technical Services, shepherded it through to
completion. Photography was provided by Ann-
Isabel Friedman, Andrea Goldwyn, Li/Saltzman
Architects, Ken Lustbader, James Mahoney,
Richard Pieper, and Erin Tobin.
 Brownstone as a
Building Material

“Brownstone” is the common name for a variety Almost as soon as sandstone became prominent as a
of brown, red, and pink sandstone widely used as building material, it became known for its tendency
building materials from the mid-1800s until the to decay. Unfortunately, its layered composition and
early-1900s. In fact, it was so common that the high porosity means that brownstone deteriorates
word became synonymous with “row house.” easily. It is especially susceptible to the action of
water, salts, freeze-thaw cycling, air pollutants, and
Brownstone is found in buildings as early as the
similar factors. In the Northeast, the local climate
1600s, but it truly emerged as a dominant American
consisting of wet winters with daily temperature
building material in the mid-1800s, when popular
fluctuations has proven to be particularly hard on
taste in literature, art, and architecture embraced a
romantic return to nature. Its rich, earth-toned color the material. Consequently, brownstone presents
and variety of surface textures expressed this ideal significant maintenance and repair problems for
perfectly. To nineteenth-century builders, the softness many owners of historic brownstone buildings.
of brownstone was an ideal quality. The material
lent itself perfectly to the rapid carving of moldings,
brackets, consoles, bas-relief, pediments, architraves,
enframements, and many other architectural devices
that decorated roughhouses of this period.

During the period of its greatest use, brownstone

was central to the look and feel of American
architecture. It is found not only in row houses
and individual residences, but also in religious,
industrial, commercial, and public buildings.
Brownstone use was most common in the
Northeast, close to the principal quarries.

Brownstone used in nineteenth-century

New York City came from quarries in:

• Connecticut: Portland, East Haven

• New Jersey: Newark, Belleville,
and Little Falls
• Massachusetts: East Longmeadow
• Pennsylvania: Hummelstown
• New York: Medina
• Michigan Brownstone homes, like these Harlem row houses, were
built by the thousand throughout the Northeast in the
• Scotland
late-nineteenth century.

1
 Beginning in the late 1860s, however, a construction
boom in New York and other eastern cities created
mile upon mile of new row houses. Often, the less
desirable material was pressed into architectural
service and sliced into thin veneer or carved into
elaborate façade features.

Before embarking on any repairs, the condition of

the stone should be surveyed, identifying the
The relative softness of brownstone lends itself to symptoms and possible causes of deterioration.
decorative carvings and building ornamentation.
Observations regarding the color, pattern, texture,
and surface tooling of the brownstone, as well as

Inspecting the previous repairs, can be very helpful to a conservator,

architect, or contractor. Building owners can do
Condition of Brownstone some of this initial investigation, allowing them to
better describe the condition of their building:

Brownstone has two basic characteristics that Color: Is the stone brown or another color? Has
determine its appearance and performance more than one color of stone been used?
in buildings:
Pattern: Are there swirls, bands, or veins of color
• Composition: Sandstone is made up of grains of within the individual stones?
sand and other minerals held together by natural
cementing agents. Texture: Is the stone surface hard or crumbly, sharp
or weathered?
• Structure: The minerals that form the stone were
Surface Tooling: Is the stone carved, rock-faced, or
deposited into layers, or strata, by water and wind
smooth? Are there other tooling marks or decorative
over many centuries. Within the stone, natural
surface patterns? Is any part damaged or missing?
areas of weakness, called bedding planes, occur
where each layer comes into contact with the next. Previous Repairs: Are there old patches applied to
the masonry? Has the entire surface of the façade
All brownstone is not created equal, however. Some been patched or refaced some time in the past? Is the
is much harder and more durable than others. Stone stone painted? Are past stucco repairs showing signs
from the same quarry can have very different of blistering, loosening, or detachment?
properties, depending on the specific location where
it was quarried.
Protection and
In the early days, quarries sorted and graded
brownstone, saving the good quality, dense material Maintenance Strategies
for architectural use. This stone was carved, or
dressed, into lintels, doorways, and blocks.
Building owners and stewards can avoid many
Beautifully preserved brownstone lintels, quoins,
problems commonly associated with brownstone
and other details can be seen in such grand buildings
through proper maintenance. A regular maintenance
as St. Paul’s Chapel in lower Manhattan. The less
program can remedy water infiltration and slow
desirable brownstone was given over to uses such as
the rate of decay. Deteriorating stone often can be
road and rail embankments or other projects where
protected, and repair and replacement costs can
large, rough blocks were needed and the fineness or
thinness of the stone did not matter. be reduced.

2
A responsible building owner can carry out most of
the following basic maintenance procedures at a very
Causes of
low cost: Brownstone Deterioration
Clear Gutters Regularly: Clearing gutters and
Brownstone, like other sandstones, consists essentially
leaders of debris at least twice a year allows them
of grains of sand that have been consolidated by the
to drain properly.
pressure of overlying sediments and the presence of a
cementing matrix, or binder, between the grains.
Maintain Roof: Repair leaks in the roof and Many of the brownstones used in New York are
drainage systems immediately. They can act as a composed mainly of quartz and feldspar, bound by
funnel for water, causing severe and costly damage clays and iron oxides. In some cases, silica or calcite
to the façade. are also present in the binder.

Remove Vegetation: Vegetation, such as ivy, on or Most brownstone deterioration is caused by the
immediately adjacent to stone walls traps moisture failure of its cementing matrix. As the mortar joints
and prevents the walls from thoroughly drying out. between the stones deteriorate, water finds its way
into the interior bedding planes of the stones. Hard
Fill Open Joints: Caulking open joints prevents freezes cause expansion of the trapped water within
moisture infiltration around windows, doors, and the tiny crevices of the stone, destroying the stone’s
along horizontal lines in projections, such as window solidity from within. The recrystallization of salts
lintels or parapet walls. Use high quality polysulfide, from deicing compounds or mortars also plays a role
butyl rubber, or acrylic latex caulk. in deterioration.

The most common forms of deterioration are:

Maintain Flashing: Metal flashings protect ledges,
lintels, ornamentation, and other projections that
Exfoliation: Separation and failure of stone along its
collect and absorb water. Use non-corrosive, non-
sedimentary bedding planes. Exfoliation causes the
staining sheet metal, such as lead or lead-coated
most dramatic failure when a stone unit is “face-
copper, to seal the top surfaces and to bridge the bedded,” with its bedding planes set parallel to the
small, open gaps between the elements. finished face of the stone. “Blind exfoliation”
describes bedding layers that have separated but are
Repoint as Necessary: Crumbling, loose, or still loosely attached, causing the finished surface to
missing mortar joints should be repointed by a sound hollow. Exfoliation is caused by the failure of
qualified mason. The repointing mortar must be weakly cemented layers in a stone unit.
softer and more porous than the stone. Hard mortar
with too high a cement content can accelerate
brownstone deterioration.

Clean Carefully: Improper cleaning can cause more

damage in minutes than years of weathering.
Cleaning is only necessary to protect brownstone
from pollutants or excess dirt build-up. Use a
professional mason to handle the cleaning, and ask
to see a sample of their work. A gentle water wash
or water and non-ionic detergent wash should be the
first cleaning methods attempted. Do not use harsh
chemicals or abrasive methods, such as sand- or
Severely exfoliating brownstone can be both unattractive
water-blasting. and detrimental to the building.

3
Contour scaling: Failure of a thin surface layer of
the stone parallel to the worked surface of the stone,
rather than along its bedding planes. “Crust
formation,” “blistering,” and “surface induration”
are terms used for similar deterioration. Contour
scaling occurs when acid-soluble binders dissolve
and form a brittle crust at the surface of the stone.
This is most likely to occur in areas of frequent
wet-dry cycling, such as windowsills and copings.
Contour scaling
(top) and
Disaggregation: Loss of cohesion between sand
disaggregation
grains as the binder deteriorates. Disaggregation at
(bottom) are two
the surface of a stone can result in slow erosion of commonly found
the surface and softening of tooling. Areas beneath forms of
surface crusts are also often disaggregated. brownstone
Disaggregation often occurs in sheltered areas where deterioration.
moisture from other sources evaporates, in some
cases from salt recrystallization.
removal of all deteriorated stone down to solid
material. The sound stone is then scarified or
Deterioration varies dramatically for the different
roughened to provide some mechanical anchorage
types of brownstone that were available in the
for the composite patch. For large repairs, rods and
nineteenth century. The severity of exposure of the
wire armatures are sometimes added to provide
stone and its orientation in the wall both significantly additional support and to assure that the patch does
affect how the brownstone deteriorates. The more not separate from the substrate. The rods can be
carving on a façade, the more surface area of the made of fiberglass, nylon, or stainless steel. A
stone is exposed to the elements. These factors can durable composite repair must be at least 3/4” thick.
create an enduring challenge to the concerned
building owner. Due to the difficulty of exact color matching,
composites applied to the full face of a deteriorated
stone unit are the most successful visually. Usually, it
Composite Repairs is preferable to apply composite repairs separately to
individual stone units, stopping the edge of the
repair at the mortar joint that separates the unit
Composite repair, the application of a tinted mortar- from adjacent stones.
like patch to the surface of a deteriorated stone or
portion of a stone, is one of the most common Since the 1930s, many brownstone contractors have
techniques utilized to repair deteriorated brownstone completely covered the façades of small buildings
surfaces. Composite repairs are appropriate where with tinted stuccos. When an entire façade is heavily
small areas of mechanical damage have occurred or deteriorated or when a façade has been refaced once
where the entire face of a unit has exfoliated. before, this approach may be appropriate. Refacing
Composite repairs last longer in locations that do not is most successful when they faithfully replicate
have heavy exposure to rain. Composites applied to window hoods, door surrounds, and other trim
windowsills and wall copings often fail prematurely, elements. Complete refacing should be avoided,
due to water infiltration and disaggregation of the however, when significant sections of original
stone beneath the repair. In areas where direct wetting brownstone are intact and may be retained.
of the patch is not a problem, such as sheltered vertical
wall surfaces, composites may be very durable. Materials The proper repair mixture consists of a
Satisfactory adhesion of a composite repair requires combination of a binder, aggregate, pigments,

4
Years of weathering caused the brownstone details to deteriorate (left), but careful composite repairs (center) restore it to
its original glory (right)

admixtures, and water. Most masons have their own Color Matching Color matching is one of the most
preferred composite patching system, and in general, crucial aspects of creating a successful composite
it makes sense to use the system with which your patch and should be based on a careful examination
mason is most familiar. of the existing stone. The contractor or an architec-
tural conservator who specializes in masonry can do
The most common repair mixture is a stucco-like the color matching. Manufacturers of proprietary
mix consisting of Portland cement and lime binder, mixes can provide a custom color match based on a
crushed stone-sand aggregate, and small amounts of sample of the stone being repaired. Samples of pro-
dry oxide pigments. The ingredients are combined prietary mixes should be prepared in accordance
dry and then mixed with water, often with a small with manufacturer’s instructions.
amount of acrylic latex admixture. The dry mixture
is usually prepared on site, but may also be prepared
If the stone is to be cleaned, the repair material must
off site in a more controlled setting and brought to
match color of the cleaned stone. If the stone’s color
the site in pails or bags.
and dirt or stains give it a varied appearance, select
the color that blends best. Repairs in more than one
One important point to remember: gray Portland
color may be needed if the color variations are great.
cement should not be used for composite sandstone
Often, sandstone buildings are part of a group of
patches. It is more difficult to color and work,
similar façades, constructed at the same time and of
shrinks more in curing, and may cause staining.
the same sandstone. When repairing entire façades in
In addition to the traditional cement-lime-sand such buildings, it is important to use a color mixture
patching mix, many companies market their own compatible with the neighboring buildings.
proprietary patching systems. Among the more
common proprietary mixes available today are those Surface Finishing Even with proper color matching,
sold under the Edison and Jahn names. Proprietary a repair will look dead and artificial – like sand
mixes have a number of advantages, including sealed up in colored cement – unless the character of
uniformity of material, a proven track record, and the surface mineral grains closely resembles that of
technical assistance from the manufacturer. Many natural sandstone. Commonly, this is achieved with
manufacturers will supply a premixed, color-matched acid-etching or rubbing stones to remove the thin
product to which water is added at the site. It is outer film of pigmented cement binder and expose
important to ensure that the masons are properly the shape, size, color and distribution of the
trained in the use and application of proprietary mixes aggregate grains at the surface of the repair. Patches
when using or specifying such mixes. Many proprietary can also be stippled with a sponge or dry-troweled to
mixes are not applied in the same manner as create surface effects. Tool marks and patterns can
traditional cement-lime-sand mixes, and, like any be matched to those on the original stone.
repair, will fail if improperly installed.

5
Historic Accuracy A successful composite patch, exposed features prone to deterioration, such as
whether a small repair or replacement of an entire stoops and stairways, are also often replaced.
façade, should be indistinguishable from the original Damaged elements can be replaced with either natu-
stone. Mortar joints in the new repair should ral stone or cast stone.
replicate the historic profile. Repairs should not
extend continuously between separate blocks of NATURAL STONE For simply tooled units of wall
stone, because continuous patches can crack and masonry, natural stone is often the most appropriate
fail if the individual stones behind them move. choice. Generally natural stone will be more expensive,
but is usually a better match for surrounding masonry.
Where possible, photographs and measured drawings
Finding a stone that matches the color of the original
or sketches should be used to recreate carved
stone is extremely important. Salvaged stone, taken
decoration. For row houses that are part of a
from buildings that have been demolished, is often
uniform development, one can often find surviving
available and the simplest choice for smaller projects.
decoration on adjacent buildings. Decorations found
For new brownstone, quarries are currently active in
on neighboring buildings may serve as the model for
Connecticut, Michigan, and Canada’s maritime
new composite patches or may be used to create
molds for cast stone ornamentation. Historic provinces. For larger projects, imported stone
photographs should be consulted to ensure that resembling some brownstone in the Northeast is
architectural features that appear on a neighboring available through American suppliers from Germany,
building are historically appropriate on the building Scotland, and England. Whenever possible,
being restored. brownstone should be laid with its natural bedding
planes oriented horizontally (“quarry-bedded”).

Alternative Repair Methods CAST STONE Cast stone, which is precast concrete
tinted and finished to resemble brownstone, can be a
durable and economical material for replacement of
In addition to composite repair, there are other stair treads, balustrades, and molded ornamentation.
techniques that can be used to repair deteriorated Color and texture are important considerations in
brownstone masonry. the use of cast stone. A mixture of cement, sand, and
coarse aggregate, most of its color comes from the
Unit Replacement In some cases, the most durable use of a tinted cementitious matrix. As the matrix
and most visually successful “repair” for deteriorated weathers, more of the sand and aggregate are
brownstone is replacement. While replacement of exposed. If these are lighter than the matrix, the cast
entire brownstone façades is rare, replacement of stone will fade and no longer match the adjacent
portions of façades and of individual stone units is stone. The use of crushed brownstone or other
quite common. Unit replacement is an appropriate brown aggregates assures a closer and more durable
approach with severely deteriorated stone, especially color match.
at corners, buttresses, and projecting bays. Heavily
After cast stone has been molded, it is common for
the fabricator to lightly sandblast or acid etch the
surface to remove a portion of the cement on the
surface and expose the aggregate. Stainless steel
reinforcement should be considered for pieces that
serve a structural function or that may crack in
handling. Keeping the cast stone moist during curing
assures proper hydration of the cement in the
Brownstone can be laid with its natural bedding planes concrete. Design and fabrication of cast stone is
oriented vertically, called face bedding (left), or horizontally, complicated enough that the services of an architect
called quarry bedding (right).

6
or engineer may be desired, depending on the size Numerous factors must be considered before
of the project. consolidation is undertaken, including soundness of
substrate, type of consolidant, depth of consolidant
Dutchman Repairs A “dutchman” repair may be penetration, methods of and numbers of applications,
used with exposed damaged stone where a composite and color change. An architectural conservator
repair is infeasible or unlikely to last. A stone should be consulted to guide any proposed
dutchman is a piece of stone set into a larger stone consolidation effort.
to replace a damaged or missing section. In highly
visible locations and in areas subject to frequent
wetting, a dutchman will generally be more durable Inappropriate
and more successful visually than a composite repair.
Although sometimes used for severely damaged
Repair Methods
brownstone, dutchmen, adhered with pins and
adhesives, are used more frequently with granites and Many historic brownstone buildings in New York
marbles. “Full face” dutchman may be used for City have been repaired, restored, or remodeled at
brownstone repair when the face of a unit is least once. In some cases, these old rehabilitations
deteriorated to a significant depth and the stone have become historic in their own right. Often they
surface must be durable. A dutchman might be used, are a testament to the layering of history typical of
for instance, where an exposed repair overhangs an old, urban centers. If your brownstone is in an
entry or sidewalk, and the failure of a composite historic district, you must check with your local
would be hazardous. landmarks board or commission before embarking
on a restoration plan. Depending on the age and
Retooling If the decayed surface of the stone is too quality of the remodeling, it may be seen as
shallow for a durable composite repair and the depth significant feature.
of deterioration does not warrant unit replacement or
Many brownstone owners today need to address the
a dutchman, retooling may be considered. Reworking
failures of old repairs. Old patches often fade over
the decayed surface of an individual stone and
time, resulting in a patchwork appearance to the
retooling the stone is most successful where the
building. Old stucco or cement may start to come
original surface of the stone is roughly tooled and
loose, and some areas may blister and detach from
the plane of the façade is not extremely important.
the substrate. Sometimes, these failures occur as a
Smooth honed and finely tooled surfaces, as well as
result of natural aging, but sometimes they are
rock facing, are more difficult to retool successfully. caused by inappropriate repair methods or installation.
Retooling that does not match the original tooling of
the stone is not advisable. Inappropriate Mortars Repointing with a mortar
that is too hard or impermeable will damage
Consolidation In recent years a number of brownstone. Impermeable mortars force water,
products have been developed to “consolidate” which enters the masonry through joints and cracks,
or strengthen deteriorated stone. These liquid to collect in, and evaporate through, the stone itself
preservatives can play a limited role in some rather than through the mortar joints. Moisture
brownstone restoration projects. trapped in the masonry often damages the stone
through salt crystallization or frost damage. In
YES Consolidants may be appropriate where a extreme cases, the masonry will spall completely,
stone surface is slowly eroding or where original leaving protruding mortar. Similarly, composite
tooling or carving is still present, but threatened. patches that are too vapor impermeable will result in
deterioration of the natural stone. Pointing mortars
NO Consolidants cannot re-adhere separated should be sacrificial to the surrounding stone or
surface layers or repair severe damage. brick, and owners should expect to repoint their
building from time to time.

7
Cementitious Coatings Tinted cementitious coatings Repainting of sound stone that has already been
are available under a variety of trade names and are painted is an option if paint removal is likely to
one of the most common repair methods to avoid. cause damage or if it would expose old, non-matching
Unlike composite repairs, which are generally repairs. If painting is appropriate, use oil-based paint
applied only to deteriorated stone, brush-on cementi- over previously painted stone and latex paint on
tious coatings are often indiscriminately applied to exposed stone.
entire façades of sound and deteriorated stone. These
coatings tend to hinder vapor transmission through Waterproofing Waterproofing and water repellent
the stone surface and hold water inside the stone, coatings tend to trap moisture and migrating soluble
eventually causing it to disaggregate. In areas of salts. This may cause loss of stone surface through
severe water infiltration, near roofs or parapets, freezing or salt recrystallization. These coatings may
coatings such as these may lead to frost damage. also alter the color and reflective qualities of the
While they may match stone coloration when they stone. They also require regular and frequent
are initially applied, cementitious coatings tend to reapplication, making this an expensive option for
fade and may be highly disfiguring. They are also homeowners.
difficult to remove without damaging the surface of
the stone. Harsh Cleaning Sandblasting, high-pressure water
blasting, and other abrasive cleaning or paint
Painting Painting brownstone is generally not
removal techniques damage stone and should never
recommended. Even paints that are vapor permeable
be used.
may retard the passage of moisture and cause the
underlying stone to deteriorate. This is especially
true where cracks or open joints allow water to enter
the masonry. A thick paint buildup may lead to
The Future of
future damage by trapping moisture in the stone Brownstone Preservation
behind it. Painting will not preserve decayed stone,
since paint will adhere only to sound material.
A rich heritage of architectural brownstone has
survived to the present day in the neighborhoods
of New York City. These buildings and homes have
endured despite adverse structural, mineralogical,
and environmental conditions.

Restoration of brownstone façades has grown into

an industry. Natural stone supplies are more easily
available today than in years past, and repair methods
are advancing rapidly. A trip to many brownstone
blocks in warm weather will show one or more
Inappropriate repair houses in the process of being repaired.
methods, such as
painting (top) and Brownstone restoration can be a complex process for
cementitious coatings
building owners, but if they are prepared with a
(bottom), tend to
trap moisture and practical understanding of sandstone and its problems,
mask underlying they can continue to preserve this legacy for
brownstone future generations.
deterioration.

8
 Further Reading Conservancy Publications
The following is a selective list of books and articles
In addition to The Brownstone Guide, the
of use to the homeowner. Emphasis has been placed
Conservancy offers other helpful publications
on general works and information particularly helpful
to the public:
to the novice, as well as more recent articles not
cited elsewhere.
• Historic Building Facades: The Manual
for Maintenance and Rehabilitation covers
General Building Maintenance
inspection, maintenance, and repair of historic
and Restoration Guides
facades made of brownstone, limestone, brick,
terra cotta, cast iron, and wood. $29.95
Carosino, Catherine, et al, editors. Historic Masonry
Deterioration and Repair Techniques: An Annotated
• Repairing Old and Historic Windows is a
Bibliography. Washington, D.C.: Preservation
complete guide to window deterioration,
Assistance Division, National Park Service,
United States Department of the Interior. 1993. maintenance, replacement, and repair for
homeowners and professionals. $24.95
Fisher, Charles E. and Hugh C. Miller, editors.
Caring for Your Historic House. New York: • Managing Repair & Restoration Projects: A
Henry N. Abrams, Inc. 1998. Congregation's How-to Guide is a step-by-step
guidebook that explains the basics of project
planning, management, and supervision to
Foulks, William G., editor. Historic Building
laypeople and clergy. $20.000
Façades: The Manual for Maintenance and
Rehabilitation. New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. 1997. • Inspecting and Maintaining Religious
Properties is a practical guide for building
Friedman, Donald. The Investigation of Buildings: caretakers and professionals with chapters
A Guide for Architects, Engineers, and Owners. on the building envelope (roofs, walls, and
New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 2000. drainage systems), structural systems, mechanical
systems, energy cost-saving measures, and
McKee, Harley. Introduction to Early American cyclical maintenance. $15.00
Masonry: Stone, Brick, Mortar and Plaster.
Washington, D. C.: National Trust for Historic For more information or a publications order
Preservation. 1973. form, call 212-995-5260 or visit
www.nylandmarks.org
Weaver, Martin with Frank G. Matero. Conserving
Buildings: Guide to Techniques and Materials. New
York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1993.

Preservation Briefs

The National Park Service has published over 40

Preservation Briefs on a range of subjects related to
the repair and maintenance of historic buildings.
Many of these briefs are now online at
http://www2.cr.nps.gov/tps/briefs/presbhom.htm.
The New York Landmarks Conservancy is proud to theaters, cultural institutions, and community
announce that 2003 marks our 30th anniversary. centers. In turn, we help revitalize neighborhoods
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In addition, it is the only preservation organization nationally recognized for its expertise in addressing
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