136 Section 2 • Measurement, Materials, and Safety

Applications of Plunge-Type
Indicators
Plunge-type indicators can travel longer distances than
test indicators and are sometimes called travel indica-
tors. On dial versions, the needle can normally make at
least 2.5 complete revolutions around the dial face. Some
models can measure travel up to 6" or more. These fea-
tures make these indicators well suited for measuring
linear distances. Sideways movement of plunge-type
indicators should be avoided, as it can cause unwanted
movement and provide false readings. Be sure to keep
contact of the tool perpendicular to the surface being
measured to ensure accurate readings. The illustration in
Figure 2.4.90 will help explain these steps.
These indicators can be fitted with different-shaped
contacts depending on where the tip needs to reach.
Figure 2.4.91 shows some different types of contact
points.
A dial or digital plunge-type indicator can be mounted
on a base and used to make comparative measurements.
The indicator can be set to a zero reference using gage
blocks. When using a dial indicator, it is good practice
to “pre-load” by applying enough pressure for the nee-
dle to move about 1/4 turn. Then the face can be rotated
A so the needle is aligned with the “0” mark. When using
digital models, just be sure the indicator registers enough
movement so that any part that is measured will make
contact. Then press the “0” button. This process of set-
ting a reference zero is called mastering. When a dimen-
sion is inspected, the indicator shows the variation from
the gage block. In this type of application, the indicator
is sometimes called a drop gage. Figure 2.4.92 shows
mastering and measuring with a dial indicator gage.

0 10 0
10 10
20 10
20 20
20
30
30 30
30
40 40 40
40

Avoid side
movement

Correct Incorrect
B FIGURE 2.4.90 The contact of a plunge-type indicator must
be perpendicular to the surface being measured or errors will
FIGURE 2.4.89 (A) A digital plunge-type indicator. (B) A digi- result. Avoid side movement with a plunger indicator.
tal test-type indicator. All images courtesy of Fred V. Fowler Company, Inc. ©Cengage Learning 2012
 Unit 4 • Precision Measurement 137

Applications of Test Indicators

Test indicators have smaller measuring ranges than
plunge-type indicators. The needles of dial models
usually make only about one revolution and measure
between 0.008" and 0.030" of movement. Test indicators
are ideal for measuring variation while in constant con-
tact with a part or when making adjustments to machine
attachments.
When using a test indicator, keep the contact as paral-
lel as possible to the surface being indicated. The lever
contact of a test indicator can be adjusted to create the
best possible position. Angles between the surface and
the contact will create false readings because motion is
actually at an angle to the indicator’s movement abil-
ity. As the angle increases, the amount of error is mul-
tiplied. Figure 2.4.93 shows some examples of correct
and incorrect lever contact positions.
When using test indicators, “pre-loading” the indica-
tor with about 1/4 of a turn of contact pressure before
FIGURE 2.4.91 Some different contact points for use on dial taking measurements is recommended, as with plunge-
indicators. Courtesy of The L. S. Starrett Company type indicators.

A B

FIGURE 2.4.92 (A) Mastering a dial indicator with a gage block build. (B) Checking a measurement with the drop gage. Note the
lever that can be used to raise and lower the indicator contact. All images ©Cengage Learning 2012
138 Section 2 • Measurement, Materials, and Safety

θ θ θ θ

θ
θ
θ

FIGURE 2.4.93 Correct (O) and incorrect (X) settings of test indicator contact points. A small angle between the contact and the
work will minimize errors and create more accurate readings. All images ©Cengage Learning 2012

A B

FIGURE 2.4.94 A height-gage-mounted test indicator can be used for comparison measurements after mastering with a gage
block build. All images ©Cengage Learning 2012

A test indicator can be mounted on a height gage to the indicator in contact with the surface to be checked
be used for comparison measurement the same way a and zero the dial face. No mastering is required because
plunge-type indicator can. Master (zero) the indicator no actual size is being measured, only variation of a sin-
with gage blocks and then measure variation between the gle surface. Slide or sweep the indicator across the sur-
gage blocks and machined part sizes. (See Figure 2.4.94.) face of the part by sliding the height gage on the surface
This set-up can also be used to check for parallelism. plate. To check smaller parts, it is usually better to keep
Place a part to be checked on a surface plate. Then bring the height gage stationary and move parts under the indi-
 Unit 4 • Precision Measurement 139

cator. Figure 2.3.95 shows this procedure. Movement on

the indicator will show errors in parallelism.
A height-gage-mounted test indicator can be used in
another capacity. It can take the place of the measuring
point of the height gage. This works particularly well
with a digital height gage because a zero position can be
set at any location. The benefit is that instead of relying
on contact pressure, the test indicator is returned to the
same reading for each measurement taken. The result is
a more precise measurement. To use this method, refer
to Figure 2.4.96.

SINE TOOLS
FIGURE 2.4.95 Using a height-gage-mounted test indicator Sometimes angles must be measured more accurately
to check for parallelism errors by sliding a part beneath the than with a vernier protractor. In those cases, sine
indicator. ©Cengage Learning 2012 tools are frequently used. They can be used to measure
angled surfaces relative to a reference surface (normally
a surface plate). Sine tools have two equal-sized cylin-
ders, called rolls, mounted near each end. The diam-
eters of the rolls and the distance between their cen-
ters are held to very tight tolerances (usually within
0.0001–0.0002"). With one roll on a surface plate and
the other roll on a gage block build, the bar can be
inclined to very accurate angular settings. Sine tools
get their name from the fact that the trigonometric sine
function is used to determine the size of gage block
builds used to incline the tools. Figure 2.4.97 gives an
illustration of this principle.
The center-to-center distance of sine tool rolls is usu-
A ally a standard dimension of 3, 5, 10, 15, or 20 inches.
This center-to-center distance is representative of the
hypotenuse, or side c, of a right triangle. To calculate
a gage block build for a sine tool setting, determine the
sine of the desired angle and multiply it by the length of
the tool’s roll center-to-center distance. The gage block
build is then placed under one of the tool’s rolls to raise
the bar to the angular position.

Roll

Sine tool

B Roll
Gage
block
FIGURE 2.4.96 To avoid measurement errors from vary- build
ing contact pressure, use a test indicator in place of the stan-
dard height gage pointer. (A) Adjust the height gage to bring
the indicator in contact with the surface plate to pre-load Desired angle
the indicator. Then zero the indicator and the height gage.
(B) To take a measurement, adjust the height gage until the Surface plate
indicator reaches the same zero indicator reading when con-
tacting the surface of the part and record the measurement FIGURE 2.4.97 The basic principle of sine tools.
from the height gage. All images ©Cengage Learning 2012 ©Cengage Learning 2012
140 Section 2 • Measurement, Materials, and Safety

Sine values change more rapidly at smaller angles and the part’s surface to measure variation from the desired
more slowly at larger angles. To avoid errors because of angle. (See Figure 2.4.98.)
this factor, it is good practice to use an angle’s comple-
ment if it is greater than 45 degrees. Sine Bars and Sine Blocks
Once the sine tool has been set up on the surface plate A sine bar is a narrow bar with rolls near each end and
using the correct gage block build, an angled part can be is used to measure angles on relatively small parts. A
placed on the sine tool and a test indicator moved across sine block is a wider version of a sine bar. Figure 2.4.99
shows a sine bar and a sine block.

Sine Plates
A sine plate is similar to a sine bar except with a larger
area to hold larger parts. The plate usually has threaded
holes for the use of clamps to secure parts. A compound
sine plate is like one sine plate on top of another with
pivot points located at 90 degrees to each other. It is used
for measuring compound angles. Figure 2.4.100 shows
a sine plate and a compound sine plate.

FIGURE 2.4.98 Indicating an angular surface using a sine

Sine Vises
tool. Note the gage blocks used to raise the one end of the tool. A sine vise is a sine bar with an integral vise for securing
©Cengage Learning 2012 parts. Figure 2.4.101 shows a sine vise.

FIGURE 2.4.99 (A) A sine bar. (B) A sine block. All images courtesy of Suburban Tool, Inc.

A B

FIGURE 2.4.100 (A) A sine plate. (B) A compound sine plate. All images courtesy of Suburban Tool, Inc.
 Unit 4 • Precision Measurement 141

SURFACE FINISH
MEASUREMENT
Surface finish refers to the texture of the surface of a
machined part. Roughness and waviness are the two fac-
tors generally considered when discussing surface finish.
Roughness is the peaks and valleys created by the cutting
action of a machining process. Waviness is the varia-
tion of those peaks and valleys over a larger distance.
Figure 2.4.102 shows the difference between roughness
and waviness.
There are several systems for measuring surface
finish, but the most widely used system measures
roughness and is called Ra, or arithmetical average. It
is a measure of the average height of a surface above
FIGURE 2.4.101 An example of a sine vise. a line that is midway between the highest peak and
Courtesy of Suburban Tool, Inc. lowest valley of a surface within a given waviness
length. Figure 2.4.103 illustrates Ra roughness mea-
surement. The Ra system measures this average height

Roughness height Waviness height

Roughness width

Waviness width

Surface characteristics
FIGURE 2.4.102 Surface finish roughness and waviness. ©Cengage Learning 2012

Y Highest point on surface

m = mean or, not on average of highest and lowest points
Ra

*
0

* Ra is the average surface Lowest point on surface

height above the mean line
over a given length

FIGURE 2.4.103 The basic concept of Ra surface finish measurement. ©Cengage Learning 2012
142 Section 2 • Measurement, Materials, and Safety

Roughness Average
Micrometers µm
(Microinches µ in.)
50 25 12.5 6.3 3.2 1.6 0.80 0.40 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.012
Process (2000) (1000) (500) (250) (125) (63) (32) (16) (8) (4) (2) (1) (0.5)

Sawing
Drilling
Elect. Discharge Mach.
Milling
Reaming
Laser
Boring/Turning
Grinding

FIGURE 2.4.104 Surface finish ranges produced by various machining operations. ©Cengage Learning 2012

in the English system in microinches (millionths of adding a smaller symbol or letter to the standard surface
an inch). In the metric system, the height is speci- finish symbol.
fied in micrometers (millionths of a meter). Micro-
inch finishes range from 0.5–1000 microinches, and Surface Roughness Comparator
micrometer finishes range from 0.012–50 microm- Ra surface roughness is normally inspected by two dif-
eters. Smaller values indicate smoother surfaces, ferent methods. A surface roughness comparator gage
and smoother surfaces are usually more difficult and shows examples of different levels of Ra. Machined
expensive to produce. Figure 2.4.104 shows surface surfaces are visually compared to these samples to
finish ranges that can be produced by some common determine if they are within acceptable limits. (See
machining operations. Figure 2.4.107.) This method does not give an actual
Ra surface finish requirements can be shown as a note measurement in microinches or micrometers, but it is
on a print such as “125 microinch finish” or specified simple, highly portable, cost effective, and adequate for
with symbols like those shown in Figure 2.4.105. many applications.
Different machining operations produce different tex-
ture patterns. The pattern and direction of the texture is Profilometer
called the lay. Figure 2.4.106 illustrates some different A more accurate measurement of Ra surface roughness
lay patterns and shows how they can be specified by can be obtained with a profilometer. This electronic
tool moves a stylus, or contact point, across a surface
and actually measures the height of the peaks and val-
leys. An actual value in microinches or micrometers is
then automatically calculated and shown on a display.
Figure 2.4.108 shows a portable model.

OPTICAL COMPARATORS
An optical comparator projects a magnified image
of a part on a screen for measurement. They are very
useful for measuring small parts and features that are
difficult to see with the naked eye. The image appears
FIGURE 2.4.105 Some of the various types of surface finish
symbols that may be encountered in the machining industry. as a shadow of the part’s profile on a bright screen. Dif-
©Cengage Learning 2012
ferent levels of magnification are available, and most
 Unit 4 • Precision Measurement 143

Parallel to edge of Perpendicular to edge Angular in both directions

surface indicated of surface indicated to edge

Approximately circular
C relative to center M Multidirectional
or random R Approximately radial
relative to center

FIGURE 2.4.106 Method for specifying lay patterns with a surface finish symbol. ©Cengage Learning 2012

FIGURE 2.4.107 A surface finish comparator gives examples

of machined surfaces at different levels of roughness.
©Cengage Learning 2012

models offer interchangeable lenses to change magni- FIGURE 2.4.108 A portable profilometer measuring the sur-
fication levels. Some optical comparators also have an face finish of the hole in a machined component.
option called surface illumination. This feature uses Courtesy of Fred V. Fowler Company, Inc.
fiber optics to show an actual surface of a part for visual
inspection. Figure 2.2.109 shows an optical compara-
tor in use. ring of the screen contains an angular scale that can be
Linear measurements can be made by moving the rotated to measure angled features. Clear form templates
part using a hand-operated wheel. A digital readout or a with angles and radii are also available to place on the
micrometer scale shows the distance moved. The outer screen for comparison to part features.
144 Section 2 • Measurement, Materials, and Safety

FIGURE 2.4.109 An optical comparator magnifies small parts and projects them
on a screen for measurement. A digital readout measures dimensions as the table
is moved. ©Cengage Learning 2012

TOOLMAKER’S MICROSCOPE
Another tool that is sometimes used to measure or inspect
very small parts is the toolmaker’s microscope. These
microscopes feature movement in two or three directions
through the use of micrometer dials to obtain measure-
ments. Some models can be connected to cameras to take
still photos. Others can be connected directly to a com-
puter monitor to display real-time video of parts during
inspection. (See Figure 2.4.110.)

COORDINATE MEASURING
MACHINE
A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) identifies loca-
tions in an X, Y, Z coordinate system. The foundation of
a CMM is usually a granite surface plate where parts can

FIGURE 2.4.111 A coordinate measuring machine can

inspect dimensions of complex parts like this engine cylinder
FIGURE 2.4.110 A toolmaker’s microscope with video out- head by moving the probe to touch part surfaces.
put for display on a computer. ©Cengage Learning 2012 ©Cengage Learning 2012
 Unit 4 • Precision Measurement 145

be secured for inspection. A bridge holds a moveable elec- computer monitor. Some CMMs are controlled by CNC
tronic probe that is used to touch surfaces of a part. When systems and can be programmed so that the probe automati-
the probe touches a part, locations are transmitted to a com- cally moves across a part’s surfaces and compares the part
puter that calculates dimensions and displays them on the to a computer model. A CMM is shown Figure 2.4.111.

SUMMARY
• Use and care of precision measuring tools is a vital step in training for the machining industry.
• Fixed gages such as pin gages and go/no-go plug and ring gages are often used to check that internal
and external straight and threaded diameters are within required specifications.
• Straight edges are very flat bars used to check the accuracy of flat surfaces and are often used
together with feeler gages.
• When performing precision measurements, a surface plate provides an accurate reference surface.
• A solid square is a very useful tool for checking perpendicularity of workpiece surfaces and is also
often used together with feeler gages to determine perpendicularity errors.
• Vernier scales are used in several different types of precision measuring tools including calipers,
depth gages, height gages, and protractors. A linear English vernier scale is graduated in 0.001-in.
increments and a linear metric vernier scale is graduated in 0.02-mm increments. A vernier protractor
is graduated in 5-minute (1/12-degree) increments.
• Micrometers use a very accurate screw thread to perform measurement and several different types are
available to measure different types of dimensions, including outside, inside, and depth dimensions.
English (inch) micrometers can measure within 0.001 in., or 0.0001 in. when outfitted with a vernier
scale and metric micrometers can measure within 0.01 mm, or 0.002 mm when outfitted with a
vernier scale.
• Most types of precision measuring tools are also available with dial or digital scales making them
easier to read than some of their conventional counterparts.
• Precision transfer tools, such as telescoping and small hole gages, are used to gage sizes and then
must be measured using other tools to determine actual dimensions.
• Dial indicators perform measurement by displaying movements of a contact point with a needle
on a dial face. The two basic styles of dial indicators are the plunge indicator and the test indicator.
Each style can have either a balanced or continuous dial face and graduations ranging from .001 in.
to .00005 in. Digital indicators display movements on a small screen on the indicator face.
• Gage blocks are extremely accurate blocks that can be stacked together to create desired sizes and
are often used with indicators to inspect variation from a given size.
• A sine tool represents the hypotenuse of a right triangle and is used with gage blocks to measure
angles very accurately.
• Surface finish is a measure of the roughness or smoothness of a part’s surface and is measured in
microinches or micrometers using a surface finish comparator or a profilometer.
• An optical comparator magnifies a part and projects its image on a screen for measurement.
• A toolmaker’s microscope can be used to measure very small parts and dimensions that are nearly
impossible to inspect using the naked eye.
• A CMM utilizes a probe to calculate dimensions using X, Y, Z coordinates.
146 Section 2 • Measurement, Materials, and Safety

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List three key points in caring for precision measuring tools.
2. What type of fixed gage can be used to check hole diameters?
3. What type of fixed gage can be used to check a threaded hole?
4. How is the “go” member of a go/no-go ring gage set identified?
5. What type of fixed gage can be used to check external threads?
6. A ___________________ ____________________ can provide a reference plane for taking precision
measurements.
7. What two other tools could be used with the answer to question 11 to check for perpendicularity?
8. ___________________ is the process of attaching gage blocks to each other.
9. What is the smallest graduation on an English vernier caliper?
10. What is the smallest graduation on a metric vernier caliper?
11. A micrometer uses an accurate __________________ _______________ to perform measurement.
12. What is the smallest graduation on an inch micrometer with a vernier scale?
13. What is the smallest graduation on a metric micrometer with a vernier scale?
14. What is calibration and why is it important?
15. What is a transfer-type measuring tool?
16. What are the two basic types of indicator movements?
17. Briefly describe the main difference between the two indicator types from question 34.
18. A sine tool uses the trigonometric function of sine. The length of a sine tool represents which side of
a right triangle?
19. List the two most common methods for measuring surface finish.
20. What are one advantage and one disadvantage of each surface finish measurement method from the
previous question?
21. A(n) ______________________ __________________________ displays a magnified image of a part
on a screen for conducting measurement.
22. What other tool can be useful for measuring very small parts?
23. What does CMM stand for?