Houston Community College System

Physical Sciences Department

Northwest College

PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS IN

MECHANICS

Edited by Juan Carlos Reina, Ph.D

and Carol S. Monahan, B.S.
Acknowledgements

In the sciences much more than the arts, most works cannot be accomplished
by a single individual. This manual is no exception. Carol Monahan began to
work in the Natural Sciences Department of HCC-NW in 2002, she held a degree
in physics and hoped to “shake off the cobwebs” in her preparation in order to
pursue graduate studies in physics. I am glad to report that she has succeeded
in both regards. She is now a Texas A&M University graduate student. It has
been Carol’s enthusiasm, her true concern for the students’ progress and her
attention to the students’ learning processes that led to the constant revision
of the lab exercises, which resulted in the present manual. Her motivating
energy inspired other professors to collaborate in the development of the
laboratory exercises. We were all beneficiaries of the work done by Professors
Dwight Kranz and Bart Sheinberg who procured the state of the art lab
equipment, and Dr. William Askew who has led the Natural Sciences
Department at HCC-Northwest in constant growth and development.

Juan Carlos Reina, Ph.D.

And what a delightful collaboration it has been! Dr. Juan Carlos Reina has
great energy and enthusiasm for the physics labs, and that enthusiasm is
contagious! All of the professors at HCC have been a tremendous example in
their competence and kindness, and I am forever grateful to all of them.

Most of the students at HCC who are enrolled in a physics course are at least
pursuing a Bachelor’s degree, by completing the first two years of a four year
program at HCC. Therefore, it is imperative to have a complete physics
program that is comparable to any high quality four-year institution. Our hope
is that this manual enables the success of the HCC physics program.

Above all, we wish the greatest success to the terrific students of Houston
Community College!

Carol Monahan, B.S

June, 2004
 Table of Contents

1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 The Laboratory Report 5
1.3 Graphing 6

2.0 The Experiments 10

2.1 Lab 1 Error Analysis 11
2.2 Lab 2 Length Measurements with Error Analysis 20
Determining Density (Physics 2125) 25
2.3 Lab 3 Vector Analysis with the Force Table 31
2.4 Lab 4 Projectile Launch 36
2.5 Lab 5 Motion Studies: Position vs. Time 41
and Velocity vs. Time
2.6 Lab 6 Measuring the Acceleration of Gravity 51
2.7 Lab 7 Conservation of Momentum 57
2.8 Lab 8 Dynamics: Atwood’s Machine 65
2.9 Lab 9 Dynamics with Friction: Kinetic Friction 72
2.10 Lab 10 Rotational Dynamics: Angular Velocity 79
and Angular Acceleration
2.11 Lab 11 Centripetal Force on a Pendulum 87
85
2.12 Lab 12 Calorimetry (Physics 1401) 93
91
2.13 Lab 13 Simple Harmonic Motion (Physics 1401) 99
97
2.14 Lab 14 Harmonics: The Speed of Sound 102
101

3
1.1 Introduction

“Measure what is measurable and make

measurable what is not.”
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

Since Antiquity and until the Renaissance in order to understand natural

phenomena, it was only necessary in order to develop a model, to make observations,
to present a hypothesis and by reason alone to arrive to the model. Galileo is
considered the father of modern science due to his insistence in introducing
measurements, i.e., data acquisition and its subsequent analysis by mathematical
formulation, in order to arrive to a verifiable model.

Since then, at the core of all work in science lies a set of procedures that we call
“ the scientific method.” First there is an observation of natural phenomena, then a
hypothesis is developed to explain it. In order to test this hypothesis an experiment is
designed with the purpose of making precise and accurate measurements. The data
obtained in the experiment is analyzed using the appropriate mathematical formulation.
The main objective of the method is to arrive to a conclusion that is verifiable, a theory
in which the observations and the mathematical formulation agree, hopefully a theory
that would fit within a larger model.

This reliance in mathematics as a tool to understand experimental observations

and measurements has led to a revolution in our understanding of nature. We are still in
the midst of it. The purpose of the experiments outlined in this manual is that the
student understands the scientific method thoroughly and that he or she is capable of
applying it. Physics distinguishes itself from the other sciences by its strong emphasis
and focus in precise and accurate measurements. Therefore, every experiment should
follow this method. The corresponding laboratory report should also reflect the scientific
method, as it will be explained in the following section.

It is our hope that the students will find that the concepts learned in the lecture
part of the physics courses will be enhanced by the laboratory experience. The interplay
between the abstract mathematical formulation and the practical simulations of natural
phenomena will show how scientists of all fields try to discover the hidden laws in
nature.

4
1.2 The Laboratory Report

Your instructor will indicate which of the experiments will require a full laboratory report.
Some experiments will only require filling out a worksheet, graphs or tables.

You should use the format below when you are required to complete a full laboratory
report. Whether it is a student report or a paper published in a scientific journal, the
report’s format usually consists of these five sections:

I. Introduction

Describe what the experiment is about, i.e., what are the phenomena being
observed, and what are the current theories that may explain it. Include equations
and definitions of symbols in this section that are relevant to the experiment.

II. Experiment Description

a. Include the equipment and materials used. Be as specific as possible.

b. Write down the procedure, step by step.

III. Data

Tables are usually the clearest way to record and present the data, and the tables
will normally be provided for you. Record in ink to keep yourself honest. Be sure to
use units for any measurement.

IV. Results

Calculations and graphs belong here. Again, include units.

V. Conclusion

The most important part: discuss the results. What do the calculations and graphs
mean? Include a brief discussion of the types of error, the standard deviation and
percent error or difference.

5
1.4 GRAPHING

The plotting of experimental data, generally a dependent variable versus an

independent one, is a very effective way to determine trends and analyze the data. The
system you will use in this course is the Cartesian system, with the exception of a polar
system for rotational dynamics. The scales may be linear or logarithmic, or one axis
linear with the other logarithmic (semi-logarithmic), or both scales can be logarithmic.

The criteria below will make your graph accurate and also easy to understand.

A. To construct a readable graph, the graph must have:

1. A title.

2. The independent variable as the abscissa (x-axis) and the dependent

variable for the ordinate (y-axis).

3. A label on each axis indicating the quantity being measured and

represented on that axis and the units associated with that quantity.

4. Data points that are readily visible. Any curve fit to the data should not
hide the points. Use dots of a readily visible size, or draw a small circle
around each data point. (O)

B. For an accurate graph, it must have:

1. The correct number of significant figures (the same number of significant

figures as the data) on each axis.

2. The scales for both the abscissa and the ordinate chosen so that:

a. the plotted data fills over half the page in each direction.
b. the points are easy to plot and easy to read. This is accomplished
by using a scale of 1,2,4,5, or 10 data units per division (scales of
3, 7, etc. units per division are difficult to plot and read).
c. each division on each axis is of equal size.

6
C. The Pasco labs include a sophisticated program which may be used to obtain the
curve which best represents the data, called simply, a “Best Fit“ curve. However,
you can obtain a representative curve manually with a simply visual analysis. The
way to accomplish this is as follows:

1. With a pencil draw a light curve through the data such that, overall, it
touches or comes close to the greatest number of points. Mentally add up
the distances from the points to the curve. The distance to the data points
on one side of the curve should be the same as the distance on the
opposite side of the curve. Do not draw a straiqht line from data point to
data point. If you are plotting a line, a flexible transparent ruler is a terrific
aid in finding the best fit.

2. Once you have determined the "best fit", fully pencil-in the curve (or ink-in
the curve if the graph is part of a final report).

3. Be faithful to the trend of the data; don't try to fit the data with a
preconceived curve.

Once your graph is drawn, check the graph for all the details given in A. At the
end of the exercise there are two examples of graphs for you to use as models.

THE SLOPE

In plotting linear relationships, you frequently will be asked to find the slope of the line
you have fitted to the data (this slope usually has a physical meaning). To calculate an
accurate slope, read a point on the line near each end of the line. Do not use data
points unless they are on the fitted line!!!! That is, choose widely separated points only
on the line for the calculation of a slope.

The slope is defined by:

di f f erence i n y- coordi nat es

sl ope =
di f f erence i n x- coordi nat es

7
 INTERCEPTS

The x-intercept of a line is that point on the abscissa, or x-axis, at which a line crosses
that axis. The y-intercept is defined in the same manner.

1.4.2 GRAPHING: EXERCISE

You are to graph the following three sets of data and have them checked by your
instructor.

1. The following data was collected on the position of a car as a function of time, as
detected by a police radar detector:

time (min) position (km)

0.00 2.51
0.67 3.33
1.17 6.43
1.80 7.58
2.37 8.83
3.05 12.18
3.59 12.65
4.18 13.78

a. Make a graph of the above data.

b. Determine the slope and y-intercept of the above curve.
What is the physical significance of the slope?

2. The following data was taken for a glider on a level air track:

t(s) distance (cm)

0.00 0.97
0.43 2.37
1.05 4.05
1.47 9.10
2.03 9.70
2.51 13.15
3.03 18.05
3.55 21.40
3.98 27.98
4.55 35.20
5.01 44.66
5.48 47.55

Make a graph for this data and the curve that best fits the data.

8
3. The following data was obtained for growth of bacteria experiment. N is the
number of bacteria counted at time t and, No is the number counted at t = 0. Use
regular and semi-log paper to plot the data found below.

RADIOACTIVE DECAY DATA

t(min) # counts/s.
0 80
20 133
40 245
60 455
80 763
100 1401
120 2643

9
2.1 The Experiments

You will be acquiring data in two different ways during this course: 1) manually, and 2)
with computer aided acquisition. In our current technological world, much of the data
that is obtained is with the aid of a computer, and we are excited at HCC to be able to
offer this technology to you. Sensors combined with computers can acquire data faster,
and often more accurately than we are able to do by hand. We must take care,
however, not to allow the assistance of the computer to substitute for a deep
understanding of the processes we are exploring. We continue to do some experiments
without the aid of a computer because sometimes a computer doesn’t help or can’t even
be used in some situations, and we need to stay connected with basic measurements of
natural phenomena. Physics is, in essence, a study of nature in its beauty and
magnificence, and sometimes computers can cloud that vision. We are attempting to
understand the fascinating patterns and order that surrounds us, order which is often so
predictable and precise that it can be expressed as a mathematical equation. Our
sincere hope is that your appreciation and enjoyment of the natural world grows as a
result of this course.

To help bring order out of chaos, we write lab reports. Writing and recording helps us
make sense of the system we’re investigating. The actual writing of a lab report, or
doing error analysis and standard deviations may be tedious until practice makes them
easy, but it all works together in building our understanding of the universe. So be
patient with yourself and your partners, do your work with integrity, and have fun
exploring!

10
Lab 1 Error Analysis
I.3.1 Introduction

Physical quantities, length, mass, time, etc., are constantly being measured in the
laboratory. All experimentally determined quantities contain some degree of error or
uncertainty. It is important that the experimentalist knows how to record the data and
results so that it’s clear just how precise the data is, and is familiar with the various sorts
of error.

1.3.2 Types of Error

A. Systematic or constant errors: These errors result from using an instrument that
is not calibrated properly. For example, using a meter stick that is actually shorter
in length than a meter or using a voltmeter, which has not been “zeroed”, would
result in a systematic error being introduced into the experiment. Corrections
can be made to the data to compensate for systematic errors if the type and
extent of the error is known. Students should always be aware that systematic
errors may exist and each lab report should contain a statement concerning
possible sources of systematic error in the experiment.

B. Random errors: These errors result from fluctuations of such parameters as

temperature, pressure, humidity, line voltage, or magnetic and electrical
interference which cause repeated measurements to disagree. In addition, most
instruments require an estimate of the fraction of smallest scale division and the
observer's estimate may vary from measurement to measurement. Most lab
reports will require an estimate of the random error in measurements made.

C. Human errors: These errors are caused by outright mistakes in reading

instruments, performing the experiment, or recording data. Included in this
category are mistakes made in calculations. Fortunately, these errors are usually
apparent either as obviously incorrect data points or as results, which are not
reasonably close to the expected results. These kinds of errors wreck your
experiment and /or the lab report. It’s really good to avoid these.

11
1.3.3 Estimating Random Error

The amount of uncertainty associated with a quantity, which has been measured “n”
number of times, is estimated by calculating the mean and its standard error. No
estimate of the random error can be deduced from only a single measurement!

The arithmetic mean, x , (or average) of a series of n measurements (xi) is defined by:
n (1)
x = 1n Σ xi
i =1

The standard deviation of the quantities x are obtained by the following formula:

n
σx = 1 Σ (x - xi)
2
n - 1 i =1 (2)

The standard deviation of the mean or "standard error", σx, is then:

σx = σx
n (3)

Observe that the above formula for σx with n-1 in the denominator is the correct
expression for the sample standard deviation when the mean is not known exactly.
However, some calculators with a standard deviation key use a different definition of σx
(with n in the denominator and not n-1). If you use your calculator to attempt to
determine the standard deviation or error, figure out which quantity the program is using
in the denominator (n or n-1).

For example, listed below are seven measured values of a quantity x measured in
meters. The last two columns of the table help in calculating the standard deviation. The
calculations are shown below the table. Each lab report should contain similar orderly
and logical presentations of data and calculations.

12
 Trial no. xi(m) (x - xi) (m) (x - xi)2 x 10-6(m)2
1 7.364 0.0027 7.29
2 7.3710 -0.0043 18.49
3 7.363 0.0037 13.69
4 7.368 -0.0013 1.69
5 7.365 0.0017 2.89
6 7.366 0.0007 0.49
7 7.370 -0.0033 10.89
______________________________________________________________
Total Σ = 51.567 Σ= 55.43 x 10-6

Then:

x = 51.567m = 7.3667m
7

2
5.543 × 10-5 m
σx = = 0.0030m
(7 - 1)

σx = 0.0030m = 0.0011m
7

The standard deviation represents an estimate of the uncertainty due to random errors
and can be interpreted as follows: If the experiment were to be repeated and the
quantity x were measured again there is a 68% probability that the newly measured
value would come within one standard deviation (0.003 m) of the mean. However, if an
entirely new series of measurements were taken and another mean calculated, there is
a 68% probability that the new mean will come within one standard error (±/σx) of the
previous mean. It is the mean and the standard error, which are recorded as the result
of the measurements. Thus, the result of the above measurements would be written as
x = 7.367 m + 0.001 m. The standard error is separated from the mean by a "+" (plus
or minus) sign to emphasize that it is as an estimate of the uncertainty in the mean
value reported. Consequently, there is a 68% probability that the true mean of all
possible measurements of the quantity x lies between 7.366 m and 7.368 m.

It is customary to retain several additional digits as the mean, standard deviation, and
standard error are computed. For the final reported values, however, retain only one
non-zero digit in the standard error and discard any digits in the mean that are in

13
the decimal places to the right of the retained digit in the standard error. For
example, in the previous calculation, the mean was determined to be 7.3667 m, the
standard deviation was 0.0030 m, and the standard error was 0.0011 m. In reporting
these results, the standard error was correctly rounded to 0.001 m and the mean was
rounded to 7.367 m.

The standard deviation is only an estimate of the uncertainty due to random error
because its interpretation is based on certain assumptions concerning the distribution of
the measurements around the mean value. The 68% probability figure is calculated
assuming a Gaussian (or normal) distribution about the mean. Shown below is a graph
of the Gaussian distribution.
Number of measurements with result "X"

X
(x-3 ) (x-2 ) (x-1 ) x (x+1 ) (x+2 ) (x+3 )

Frequency of the value of a quantity x obtained in a measurement vs the quantity x. The

latter is given in terms of the mean x and and σx.

The most frequently obtained measurement is of course, the mean.

Random error causes measurements different from the mean to be obtained but less
frequently. Note that the curve is symmetric about the mean. Theory indicates that
≈68% of all the measurements yield values between + 1σx and that ≈95% of all
measurements fall between + 2σx.

14
1.3.4 Propagation of Error

Consider now computing involving numbers which all have standard errors associated
with them. What is the standard error of the result? Consider two measured quantities x
+ δx and y + δy, with a calculation yielding a result z whose standard error δz ,is given
by the following formulas: (a, b, and c are constants).

Addition or Subtraction:

z = ax + by σz = b2 σx 2 + b2 σy 2 (1)

Multiplication or Division:

σz = σ 2
b2 σx + c2 y
2
z = a x+b y±c z x y (2)

Exponentials:

σz
= ± bσx
z= ae±bx z (3)

Logarithms:

σx
a = logc (±bx) σz = ± b
x ln x (4)

For example, the length and width of a tabletop are found to be equal to l = 0.9371 +
0.0002 m and w = 3.457 + 0.001 m. The area is then:

a = 1 w = (0.9371m) (3.457m) = 3.2396m2

and
σa σl 2 σw 2 0.0002m 2 + 0.001m 2
= + = (3.2396m2 ) = 0.0012m2
a l w 0.9371m 3.457m

and a = a + σa = 3.24m2 ± 0.001m2

15
Note, the result and its standard error are always written with the same number of digits
to the right of the decimal point and in the same units of measure. Thus both of the
following are incorrect:

a = 3.2396m 2 ± 0.00lm2

and

a = 3.2396 m2 + 10 cm2

1.3.5 Significant Digits

A further discussion of data and its analysis requires a knowledge of significant digits in
a number.

l) All digits between and including the least and most significant digits are
counted as significant digits.

2) The leftmost nonzero digit is the most significant digit, if there is no

decimal point in the number.

3) The rightmost nonzero digit is the least significant digit, if there is a

decimal point in the number.

4) The rightmost digit is the least significant digit even if it is a zero.

For example, in the quantity 0.00254 kg., the 2 is the most significant digit and the 4 is
the least significant digit. Therefore, the number has 3 significant digits. The zeros at the
beginning of the number are not significant; they only serve to locate the decimal point
and can be omitted by a different choice of units, e.g., 0.00254 kg = 2.54 g.

The amount of uncertainty in both the data and the results is indicated by the way in
which the number is written. Results (means of repeated measurements) are reported
along with the standard error as an indication of the uncertainty, whereas, the
uncertainty in each data point is indicated entirely by the number of significant digits.
The least significant digit is considered to be the only uncertain digit.

For example, consider the enlarged portion of a metric tape measure shown below:

16
 7.3 m 7.4 m

The measured length is indicated by the arrow. In recording this measurement, writing
7.36 m would be wrong. We are sure the reading is between 7.36 m and 7.37 m,
consequently there is no uncertainty in the digit 6 and convention requires that the least
significant digit be uncertain. Therefore, by estimating the next digit and writing 7.364 m,
the uncertainty in the measurement has been correctly indicated.

1.3.6 Calculations and Significant Digits

Returning to the example given earlier, the mean of the seven measurements was
calculated by dividing 51.567 m by 7, yielding on a calculator 7.366714286 m.
Recording that number as the mean would be improper because it contains more than
one uncertain digit. In fact, it is later discovered that the uncertainty in the mean is 0.001
m. Thus, the last six digits (714286) are insignificant and meaningless. Consequently, if
a computation yields a number with more digits than are justified, the number should be
rounded off. To drop insignificant digits from a number, use the following rules:

1) Drop all digits after the desired number of significant digits.

2) If the leftmost digit to be dropped is greater than 5, or 5 followed by other
digits, increase the last retained digit by one.
3) If less than 5, leave the last retained digit unchanged.
4) If exactly 5, increase the last retained digit by one if it is odd and leave it
unchanged if it is even.

The reason for rule (4) is that consistently incrementing the least significant digit if the
leftmost digit to be dropped is exactly 5 would lead to a systematic error. In this way, the
least significant digit is increased approximately half the time and left unchanged the
other half.

However, how does one know how many digits should be retained in a calculation if the
standard error has not yet been calculated? Use the following rules as a guideline:

l) For multiplication and division, compute first, then retain at most one more
significant digit than the factor with the least number of significant digits.
For example, (9.8) (1.28) = 12.544; 9.8 has only 2 significant digits so the
result should be recorded with 3 significant digits, or 12.5.
2) For addition and subtraction, round each number to the same number of
digits to the right of the decimal point as the number with the least number

17
 of digits to the right of the decimal point and then compute. For example:
27.6499 + 0.1 + 63.04 = 27.6 + 0.1 + 63.0 = 90.7.

These are to be considered general rules for calculations involving measured quantities
which should be supplemented by the student's common sense. For example, one may
ask why express the results of 51.567 m/7 with 5 significant digits when the 7 is the
number with the least number of significant digits-one? The student should realize that
the 7 is not a measured quantity and is considered infinitely accurate.

1.3.7 Percent Error and Percent Difference

Frequently it is desirable to compare the results of an experiment with accepted values

known to be very accurate. The percent error is used as a measure of the agreement
between the two numbers. It is defined as follows:

measured value - accepted value

percent error = x 100%
accepted value

The vertical bars in the numerator indicate the absolute value. When a quantity is
measured by two different techniques, the results are compared by calculating a
percent difference. The percent difference is used when no accepted value for the
measured quantity exists. It is defined as follows:

measured value 1- measured value 2

percent difference = x 100%
(measured value 1 + measured value 2) ÷ 2

18
Lab 1 Experimental Error and Data Analysis

Taken from Physics Laboratory Experiments, Jerry D. Wilson, 4th Edition.

1. Distinguish among the types and causes of experimental errors. Give a specific
example of each.

2. How can each type of experimental error be reduced or minimized?

3. What is the difference between measurement accuracy and precision? Explain

their general dependence on the various types of errors.

4. What determines the number of significant figures in reporting measurement

values? What would be the effect of reporting more or fewer figures or digits
than are significant?

5. In expressing experimental error or uncertainty, when does one use (a)

experimental error and (b) percent difference?

6. What is the statistical significance of one standard deviation? Two standard

deviations?

7. How could the function y = 3t2 + 4 be plotted on a Cartesian graph to produce a

straight line? What would be the numerical values of the slope and intercept of
the line?

19
Lab 2: Measurements with Error Analysis

Equipment List Cabinet # 1 TC

Length Measurements:

1. Two meter sticks per group 2. Paper

2. Vernier Calipers 3. Tape
1. Clamps 4. Various metal cylinders

I. Introduction

To be a good scientist and nature explorer, a person must be able to make

measurements of all sorts of physical quantities as accurately as possible. There are
inherent limits of the devices used for measuring. The measurement of the accuracy
with which one measures is determined by some statistical formulas called standard
deviation and standard error. Error doesn’t necessarily mean that one has made a
mistake, rather, measuring devices have limits, and our ability to measure is
constrained as well, for instance by our ability to see sharply. Standard error is
another way of saying “degree of accuracy”. A student can only measure to the tenth of
a millimeter with a meter stick; the ruler can’t be used to measure the wavelength of
light! Also, nature itself imposes some restrictions.

II. Length Measurements

You and your lab partners will determine the distance between two parallel lines. This
may seem quite simplistic, but the object of this simple experiment is to learn to make
measurements as accurately as possible with the measuring devices you have
available. In addition, this is the time to begin to learn to use the correct number of
significant figures.

20
Procedure:

A. Using the Meter Stick

1. Draw a straight line (use a ruler!) with a thin tipped pencil or pen on each of two
pieces of paper. Tape the papers perpendicularly to the edge of the lab bench about
a half-meter apart.

2. One meter stick is clamped to the laboratory bench as a straightedge on top of

the papers, while the other meter stick is placed on its edge so it can slide smoothly
next to the first ruler.

3. Now you’ll measure the distance between the lines, but don’t align a mark on
the meter stick with the lines on the paper. Do it this way so that the observers must
estimate the last digit of each measurement.

a. Read the position of the line on the meter stick to the ten thousandth of a
meter, estimating the last digit between two lines. The reading should
look like this, with four digits to the right of the decimal (in meters): 0.1324
m. The last digit, the fourth to the right of the decimal, is the limit at which
a pair of good eyes can read the particular measuring device that has
millimeter divisions as it’s smallest markings. Record the reading on Table
1 for the line on the left as xl, and then record the reading for the line on
the right as xr.). Make the measurements independently of each other to
reduce systematic errors… that means all eyes take the measurements
independently!

4. Move the meter stick to a new position, once again making certain not to align
the line of the paper with a scale marking, and then take new readings.

Repeat the measurement process in the same way until a total of ten measurements
of the distance between the lines have been completed.

B. Length Measurements using the Vernier Caliper

The vernier caliper is a tool for measuring the length of an object to the tenth of a
millimeter. The superior aspect (that means top) of the calipers has a screw which
moves the jaw of the calipers. Be careful when closing the jaw! Don’t tighten the screw.
Only close the jaw to the point of contact with the object being measured.

21
 Your instructor may teach you how to use the calipers by inspection, or to use to
following method useful for any calipers:

These calipers have both English and metric measurements. We will discuss only the
metric scale.

The 10- centimeter scale is called “the main scale”. Inside the window of the sliding
scale are ten marks. The distance between any two adjacent marks is one millimeter.
The measurement of the object can be made by sight with the aid of your instructor, or a
measurement with any Vernier caliper can be made using the following method:

First, determine the “least count” of the Vernier:

The Least Count (LC) of the Vernier is determined as follows:

LC = value of the smallest division on the main scale

number of divisions on the Vernier or inset scale

With our calipers, LC= 1 mm = .1 mm = .01 cm

10

To read the measurement on the inset scale, locate the line on that scale which
coincides exactly with a line on the fixed scale. The line on the fixed scale will be right
on top of the line on the sliding scale. Then, on the sliding scale, count the number of
lines from the left. This number will be multiplied by the LC.

⎡⎛ division on the vernier ⎞ ⎤

(
Total Reading =
reading )
Main Scale
+ ⎢⎜ scale that coincides with
⎢⎜⎜
⎟ x LC ⎥
⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ the divisionon the main scale ⎠⎟ ⎦⎥

Example: 2.4 cm (main scale) + 8 (.01 cm) = 2.4 + 0.08 = 2.48 cm

Procedure for Length Measurements using calipers:

5. Each person in the group will measure both the length and the width of a metal cylinder.
Record the measurements in Table 2.

6. Find the Standard Deviation and Standard Error for these measurements.

22
 Name ______________________________ Date ___________________ Instructor __________________

Partners ____________________________________________________________________________________

Table 1: Length between Two Lines

Right Left Difference

# Reading Reading
di = xr − xl (m) ( d − di ) (m) ( d − di )2 (m2)
xr (m) xl (m)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Σ= Σ=
d= σd =
σd =

The final result for the difference between the two parallel lines should be recorded in your report as:
d = d ±σ i

23
Name: _________________________ Date: _____________

Instructor: _________________ Group Members: ____________________________

_______________________________________________________

Physics 1401

Table 2 Length Measurements with Calipers

Cylinder Color ________________

Length Diameter

li l − li ( l − li ) (cm2) di ( d − di ) ( d − di )2 (cm2)
(cm) (cm)
1
2
3
4
5
Σ= Σ= Σ= Σ=

l = σl = d = σd =
σl = σd =

l = l ±σ l d = d ±σ d

24
Synopsis of Formulae for Statistical Error

The arithmetic mean, x , (or average) of a series of n measurements (xi) is defined by:
n (1)
x=1
n Σ xi
i =1

The standard deviation of the quantities x are obtained by the following formula:

n
σx = 1 Σ (x - xi)
2
n - 1 i =1 (2)

The standard deviation of the mean or "standard error", σx, is then:

σx = σx
n

Propagation of Error Formula for Multiplication or Division:

σz = σ 2
b2 σx + c2 y
2
z = a x+b y± c z x y

25
 Physics 2125
Lab 2, Part II: Determining Density
Determining the density of a regular solid requires the knowledge of two things: the
mass of the solid and its volume. The density ρ (a Greek letter pronounced “rho”)
is then given by:

ρ=m
v

where m is the mass of the solid and V is its volume.

Procedure:

1. The instructor will give each group of students cylinders of unknown composition.

2. The mass will be measured with a mass balance by each person in the group.
Zero the balance before each mass measurement, and after determining the mass
independently, share your answer with your group. Record your measurements in
Table 2.

3. By using a vernier caliper, each person in the group will measure the dimensions
of the cylinder, the length and diameter. Record in Table 2.

4. In the case of a cylinder, the density is given by:

ρ = 4m
π d2l

where d is the cylinder diameter and l its length. Find the averages and standard
errors of the measured quantities as you did when measuring the length between
the two lines. The tables provide a box for recording these calculations.

5. Repeat the measurements and calculations for two more cylinders.

6. Since each measurement you made contains a degree of error or uncertainty, the
amount of error multiplies! You’ll determine this error with the “Propagation of
Error” formula for Multiplication and Division found below, with further explanation
in the introduction.

The instructor may announce the composition of the solid and its known density. If
so, compare the result obtained with the known density using a percent error
calculation. Discuss sources of random and systematic error that might contribute
to any discrepancy between the experimental and known values.

26
Density Formulae

Density is defined as the mass per unit volume:

mass m
ρ= =
volume V

The volume of a cylinder is:

π d 2l
V=
4

The density formula for a cylinder is, then

4m
ρ= ± σρ
π d 2l

The measurements for the density of the cylinder require three measurements,
each of which has an inherent error. To determine the total error for the density,
use the Propagation of Error formulas.

27
 Name: _________________________ Date: _____________

Instructor: _____________________ Group Members: ____________

__________________________________________________
Physics 2125
Determination of Density
Cylinder 1 Color ___________

Mass Length Diameter

#
m (g) m − mi (g) (m − mi ) 2 l (cm) l − li ( l − li ) 2 di (cm) ( d − di ) ( d − di )2
2 2
(g ) (cm) (cm ) (cm) (cm2)
1
2
3
4
5
Σ= Σ= Σ= Σ= Σ= Σ=
m= σm = l = σl = d = σd =
σm = σl = σd =
m = m ±σ m l = l ±σ l d = d ±σ d

Density of cylinder formula: ρ = 4m ± σρ Density of your cylinder: ρ = ±

2
πd l

28
 Name: _________________________ Date: _____________

Cylinder 2 Color ___________

Mass Length Diameter

#
m (g) m − mi (g) (m − mi ) 2 l (cm) l − li ( l − li ) 2 di (cm) ( d − di ) ( d − di )2
2 2
(g ) (cm) (cm ) (cm) (cm2)
1
2
3
4
5
Σ= Σ= Σ= Σ= Σ= Σ=
m= σm = l = σl = d = σd =
σm = σl = σd =
m = m ±σ m l = l ±σ l d = d ±σ d

Density of Cylinder 2: ρ = ±

29
 Name: _________________________ Date: _____________

Cylinder 3 Color ___________

Mass Length Diameter

#
m (g) m − mi (g) (m − mi ) 2 l (cm) l − li ( l − li ) 2 (cm) ( d − di ) ( d − di )2
2
(g ) (cm) 2
(cm ) (cm) (cm2)
1
2
3
4
5
Σ= Σ= Σ= Σ= Σ= Σ=
m= σm = l = σl = d = σd =
σm = σl = σd =
m = m ±σ m l = l ±σ l d = d ±σ d

Density of third cylinder: ρ = ±

30
 Lab 3: Adding and Resolving Vectors: The Force Table
Equipment List Cabinet # 2 (T&C)

1. Force Tables 5. Pulleys

2. Weights 6. Rings
3. Graph paper 7. Ruler
4. Pins 8. Protractor

The Force Table

The force table is an apparatus that enables the experimental determination of

the resultant of force vectors. The rim of the circular table is calibrated in degrees.
Weight forces are applied to a central ring by means of strings running over pulleys and
attached to weight hangers. The magnitude of a force (vector) is varied by adding or
removing slotted weights, and the direction of the force is varied by moving the pulley.

Two forces (vectors) can be balanced with a third string and weight so that the
ring is centered around the central pin. This balancing force is not the resultant R, but
rather the equilibrant E, or the force that balances the other forces and holds the ring in
equilibrium. E is the vector force that has an equal magnitude, but is in the opposite
direction of R (i.e., R = − E). For example, if an equilibrant has a magnitude of 2 N
(where 1 Newton = 1 kg m/s2) in a direction of 30° on the circular scale, the resultant of
the forces has a magnitude of 2 N in the opposite direction, 30° + 180° = 210°. The
resultant cannot be determined directly from the force table. (Why?)

The vectors in the problems are expressed as follows:

F1= (0.200 kg) g @ θ1 = 30°.

ƒ The number in the parentheses is the mass in kilograms.

ƒ g is the acceleration due to gravity, 9.8 m/s2. The bold print indicates a vector.
ƒ The magnitude of the vector is the absolute value of the mass x g.
ƒ 1 kg x m/ s2 = 1 N or 1 Newton, the unit of force.
ƒ The direction of the vector F1 is indicated by the angle θ1 = 30°.

31
Experimental Procedure

Set up the force table with strings and suspended weights and perform the following
problems in vector addition. Do all of the experimental procedures on the force table
first for each of the five problems before doing the graphical and analytical analyses.

1. Vector Addition 1: Given two vectors with magnitudes F1= (0.200 kg) g @ θ1 =
30° and F2= (0.200 kg) g @ θ2 = 120°, find their vector sum or resultant F= F1 +
F2 by each of the following procedures: (Note: Orientation angles of vectors are
given relative to the 0° reference line or positive X axis.)
a. Experimental:
i. On the force table, clamp pulleys at 30° and 120° and add enough
weights to each weight hanger to total 0.200 kg, so as to give
weight forces of F1 = F2 = (0.200 kg) g in these directions. (The
weight hangers have masses of 50 g or 0.050 kg.)
ii. Using a third pulley and weights, determine the magnitude and
direction of the equilibrant force that causes the ring around the pin
to be centered. Be certain the strings on the ring pull directly away
from the center. Also, pulling the center ring straight up a short
distance and releasing it helps adjust the friction in the pulleys as
the ring vibrates up and down.
iii. Record the magnitude and direction of the equilibrant labeled as E,
then determine the resultant R from E, and record the magnitude
and direction of R in the same box.

b. Analytical:
i. Using the law of cosines or the Pythagorean theorem (since this is
a 90° angle), compute the magnitude of the resultant force.
Compute the angle of orientation from θ = tan –1 (Fy / Fx ).
ii. Record the magnitude and direction in the box.

c. Graphical: Using the parallelogram method of vector addition, draw a

vector diagram to scale.
i. Try to determine a scale [such as 5 cm = 0.1 kg (times g)] such that
the finished vector diagram fills at least a half sheet of graph paper.
ii. Draw the first vector on the graph paper, F1= (0.200 kg) g @ θ1 =
30°.
After determining the scale, draw a straight line on the graph paper
representing (.200 kg) g. The angle of the line with respect to the x
axis will be at 30°.
iii. Now draw F2= (0.200 kg) g, θ2 = 120°. Draw the tail of the second
vector at the head of the first vector. This vector will be the same
length as the first vector, because the magnitudes are the same. To
determine the direction of this second vector on the graph paper,
set up another coordinate axes at the head of the first vector. Draw
the second vector at 120° with respect to this new x axis.

32
 iv. Now draw the resultant vector. This vector will start at the origin,
and the head of the resultant will meet the head of vector 2.

v. Find the magnitude of the resultant vector by measuring the length

of the line on the graph with a ruler. Use your scale to determine
the magnitude of the vector. Use a protractor to measure the angle
of the vector with respect to the x axis. Measure the magnitude
and direction of the resultant. Record the results in the data table.

2. Vector Addition 2: Repeat procedure in problem 1, this time with F1=(0.200 kg)g,
θ1 = 20° and F2= (0.150 kg) g, θ2 = 80°. Use the other half sheet of graph paper
from problem 1 for the graphical analysis. Can you use θ = tan –1 (Fy / Fx ) in this
case?

3. Vector Addition 3: Repeat the procedure with F1= (0.200 kg) g, θ1 = 0° and F2=
(0.150 kg) g, θ2 = 90°. In this case, F = Fx + Fy, where Fx and Fy are the x and y
components of F, respectively. That is, the resultant can be resolved into these
components. Use at least one-half of another sheet of graph paper for the
graphical method.

4. Vector Resolution 4: Given a force vector of F= (0.300 kg) g, θ = 60°, resolve the
vector into its x and y components and find the magnitudes of Fx and Fy by the
following procedures:

a. Experimental: Clamp pulleys at 240°, 90° and 0° on the force table. Place
a total of 0.300 kg on the 240° pulley string using a weight hanger. This
force is the equilibrant of F= (0.300 kg) g, θ1 = 60° (since 60°+180° =
240°), which must be used on the force table rather than the force itself.
Add weights to the 0°and 90° hangers until the system is in equilibrium.
The 0°and 90° forces are then the Fx and Fy components, respectively, of
F. Record their magnitudes in the data table.

b. Analytical: Compute the magnitudes of Fx and Fy. Record the results in

the data table.

c. Graphical: Draw the vector F= (0.300 kg) g, θ = 60° to scale on another

sheet of graph paper. Determine and draw the components. Using the
ruler, measure the length of the components, which are the magnitudes of
the components of F on the x and y axes. Record their magnitudes in the
data table.

33
5. Problem 5: Given the force vectors F1= (0.100) g N, θ1 = 30°, F2= (0.200) g N, θ2
= 90° and F3= (0.300) g N, θ3 = 225°, find the magnitude and direction of their
resultant F = F1 + F2 + F3 by the following procedures:

a. Experimental: Use the force table, this time using four pulleys.

b. Analytical: Use the component method.

c. Graphical: Use the polygon method.

Concluding: There are three different methods of determining a resultant vector

from two (or more) initial vectors: experimental, graphical, and analytical. Use a
percent error calculation to determine how close the graphical and experimental
results are to the analytical method.

34
 Name: _________________________ Date: _____________

Instructor: _________________ Group Members: ____________________________

_______________________________________________________

The Addition and Resolution of Vectors: The Force Table

DATA TABLE
Purpose: To analyze results of different methods of vector addition.

Forces Experimental Graphical Analytical

E= R= R=
Vector F1=(0.200kg)g , @ 30°
addition 1 F2=(0.200kg)g, @ 120° R=

%= %= %=
E= R= R=
Vector F1=(0.200kg)g, @ 20°
addition 2 F2=(0.150 kg)g, @ 80° R=

%= %=
E= R= R=
Vector F1=Fx=(0.200kg)g , =0°
addition 3 F2=Fy=(0.150kg)g , =90° R=

%= %=
Fx @ 0° Fx @ 0° Fx @ 0°

Vector F=(0.300kg)g @ 60°

resolution FY @ 90° FY @ 90° FY @ 90°

%= %=
F1=(0.100kg)g @ 30° E= R= R=

Vector F2=(0.200kg)g @ 90° R=

addition 4
F3=(0.300kg)g =225° %= %=

1. E = Equilibrant or balancing force of the weights. R is the resultant. R = E - 180°.

2. g is the acceleration due to gravity, 9.8 m/s2
3. Attach graphs and analytical calculations to Laboratory Report.
4. N = (kg)(m)/(s2) The Newton, N, is the unit of force. Don't forget to label units!
5. % means percent error.

35
 Name: _________________________ Date: _____________
Instructor: _____________________ Group Members: ____________

__________________________________________________

Lab 4 Projectile Motion

I. Purpose

The purpose of this experiment is to study the projectile motion of a ball

launched horizontally and at an angle. The height and length the ball travels
will be measured and the velocities of the balls from the horizontal and
angled launches will be calculated. Finally, the percent difference of the
velocities will be calculated.

II. Equipment Needed

• Projectile Launcher and

plastic ball • Carbon paper
• Plumb bob • White paper
• Meter stick • Tape

III. Theory

A. Horizontal Launch

The initial velocity vi of a ball launched horizontally off of a table

can be determined using the Constant Acceleration Equations of Motion.
You will be measuring the values for x and y. Remember that horizontal

36
 and vertical motions can be determined independently. Using the
equation of motion for the horizontal displacement,

xf = xi + vix t + ½ a x t 2 , xi is zero and a x is also zero; there is no

component of acceleration horizontally.

Therefore,

xf = vix t .

The time t is determined from the vertical displacement:

yf = yi + viy t + ½a yt 2 . For this equation, both yf and viy are zero.

yf is zero due to the way the coordinate system is set up, and viy is zero since
the initial velocity vector has only an x component and no y component; the
initial motion is horizontal. Then:

0 = yi + ½ ayt 2 .

The acceleration ay is the acceleration due to gravity, so ay = -g, and yi is the

height h. Then,

h = ½ g t2 Solving for t,

t = (2h/g)½

Knowing t, the initial velocity for the horizontal launch can now be
found:

vi = xf / t = xf / (2h/g)½ = xf (g/2h) ½

B. The Angled Launch

The angled launch calculations are a little more complex since the velocity
vector vi will have both x and y components. The x and y values will be found
by measuring the displacements of the ball horizontally and vertically. Instead
of determining t for this part, t is eliminated in the displacement equation of
motion by substitution.

yf = yi + x tan θ - ( g x2 / 2vi2 cos2 θ )

37
 With yf = 0, yi = h and x the mean horizontal displacement of the
ball,

0 = h + x tan θ – ( g x2 / 2vi2 cos2 θ ) You need to solve for vi! Then,

Using algebra and the measured values of x and h, determine vi .

IV. Procedure
A. Horizontal Launch: Determining the Velocity

1. Clamp the Projectile Launcher to a sturdy table near one

end of a table. Adjust the angle of the launcher to zero
degrees so the ball will be launched horizontally.

2. Put the plastic ball in the launcher and push it in deeply

using the black stick. Don’t put your face in front of the
launcher! And have about 5 meters cleared in front of
your launcher. Gently pull the trigger on top, and see
where the ball lands. At this position, tape a piece of
white paper to the floor, the nearest end measured in
whole numbers of meters from the muzzle of the
launcher. Place a piece of carbon paper (carbon side
down) on top of the white paper and tape it down on one
side. When the ball hits the floor, it should hit the carbon
paper, leaving a mark on the white paper.

3. Several things are important to get solid, repeatable

results: make sure the launcher is level each time it is
shot, measuring the angle at 0.0°. Use the level. Try
keeping a meter stick propped under the launcher to
prevent the barrel from moving during the shot. Measure
the height of the launcher to the nearest millimeter. Fire
ten shots, numbering the marks on the paper as they are
shot. There should be a cluster of dots, rather close
together. After all ten shots have been fired, measure
the distance to the center of the mark, adding it to the
measured whole number of meters to find the total
distance xi . Record these distances in Table 1.

4. Find the average or mean of xi,; record in Table 1. Using

the vertical distance and the average horizontal distance,
calculate the time of flight and the initial velocity of the
ball. Record (see last page).

38
B. The Ball Launched at an Angle

1. Adjust the angle of the Projectile launcher to an angle

between 30 and 60 degrees and record this angle in
Table 2.
2. Proceed with the experiment exactly as in Part 1.
Measure the height before each time before the ball is
shot in this part.

C. Analysis
1. Calculate the percent difference between the velocity
vi 1 of the horizontal launch and the velocity vi 2 .

2. % Difference = ( vi 1 - vi 2 / vi 1 + vi 2 ) x 100 The

difference between velocities of the horizontal and
angled launch, theoretically is zero for a nearly
weightless ball. Experimentally, it may be around 5%.

39
Name ______________________________ Date ___________________ Instructor __________________

Partners _____________________________________________________________________________________

Table 1. Horizontal Launch Table 2. The Angled Launch θ = __________

Trial Trial
Number X Y Number X Y
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10

Average Average

Horizontal Launch Angled Launch

Horizontal distance to Horizontal distance

paper edge = _________________________ to paper edge = ____________________
Calculated time of flight = __________________
Initial velocity vi 1 = _______________________ Initial velocity vi 2 = _____________________

40
 Name: _________________________ Date: _____________
Instructor: _____________________ Group Members: ____________

__________________________________________________

Lab 5A Position and Time: Understanding Motion 1

Concept DataStudio
Linear motion P01 Position and Time.ds

Equipment Needed Qty Equipment Needed Qty

Motion Sensor (CI-6742) 1 Base and Support Rod (ME-9355) 1

What Do You Think?

What is the relationship between the motion of an object – YOU – and a graph of
position and time for the moving object?

Take time to answer the ‘What Do You Think?’ question(s) in the Lab
Report section.

Background Graph Display

5.0
4.0
When describing the motion of an object, knowing where it is

3.0
relative to a reference point, how fast and in what direction it is

Position (m)
2.0
moving, and how it is accelerating (changing its rate of motion) is

1.0
essential. A sonar ranging device such as the PASCO Motion

0
-1.0
Sensor uses pulses of ultrasound that reflect from an object to
0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0

Time (s)

determine the position of the object. As the object moves, the

change in its position is measured many times each second. The change in
position from moment to moment is expressed as a velocity (meters per second).
The change in velocity from moment to moment is expressed as an acceleration
(meters per second per second). The position of an object at a particular time
can be plotted on a graph. You can also graph the velocity and acceleration of
the object versus time. A graph is a mathematical picture of the motion of an
object. For this reason, it is important to understand how to interpret a graph of
position, velocity, or acceleration versus time. In this activity you will plot a graph
of position in real-time, that is, as the motion is happening.

41
 Sc
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Wo
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DA
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INS
TR
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500 NS
PA Inte
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ic
APN
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S
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hop
300
Inte
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rfa
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SAFETY REMINDER
• Follow all safety instructions.
• Keep the area clear where you will be walking.

For You To Do
• This activity is easier to do if you have a partner to run the computer
while you move.

For this activity, you will be the object in motion. Use the Motion Sensor to
measure your position as you move in a straight line at different speeds. Use
DataStudio to plot your motion on a graph of position and time.
The challenge in this activity is to move in such a way that a plot of your motion
on the same graph will “match” the line that is already there.

PART I: Computer Setup

1. Connect the ScienceWorkshop interface to the computer, turn on the
interface, and turn on the computer.
2. Connect the stereo phone plugs of the Motion Sensor to Digital Channels 1
and 2 on the interface. Connect the yellow plug to Digital Channel 1 and the
other plug to Digital Channel 2.
3. Open the Data Studio file entitled P01 Position and Time.ds

• The Graph shows Position and Time values that were entered into the
Graph.
• Data recording is set to stop automatically at 10 seconds. There is a three-
second ‘countdown’ before data recording begins.

42
PART II: Sensor Calibration and Equipment Setup
• You do not need to calibrate the Motion Sensor.

1. Mount the Motion Base and

Sensor on a support rod support rod
so that it is aimed at
Motion
your midsection when Sensor
To
you are standing in front interface
of the sensor. Make
sure that you can move Table
at least 2 meters away
from the Motion Sensor.
2. Position the computer
monitor so you can see
the screen while you Understanding Motion 1: Position and Time
move away from the
Motion Sensor.

• You will be moving backwards for part of this activity. Clear the area
behind you for at least 2 meters (about 6 feet).

PART III: Data Recording

1. Enlarge the Graph display until it fills the monitor screen.
2. Study the plot of Position versus Time in order to determine the following:
• How close should you be to the Motion Sensor at the beginning?
_______ (m)
• How far away should you move? _______ (m)
• How long should your motion last? _______ (s)

43
3. When you are ready, stand in front of the Motion Sensor.
• WARNING: You will be moving backward, so be certain that the area
behind you is free of obstacles.
4. When everything is ready, start recording data.
In DataStudio, click ‘Start’. There is a three-second countdown before data
recording begins. The ‘cursor’ on the vertical axis of the Graph will move up
and down as you move forward and backward relative to the sensor. Use
the feedback from ‘cursor’ to find your best starting position.
The Motion Sensor will make a faint clicking noise.
Watch the plot of your motion on the Graph and try to move so the plot of
your motion matches the Position versus Time plot already there.
Repeat the data recording process a second and a third time. Try to
improve the match between the plot of your motion and the plot already on
the Graph.

• The Graph can show more than one run of data at the same time.

Analyzing the Data

1. Determine the slope of the best-fit line for the middle section of your best
position versus time plot. You may want to resize the graph to fit the data.
• The slope of this part of the position versus time plot is the velocity during
the selected region of motion.

2. Determine how well your plot of motion fits the plot that was already in the
Graph. (Hint: In DataStudio, examine the ‘Match Data’ calculation. )

44
 Name: _________________________ Date: _____________
Instructor: _____________________ Group Members: ____________

__________________________________________________

Activity P01: Position & Time –

Understanding Motion 1
What Do You Think?

Questions
1. In the Graph, what is the slope of the line of best fit for the middle section of
your plot?

2. What is the description of your motion? (Example: “Constant speed for 2

seconds followed by no motion for 3 seconds, etc.”)

3. What would be the physical meaning of a steeper slope on the graph?

4. What would be different about the motion if the slope were negative?

45
 Name: _________________________ Date: _____________
Instructor: _____________________ Group Members: ____________

__________________________________________________

Lab 5B Velocity and Time – Understanding Motion 2

Concept DataStudio
Linear motion P02 Velocity and Time.ds

Equipment Needed Qty Equipment Needed Qty

Motion Sensor (CI-6742) 1 Base and Support Rod (ME-9355) 1

What Do You Think?

Graph Display

2.0
What is the relationship between the motion of an object
– YOU – and a graph of velocity and time for the moving

1.0
object?

Velocity (m/s)
0
-1.0
Take time to answer the ‘What Do You Think?’
question(s) in the Lab Report section.

-2.0
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

Time (s)

Background

When describing the motion of an object, knowing where it is relative to a

reference point, how fast and in what direction it is moving, and how it is
accelerating (changing its rate of motion) is essential. A sonar ranging device
such as the PASCO Motion Sensor uses pulses of ultrasound that reflect from an
object to determine the position of the object. As the object moves, the change in
its position is measured many times each second. The change in position from
moment to moment is expressed as a velocity (meters per second). The change
in velocity from moment to moment is expressed as an acceleration (meters per
second per second). The position of an object at a particular time can be plotted
on a graph. You can also graph the velocity and acceleration of the object versus
time. A graph is a mathematical picture of the motion of an object. For this
reason, it is important to understand how to interpret a graph of position, velocity,
or acceleration versus time. In this activity you will plot a graph of velocity in real-
time, that is, as the motion is happening.

46
SAFETY REMINDERS Sc
ien
ce
Wo
rks
ho
p™

• Follow all safety

DA
TA
LO
GG
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INS

instructions.
TR
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500 NS
PA In
scieSC terfa
ntif O ce
ic

• Keep the area clear

APN
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ic AN
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LS

where you will be S

Wo cien
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walking.
hop
300
Inte
™

rfa
ce

For You To Do
• This activity is easier to do if you have a partner to run the computer while
you move.

For this activity, you will be the object in motion. Use the Motion Sensor to
measure your position as you move in a straight line at different speeds. Use
DataStudio to plot your motion on a graph of position and time.
The challenge in this activity is to move in such a way that a plot of your motion
on the same graph will “match” the line that is already there.

PART I: Computer Setup

1. Connect the ScienceWorkshop interface to the computer, turn on the
interface, and turn on the computer.
2. Connect the stereo phone plugs of the Motion Sensor to Digital Channels 1
and 2 on the interface. Connect the yellow plug to Digital Channel 1 and the
other plug to Digital Channel 2.
3. Open the Data Studio file entitled P02 Velocity and Time.ds

• The Graph shows Velocity and Time values that were entered into the
Graph.
• Data recording is set to stop automatically at 10 seconds.

PART II: Sensor Calibration and Equipment Setup

• You do not need to calibrate the motion sensor for this activity.
Moving away from the motion sensor is considered a positive velocity.
Moving toward the motion sensor is considered a negative velocity.
1. Mount the motion sensor on a support rod so that it is aimed at your
midsection when you are standing in front of the sensor. Make sure that you
can move at least 2 meters away from the motion sensor.

47
2. Position the computer Base and
monitor so you can see support rod
the screen while you
Motion
move away from the Sensor
To
motion sensor. interface

• You will be moving

backwards for part of Table

this activity. Clear the

area behind you for at
least 2 meters (about 6
feet).
Understanding Motion 2: Velocity and Time

PART III: Data Recording

1. Enlarge the Graph until it fills the monitor screen.
2. Study the Velocity versus Time plot in order to determine the following:
• Which direction (positive or negative) should you go at the beginning?
_______
• What is the maximum speed (positive or negative) you must achieve?
_______ (m/s)
• How long should your motion last? _______ (s)

3. When you are ready, stand in front of the motion sensor.

• WARNING: You will be moving backward, so be certain that the area
behind you is free of obstacles.
4. When everything is ready, start recording data. Data recording will begin
almost immediately. The motion sensor will make a faint clicking noise.
5. Watch the plot of your motion on the Graph, and try to move so that the plot
of your motion matches the Velocity versus Time plot that is already there.

48
6. Repeat the data recording process a second and a third time. Try to
improve the match between the plot of your motion and the plot that is
already on the Graph.
• The Graph can show more than one run of data at the same time.

Analyzing the Data

1. Determine how well your best plot of velocity versus time matches the
velocity versus time plot that was already on the Graph. You may want to
resize the graph to fit the data.
• In DataStudio, check the ‘Match Score’ calculation in a Digits display..

49
 Name: _________________________ Date: _____________
Instructor: _____________________ Group Members: ____________

__________________________________________________

Lab Report - Activity P02: Velocity & Time –

Understanding Motion 2
What Do You Think?

Question
1. For your best attempt, how well did your plot of motion fit the plot that was
already in the Graph?

Name: _________________________ Date: _____________

50
 Instructor: _____________________ Group Members: ____________

__________________________________________________

Lab 6 Measuring the Acceleration due to Gravity

Concept DataStudio
Linear motion P07 Accelerate Cart.ds

Equipment Needed Qty Equipment Needed Qty

Air Track 1 Air compressor and tube 1
Motion Sensor (CI-6742) 1 Rod and clamp 1
Glider with sail 1 Block (or book) 1
Ruler 1

What Do You Think?

What happens to the acceleration of a cart as it moves up and down an

inclined plane?

Take time to answer the ‘What Do You Think?’ question(s) in the Lab
Report section.

Background

If a glider moves on a plane that is inclined at an angle θ, the component of force

acting on the glider in a direction that is parallel to the surface of the plane is
mg sin θ, where m is the mass of the cart, and g is the acceleration due to
gravity.

The acceleration of the glider should be g sin θ, both

up and down the inclined plane. The acceleration a =
g sin θ =g ∆d/∆h. Then θ

g = a ∆h / ∆d mg

51
SAFETY REMINDER
• Follow all safety instructions.

For You To Do
Use a Motion Sensor to measure the motion of a glider or cart that glides down
an inclined plane. Use DataStudio to record the motion and calculate the position
and velocity of the cart as it moves. From the slopes of the graphs you will be
able to determine the acceleration of the cart and then calculate g, the
acceleration due to gravity.

PART I: Computer Setup

1. Connect the ScienceWorkshop 750 interface to Sc
ien
ce
Wo
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the computer, turn on the interface, and then turn

ho
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on the computer.
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2. Mount a Motion Sensor on a pole with a stand.

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Connect the Motion Sensor’s plugs to Digital S

Worcien

300
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Channels 1 and 2 on the interface. Plug the

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yellow-banded (pulse) plug into Digital Channel 1

and the second plug (echo) into Digital Channel
2.
3. Open the file titled Data Studio: P07 Accelerate Cart.ds

PART II: Sensor Calibration and Equipment Setup

• You do not need to calibrate the sensors for this activity.
1. Place the air track on a horizontal surface. Use a block or book at one end
of the track to raise that end.
2. You must measure the incline of the track. Measure the height at any two
points along the track. The difference of these two heights is h. Measure
the distance along the air track at the same two points where the heights
were taken. This value is d. Record this data in the Data Table.
3. Place the Motion Sensor at the high end of the track.
4. Place the glider near the Motion Sensor on the high end of the track.
5. Check the alignment of the Motion Sensor with the glider sail, and adjust if
necessary.

PART III: Data Recording

1. When everything is ready, turn on the compressor. Then release the glider
and immediately start recording data.
2. Stop recording when the glider reaches the bottom of the track.

52
Velocity vs. Time Graph

3. If the plot of data is not smooth, check the alignment of the Motion Sensor
and repeat the above procedure until the plot is smooth. (The glider may
wobble a bit as it begins to move.) If the data points do not appear on the
graph, check the alignment of the Motion Sensor and try again.

PART IV: Analyzing the Data

1. To analyze the data, recall the Constant Acceleration Equations of Motion.

x = xo + vot + ½ at2 and v = vo + at

2. The graphs record the position of the glider and the velocity of the glider as
it slides down the air track. Select the portion of the curve that corresponds
to the movement of the glider down the track. (Click and drag the mouse in
a rectangle around the salient portion of the graph.) You’ll see the portion
of the line you selected highlighted in yellow.

3. On the position vs. time graph, select the ‘Quadratic’ from the ‘Fit’ menu.
You will see the letters A, B, and C. These are coefficients which
correspond to the quadratic equation A + Bx + Cx2. This generic quadratic
equation corresponds to the position equation of motion (that you
memorized already!!) x = x0 + vi t + ½ ax2 . So the coefficient C in the
generic equation corresponds to the coefficient ½ a in the kinematic
equation. Now you can calculate the acceleration of the glider from this
graph.
4. On the velocity vs. time graph, selecting ‘Linear’ from the ‘Fit’ menu, the
slope of the line is the acceleration.
5. The values of the acceleration from the two graphs should be very close to
one another if the cart ran properly. Average the two values of the
acceleration.

53
6. Set the track to a little steeper angle and repeat the data recording.
7. Calculate the theoretical value for the acceleration of the cart based on the
track’s angle and record it in the Data Table.

Record your results in the Lab Report section.

54
 Name: _________________________ Date: _____________
Instructor: _____________________ Group Members: ____________

__________________________________________________

Lab Report - Acceleration of a Glider

What Do You Think?

Data Table

Item Run #1 Run #2

h2 =
h1 =
∆h =
∆d =
From position graph: m/sec2 m/sec2
acceleration
From velocity graph: m/sec2 m/sec2
acceleration
Mean value of acceleration m/sec2 m/sec2
Calculate ‘g’ (experimental) m/sec2 m/sec2
‘g’ (theoretical) m/sec2 m/sec2
% error % %

Questions
1. Describe the position versus time plot of the Graph display.

2. Describe the velocity versus time plot of the Graph display.

3. How does the acceleration determined in the plot of velocity compare to the
value of acceleration from the plot of position?

55
4. What is the percent difference between the acceleration determined in the
plot of velocity and the theoretical value for acceleration?

Remember, % error = abs. value (exp. Value – theoretical value) x 100

theoretical value

5. How did the acceleration change when the track became steeper?

56
 Name: _________________________ Date: _____________
Instructor: _____________________ Group Members: ____________

__________________________________________________

Lab 7 Conservation of Linear Momentum

Concept DataStudio
Newton’s Laws P38 Linear Momentum.DS

Equipment Needed Qty Equipment Needed Qty

Balance 2 Gliders for air track 2
Motion Sensor (CI-6742) 1 Air track 1
Posts for mounting motion sensors 2 Air compressor 1
Air compressor tube 1 Glider flag 1

What Do You Think?

How does the total momentum of two carts before an elastic collision compare to
the total momentum of two carts after the collision?

Take time to answer the ‘What Do You Think?’ question(s) in the

Lab Report section.

Background

When objects collide, whether locomotives, shopping carts, or your foot and the
sidewalk, the results can be complicated. Yet even in the most chaotic of
collisions, as long as there are no external forces acting on the colliding objects,
one principle always holds and provides an excellent tool for understanding the
dynamics of the collision. That principle is called the conservation of momentum.
For a two-object collision, momentum conservation is easily stated
mathematically by the equation:
m1 v1 + m2 v2 = m1 v1′ + m2 v2′
If external forces such as friction are ignored, the sum of the momenta of two
gliders prior to a collision is the same as the sum of the momenta of the gliders
after the collision.

SAFETY REMINDERS
• Follow all directions for using the equipment.

57
For You To Do

Use Motion Sensors to measure the motion of two

gliders before and after an elastic collision. Use
DataStudio to determine the momentum for both gliders
TPUT )
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300
V/
(±5

before and after the collision. Compare the total Sc ie

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momentum of the two gliders before collision to the total

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momentum of both gliders after collision.

PART I: Computer Setup

1. Connect the ScienceWorkshop interface to the computer, turn on the
interface, and turn on the computer.
2. Connect one Motion Sensor into Digital Channels 1 and 2 on the interface.
Connect the yellow plug into Channel 1 and the other plug into Channel 2.
3. Connect the second Motion Sensor into Digital Channels 3 and 4 on the
interface. Connect the yellow plug into Channel 3 and the other plug into
Channel 4.
4. Open the Data Studio file entitled P38 Linear Momentum DS.

• The document will open with a Graph display of ‘Position’ for two objects.
• The DataStudio file also has a Workbook display. Read the instructions in
the Workbook.
• The Motion Sensor ‘Trigger Rate’ is 20 Hz (20 times per second).

PART II: Sensor Calibration and Equipment Setup

• You do not need to calibrate the sensors for this activity.
1. Place the track on a horizontal surface.
2. Attach one end of the air compressor tube to the air track and the other to
the compressor.
3. Turn on air compressor. Level the track by placing a glider on the track. If
the glider slides one way or the other, use the adjustable feet at one end of
the track to raise or lower that end until the track is level and the glider will
not slide one way or the other.
4. Insert the flag or sail into each glider.
5. Use the balance to find the mass of each glider and record the values in the
Data Table in the Lab Report section.
6. Mount the Motion Sensor that is connected to Digital Channels 1 and 2 on
the left end of the track on the post. Mount the other Motion Sensor on the
right end of the track on the post.

58
7. Adjust each sensor so it can measure the motion of a glider as it moves
from the end of the track to the middle and back again. Put the ‘SWITCH
SETTING’ on the sensor to ‘Narrow’.
8. Place a glider at each end of the track. Let the glider on the left be ‘Glider 1’
and the glider on the right be ‘Glider 2’.

PART III: Data Recording

1. Prepare to measure the motion of each glider as it moves toward the other
glider and then collides elastically.
2. Start recording data. (In DataStudio, click ‘Start’.)
3. Gently push the gliders toward each other at the same time.
• Continue collecting data until the gliders have collided and returned to the
ends of the track.
4. Stop recording data.
• ‘Run #1’ will appear in the Data list.

Troubleshooting Note: If your data are not smooth, check the alignment of
the motion sensors. To erase a trial run of data, select “Run #1” in the data
list and press the “Delete” key.

Analyzing the Data

Find the slope of the position versus time plot for each glider just prior to collision
and the slope of the plot for each glider just after collision. The slope is the
average velocity of the glider. Use the velocity and mass of the glider to calculate
the momentum of each glider before and after collision. Compare the total
momentum of the two gliders before the collision with the total momentum of the
two gliders after the collision.
Momentum is a vector quantity. Since the gliders move in opposite directions,
one glider’s momentum is in the opposite direction to the other glider’s
momentum. However, each Motion Sensor measures motion away from it as
‘positive’ and motion toward it as ‘negative’. Use the software’s built-in calculator
to “reverse” the directions of the motion of one of the gliders.

59
Create a Calculation for the Motion of ‘Glider 2’

1. Click the ‘Calculate’ button ( ) in DataStudio. Result: The

Calculator window opens.
2. Create a calculation to ‘reverse’ the values of position for ‘cart 2’.

In DataStudio, do the following:

• Click the ‘Variables’ menu and select ‘Data Measurement’. Result: The
‘Choose a data measurement’ window opens. Select ‘Position, Ch 3&4’ and
click ‘OK’.

• In the ‘Definitions’ text area, put a negative sign “-“ in front of ‘x’. Click

‘Accept’. Result:
The calculation appears in the Data list.

60
 Display the Calculation of Motion for ‘Glider 2’ in the Graph
3. Display the calculation that shows the direction of motion for ‘Glider 2’.
• In DataStudio, click and drag ‘Run #1’ from the calculation in the Data list to
the Y axis of the plot of ‘Position’ for the second cart.

Result: The Graph display shows ‘Position’ for Glider 1 and

the calculation of position for Glider 2.

61
Find the Slope
1. Use the Graph display’s built-in analysis tools to find
the slope of the position vs. time plot just before and
just after the collision for each glider.

In DataStudio, do the following:

• In the plot for ‘Glider 1’, select a small portion just before collision (e.g.,
about 10 or 15 data points before the peak).
• Click the ‘Fit’ menu and select ‘Linear’. Record the slope as the ‘Velocity
Before Collision’ for ‘Glider 1’.
• Repeat the process for a small portion of the plot just after collision and
record the slope as the ‘Velocity After Collision’ for ‘Glider 1’.
• Do the same analysis for the plot of motion for ‘Glider 2’.
2. Calculate the momentum before and after the collision for each glider.
Calculate the total momentum before and after the collision.
3. Calculate the percentage difference between the total momentum before
and the total momentum after the collision.

pTotalBefore − pTotal After

% difference = x 100%
pTotalBefore

Record your results in the Lab Report section.

62
 Name: _________________________ Date: _____________
Instructor: _____________________ Group Members: ____________

__________________________________________________

Lab Report - Conservation of Linear Momentum

What Do You Think?

How does the total momentum of two carts before an elastic collision
compare to the total momentum of two carts after the collision?

Data Table

Item Cart 1 Cart 2

mass (kg)
velocity before (m/s)
momentum before
(kg•m/s)
velocity after (m/s)
momentum after
(kg•m/s)

total momentum before total momentumafter percent difference

Questions
1. How does the total momentum before the collision compare to the total
momentum after the collision?

2. What factors do think may cause there to be a difference between the

momentum before and the momentum after collision?

63
Optional

Repeat the experiment for different speeds. Find the speeds for which the
difference in momentum before and after collision is least. Repeat the experiment
with different masses added to the carts.

Extension

Use the Calculator Window to create a formula for the momentum of each cart.
Add a plot to the Graph or change one of the existing plots so it displays
Momentum vs. Time. Compare the momentum before the collision to the
momentum after the collision.

64
 Name: _________________________ Date: _____________
Instructor: _____________________ Group Members: ____________

__________________________________________________

Lab 8 Atwood's Machine

Concept DataStudio
Newton's Laws P10 Atwood’s.DS

Equipment Needed Qty Equipment Needed Qty

Photogate/Pulley System (ME-6838) 1 String (SE-8050) 1
Mass and Hanger Set (ME-8967) 1 Universal Table Clamp (ME-9376B) 1

What Do You Think?

The purpose of this activity is to study the relationship among force, mass, and
acceleration using an Atwood’s Machine apparatus. What is a real world
application of Atwood's Machine?

Take time to answer this question in the Lab Report section.

Background

The acceleration of an object depends on the net applied force and the object’s
mass. In an Atwood's Machine, the difference in weight between two hanging
masses determines the net force acting on the system of both masses. This net
force accelerates both of the hanging masses; the heavier mass is accelerated
downward, and the lighter mass is accelerated upward.

Pulley
T T

Mass 2 M1 M2

Mass 1
M1g M2 g

65
Based on the above free body diagram, T is the tension in the string, M2 > M1,
and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Taking the convention that up is positive
and down is negative, the net force equations for M1 and M2 are:

T1 − M 1 g = Fnet = M1 a
T2 − M2 g = Fnet = M2 (− a)

Assuming that the pulley is massless and frictionless, and the string has no mass
and doesn’t stretch, let T 1 = T 2. Solving for a, the acceleration of the system of
both masses, the theoretical acceleration is g times the difference in mass
divided by the total mass:

⎛ M − M1 ⎞
a = g⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ M1 + M 2 ⎠

SAFETY REMINDERS
• Follow all directions for using the equipment.

For You To Do

Use the Photogate/Pulley System to measure the motion of both masses as one
moves up and the other moves down. Use DataStudio to record the changing
speed of the masses as they move. The slope of the graph of velocity vs. time is
the acceleration of the system.

PART I: Computer Setup

1. Connect the ScienceWorkshop interface to the
S
ci
en
ce
W
or
ks
ho
p™
D

computer, turn on the interface, and turn on the

A
TA
LO
G
G
IN
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IN
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computer.
500
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2. Connect the Photogate’s phone plug to Digital S

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Channel 1 on the interface.

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ce

3. Open Data Studio to P10 Atwood’s DS:

• The DataStudio document has a Workbook display. Read the instructions in
the Workbook.

66
• Note: The spoke arc length for the Pulley is set at 0.015 m. If you are using
a different pulley, change the spoke arc length in the sensor window by
double clicking on the sensor’s icon in the Experiment Setup window.

PART II: Sensor Calibration and Equipment Setup

• You do not need to calibrate the sensor.
1. Mount the clamp to the edge of a table.
2. Use the Pulley Mounting Rod to attach the Pulley to the tab on the
Photogate.
3. Place Photogate/Pulley in the clamp so that the rod is horizontal.
4. Use a piece of string about 10 cm longer than the distance from the top of
the pulley to the floor. Place the string in the groove of the pulley.
5. Fasten mass hangers to each end of the string.
• To attach the string to the hanger, form a loop at the end of the string and
tie it back on itself to ‘knot it’ or wrap the string about 5 times around the
notch in the mass hanger.
6. Place five to six masses from your mass set, totaling (roughly) 100 grams of
mass on one mass hanger and record the
total mass as M1 in the Data Table in the
Lab Report section. Be sure to include the
5 grams from the mass hanger in the
total mass. On the other mass hanger,
place about six masses, totaling
slightly more mass than M1. Record this
total mass of the masses and mass
hanger as M2 in the Data Table in the
Lab Report section.

67
 7. Move the M2 mass hanger of upward until the M1 mass hanger
almost touches the floor. Hold the M2 mass hanger to keep it from falling.
Turn the pulley so that the Photogate beam is unblocked (the red light-
emitting diode (LED) on the Photogate does not light).

PART IIIA: Data Recording – Constant Total Mass

1. Release the M2 mass hanger and let it fall. Start recording data.
2. Stop recording just before the M2 mass hanger reaches the floor.
• Do not let the upward moving mass hit the Pulley!
• “Run #1” will appear in the Data list.
3. For Run #2, move a mass from the M2 mass hanger to the M1 mass
hanger. This process changes the net force without changing the total
system mass. Record the new total mass for each hanger with masses in
the Data Table in the Lab Report section. Allow the mass to fall. Begin data
recording. Stop recording data just before the hanger reaches the floor.
4. Repeat the above step to create three more mass combinations. For each
run, the net force changes but the total mass of the system remains
constant.

PART IIIB: Data Recording – Constant Net Force

1. Arrange the masses as they were for Run #1. Now, change the total mass
of the system but keep the net force the same. To do this, add exactly the
same amount of additional mass to both mass hangers.
• Make sure that the difference in mass is the same as it was for the
beginning of Part IIIA.

68
2. Add approximately 10 grams to each mass hanger. Record the new total
mass for each hanger with masses in the Data Table in the Lab Report
section. Release the M2 mass hanger and let it fall. Start data recording.
Stop recording just before the M2 mass hanger reaches the floor.
3. Repeat the above step to create three more data runs. For each data run,
the net force remains the same, but the total mass of the system changes.

Analyzing the Data

1. Determine the experimental acceleration for each of the data runs.

• Click in the Graph display to make it active. Find the slope of the velocity
vs. time plot, the average acceleration of the masses.
• In DataStudio, select Run #1 from the Data Menu ( ) in the Graph
display. If multiple data runs are showing, first select No Data from the Data

Menu and then select Run #1. Click the “Scale to fit” button ( ) to rescale
the Graph axes to fit the data. Next, click the ‘Fit’ menu button ( ).
Select ‘Linear’.
• Record the slope of the linear fit in the Data Table in the Lab Report
section. Repeat the above procedure for each of the remaining 9 data runs.
2. For each of the data runs, using the measured mass values, calculate and
record the net force in the Data Table in the Lab Report section.
Fnet = ( M2 − M1 ) g
3. Calculate and record the total mass in the Data Table.
4. Using the total mass and net force, calculate the theoretical acceleration
using:
Fnet
a=
M1 + M2
5. For each data run, calculate and record the percent difference between the
experimental acceleration and the theoretical acceleration.

Record your results in the Lab Report section.

69
 Name: _________________________ Date: _____________
Instructor: _____________________ Group Members: ____________

__________________________________________________

Lab Report - Atwood's Machine

What Do You Think?

What is a real world application of Atwood's Machine?

Data Table: Constant Total Mass

Run M1 M2 aexp Fnet M1+ M2 atheory Percent

(kg) (kg) (m/s2) (N) (kg) (m/s2) difference
Run #1
Run #2
Run #3
Run #4
Run #5
Data Table: Constant Net Force

Run M1 M2 aexp Fnet M1+ M2 atheory Percent

(kg) (kg) (m/s2) (N) (kg) (m/s2) difference
Run #6
Run #7
Run #8
Run #9
Run #10

Questions
1. Compare the experimental acceleration with the theoretical acceleration by
determining the percentage difference. What are some reasons that would
account for this percent difference?

70
2. For the Constant Total Mass data, plot a graph of Fnet vs. aexp. Note:
Include a negative sign for acceleration values when M1 > M2. Attach your
plot to the Lab Report.

3. Draw the best-fit line on your plot. What does the slope of the best-fit line
represent?

4. How does the Force vs. Acceleration plot relate to Newton’s Second Law?

71
 Name: _________________________ Date: _____________
Instructor: _____________________ Group Members: ____________

__________________________________________________

Lab 9 Kinetic Friction

Concept DataStudio
Newton’s Laws P21 Kinetic Friction.DS

Equipment Needed Qty Equipment Needed Qty

Photogate/Pulley System (ME-6838) 1 Mass and Hanger Set (ME-8967) 1
Balance (SE-8723) 1 String (SE-8050) 2m
Friction Block w/ hook (003-04708) 1 Universal Table Clamp (ME-9376) 1

What Do You Think?

In relation to the direction of motion, in which direction does the kinetic frictional
force act?

Take time to answer the ‘What Do You Think?’ question(s) in the Lab
Report section.

Background

The block of mass M is placed on a level table connected by a string to a mass

(m) hanging over a pulley. As the mass is released and starts to fall the block will
slide across the table.
Treating both masses together as one system, the free-body diagram includes
two forces: the force of gravity pulling on mass m and the kinetic friction acting on
mass M. According to Newton’s Second Law, the vector sum of the forces equals
the total mass of the system times the acceleration of the system.
∑ F = mg − F k = ( M + m )a
where Fk is the force of kinetic friction which is given by:
Fk = µ k N
where µk is the coefficient of kinetic friction and N is the normal force acting on
the block:
N = Mg

72
Solving for the coefficient of kinetic friction gives:
mg − (M + m )a
µk =
Mg
In general, the coefficient of kinetic friction for the block depends only on the type
of materials that are rubbing together.

SAFETY REMINDER
• Follow the directions for using the equipment.

For You To Do

Use the Photogate/Pulley System to study how the coefficient of kinetic friction
for an object depends on the normal force between the surfaces, the area of
contact between the surfaces, the types of materials making contact, and the
relative speed of the surfaces.

PART I: Computer Setup

1. Connect the ScienceWorkshop interface to the Sc
ien
ce
Wo

computer, turn on the interface, and turn on the

rks
ho
p™
DA
TA
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INS

computer.
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500 NS
PA In
scieSC terfa
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PAAL
AN
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ntificGOCH
AN

2. Connect the Photogate’s phone plug to Digital

NEL
S

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300 p™

Channel 1 on the interface.

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3. Open Data Studio to P21, Kinetic Friction.

• The DataStudio document has a Workbook display. Read the instructions in

the Workbook.
• Note: The spoke arc length for the Photogate/Pulley System is set at 0.015
m. If you are using a different pulley, change the spoke arc length in the
sensor window by double clicking on the Smart Pulley icon in the
Experiment setup window.

PART II: Sensor Calibration and Equipment Setup

• You do not need to calibrate the Photogate/Pulley System.
1. Use the Pulley Mounting Rod to attach the Pulley to the tab on the
Photogate.
2. Use the Universal Table Clamp to mount the pulley rod vertically at the
edge of a horizontal surface, such as a tabletop.
3. Measure the mass of the Friction Block. Record the mass in the Data Table
in the Lab Report section.

73
4. Use a piece of string that is about 10 centimeters longer than the distance
from the top of the horizontal surface to the floor. Attach one end of the
string to the block.
5. Put the string in the groove of the pulley. Attach the mass hanger to the
other end of the string. Set up the block and Photogate/Pulley System as
shown. If you are using a PASCO mass hanger, you can attach the string to
the mass hanger by wrapping the string through the notch three or four
times.
PART IIIA: Data Recording – Large, Smooth Surface
1. Place the block so its largest smooth side is on the horizontal surface.
2. Put enough mass on the mass hanger so that the block will slide on the
surface without needing an initial push. Measure and record the value of the
TOTAL hanging mass (remember to include the mass of the hanger).
3. Pull the block away from the Photogate/Pulley System until the hanging
mass is almost up to the pulley. Hold the block in place. Turn the pulley so
the photogate’s beam is not blocked (light-emitting diode on the photogate
is not lit).
4. Begin data recording.
5. Release the block.
6. End data recording before the block hits the pulley. Do not let the block hit
the pulley.
• The data will appear as Run #1.
7. Repeat the procedure to obtain a second run of data for the same hanging
mass and surface.
• The data will appear as Run #2.

PART IIIB: Data Recording – Different Mass of Block

1. Double the mass of the block by placing a mass approximately equal to the
mass of the block on top of the block.

74
2. Measure and record the total mass (M) of the block and additional mass in
the Data Table.
3. Double the hanging mass. Measure and record the total hanging mass (m)
in the Data Table.
4. Record one run of data as before to see how the different mass affects the
coefficient of kinetic friction.
PART IIIC: Data Recording – Different Surface Area
1. Remove the additional mass from the block and from the mass hanger to
return the block and mass hanger to their original state from Part IIIA.
2. Place the block so its smallest smooth side is on the horizontal surface.
3. Record data. Compare this run to the data from Part IIIA.

PART IIID: Data Recording – Different Surface Material

1. Place the block so its largest “rough” side is on the horizontal surface.
2. Put enough mass on the mass hanger so that the block will slide on the
surface without needing an initial push. Measure and record the value of the
TOTAL hanging mass in the Data Table in the Lab Report section.
Remember to include the mass of the hanger.
3. Record one run of data as before to see how the different material affects
the coefficient of kinetic friction.
4. Place the block so its smallest “rough” side is on the horizontal surface.
5. Record data using the same hanging mass you used for the largest “rough”
side so you can compare this run to the data for the largest “rough” side.

PART IIIE: Data Recording – Different Hanging Mass

1. Return the block to the original orientation as in Part IIIA (largest smooth
side down).
2. Put an amount of mass on the hanger that is larger than the amount you
used in Part IIIA. Measure and record the total hanging mass in the Data
Table.
3. Record data as in Part IIIA.
4. Repeat the process using two larger totals for the hanging mass. Be sure to
measure and record the total hanging mass for all three trials.

75
Data Recording Summary

Run # PART & DESCRIPTION

1 IIIA, Largest smooth side of block
2 IIIA, Largest smooth side of block
3 IIIB, Larger mass of block and hanging mass
4 IIIC, Smallest smooth side of block
5 IIID, Largest rough side of block
6 IIID, Smallest rough side of block
7 IIIE, Larger hanging mass 1
8 IIIE, Larger hanging mass 2
9 IIIE, Larger hanging mass 3

Analyzing the Data

1. Determine the experimental acceleration for each of the data runs.
• Click in the Graph display to make it active. Find the slope of the velocity
vs. time plot, the average acceleration of the block.
In DataStudio, select Run #1 from the Data Menu ( ) in the Graph
display. If multiple data runs are showing, first select No Data from the Data

Menu and then select Run #1. Click the “Scale to fit” button ( ) to rescale
the Graph axes to fit the data. Next, click the ‘Fit’ menu button ( ).
Select ‘Linear’.
• Record the slope of the linear fit in the Data Table in the Lab Report
section. Repeat the above procedure for each of the remaining data runs.
2. Using the mass values and the acceleration value, determine and record
the coefficient of kinetic friction for each data run in the Data Table.

Record your results in the Lab Report section.

76
 Name: _________________________ Date: _____________
Instructor: _____________________ Group Members: ____________

__________________________________________________

Lab Report - Kinetic Friction

What Do You Think?

In relation to the direction of motion, in which direction does the kinetic

frictional force act?

Data Table:

Run M m aexp µk
total block mass total hanging acceleration coefficient of
(kg) mass
(m/s2) friction
(kg)
Run #1
Run #2
Run #3
Run #4
Run #5
Run #6
Run #7
Run #8
Run #9

Summary:

Run # Part and Description µk

1 IIIA, Largest smooth side of block
2 IIIA, Largest smooth side of block
3 IIIB, Larger mass of block
4 IIIC, Smallest smooth side of block
5 IIID, Largest rough side of block
6 IIID, Smallest rough side of block
7 IIIE, Larger hanging mass 1
8 IIIE, Larger hanging mass 2
9 IIIE, Larger hanging mass 3

77
Questions
1. How does the coefficient of kinetic friction vary with the mass of the block?

2. How does the coefficient of kinetic friction vary with the area of contact
between the block and the horizontal surface?

3. How does the coefficient of kinetic friction vary with the type of material
between the block and the horizontal surface?

4. When you used the different type of material, how does the coefficient of
kinetic friction vary with the area of contact between the block and the
horizontal surface?

5. How does the coefficient of kinetic friction vary as the speed varied due to
the different hanging masses?

6. What is the relationship between the coefficient of kinetic friction and the
mass, surface area, or speed of the object?

7. When the mass of the block is increased, does the force of kinetic friction
increase? Why?

78
 Name: _________________________ Date: _____________
Instructor: _____________________ Group Members: ____________
••__________________________________________________

Lab 10 Angular Velocity

79
80
81
 Name: _________________________ Date: _____________
Instructor: _____________________ Group Members: ____________
••__________________________________________________

Lab 10B Angular Acceleration

82
83
84
 Name: _________________________ Date: _____________
Instructor: _____________________ Group Members: ____________

__________________________________________________

Lab 11 Centripetal Force on a Pendulum

Concept: Centripetal Force P26 Centripetal Force.DS

Equipment Needed Qty Equipment Needed Qty

Economy Force Sensor (CI-6746) 1 Clamp, right angle (SE-9444) 2
Photogate (ME-9204B) 1 Mass and Hanger Set (ME-8967) 1
Balance (SE-8723) 1 Pendulum bob 1
Base and Support Rod (ME-9355) 1 String (SE-8050) 1m
Calipers (SF-8711) 1 Support Rod (ME-8736) 1

What Do You Think?

What are the factors that affect the centripetal force on a pendulum bob as the
pendulum swings back and forth? Does the centripetal force depend on how fast
the pendulum bob is swinging?

Take time to answer the ‘What Do You Think?’ question(s) in the Lab
Report section.

Background

A pendulum bob follows a circular path. Therefore, it is acted

on by a centripetal (“center-seeking”) force. In the case of the
pendulum, the tension in the string causes the bob to follow T = tension
the circular path. At the bottom of the pendulum’s swing the
net force on the bob is the combination of the tension in the mg = weight
string and the force due to gravity.
From Newton’s Second Law, Σ F = T − mg = ma = Fc
where T is the tension in the string, m is the mass of the pendulum bob, g
is the acceleration due to gravity, and Fc is the centripetal force.
The Force Sensor will be zeroed when the pendulum is at rest in its
equilibrium position (when T = mg). Thus the force measured by the Force
Sensor when the pendulum passes through the lowest point of the swing is
equal to the centripetal force Fc.
The centripetal force can also be found using the speed, v, of the bob as it
passes through the lowest point of the swing using:
v2
Fc = m
r

79 85
where r is the radius of the circular path which, in this case, is equal to the length
of the pendulum.

SAFETY REMINDER
• Follow the directions for using the equipment.

For You To Do
Use the Force Sensor to measure the centripetal force on a pendulum bob at the
lowest point of its swing. Use the Photogate to measure the time that the
pendulum bob blocks the Photogate beam. Enter the value for the diameter of
the pendulum bob. For the bottom of the pendulum swing, DataStudio calculates
and displays the speed of the pendulum bob and the centripetal force on the
pendulum.

PART I: Computer Setup

Sc

1. Connect the ScienceWorkshop interface to the

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computer, turn on the interface, and turn on the

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computer.
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2. Connect the Photogate’s phone plug to Digital

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Channel 1.
3. Connect the DIN plug of the Force Sensor to
Analog Channel A.
4. Open the Data Studio document P26 Centripetal Force.DS
• The DataStudio document has a Workbook display. Read the instructions in
the Workbook.
• Data recording is set at 100 Hz for the Force Sensor.

PART II: Sensor Calibration and Equipment Setup

• You do not need to calibrate the Photogate.
• To calibrate the Force Sensor, refer to the description in the Force Sensor
Manual.
1. Measure the value of the diameter of the pendulum bob. Record the
diameter in the Data Table in the Lab Report section.
2. Enter the diameter into the software.
• In DataStudio, double click on the Vel
calculation in the Summary Window.
The Calculator window will open. The
window shows the calculation for
velocity.

80

86
 The pendulum width is stored as an ‘Experiment Constant’. If the diameter
for the pendulum is different than the value listed, highlight the width value
in the ‘Value’ window and type in diameter of the pendulum.
Click the ‘Accept’ button to save your change.
Close the Experiment Calculator window.
3. Mount the Force Sensor on a horizontal rod with the hook end down.
4. Measure the mass of the pendulum bob. Record the mass in the Data
Table in the Lab Report section.
5. To make the pendulum, use a piece of string that is about one meter long.
Tie one end of the string to the hook on the Force Sensor and tie the other
end to the pendulum bob.
6. Arrange the Photogate so the pendulum bob blocks the Photogate’s beam
when the bob is at rest. The center of mass of the
pendulum bob should be approximately at the
same height as the Photogate beam.
7. Measure the length of the pendulum from the
bottom of the Force Sensor’s hook to the middle
of the pendulum bob. Record the length of the
pendulum in the Data Table.
• Practice swinging the pendulum bob. Pull the
pendulum bob to the side about 15 to 20
centimeters. Gently release the bob so it swings
through the Photogate as smoothly as possible.
The middle of the pendulum should break the
photogate beam. Adjust the position of the
Photogate if necessary.
• Do not let the pendulum bob hit the Photogate. ASSEMBLY NO.003-06268
PHOTOGATE HEAD ®

PART III: Data Recording

1. When the pendulum bob is at rest, zero the Force
Sensor by pressing the tare button.
2. Set the pendulum in motion. Let the pendulum swing back-and-forth several
times to allow any oscillations to damp out.
3. Begin recording data.
4. Record data for about 20 seconds. End data recording.

81 87
Analyzing the Data
1. Click on the Graph Display to make it active. Rescale the Graph axes to fit
the data.

• In DataStudio, click on the ‘Scale to Fit’ button ( ).

2. Find the maximum centripetal force and corresponding velocity value.
In DataStudio, click the Force vs. Time plot to make it active. Click the ‘Smart
Tool’ button ( ).
• Move the Smart Tool to the first trough in the plot of Force versus Time and
read the value of force. Record the absolute value in the Data Table in the
Lab Report section.
• Click on the plot of Velocity vs. Time and click on the Smart Tool button. A
second Smart Tool will appear. Place the tool at the velocity point that
corresponds in time to the trough you measured in the plot of centripetal
force. Record the value of speed in the Data Table.
3. Repeat the data analysis process for four more troughs on the plot of
centripetal force. Record the maximum centripetal force and the
corresponding speed in the Data Table in the Lab Report section.
4. For each value of speed you measured, calculate the centripetal force using
the mass, speed, and length of the pendulum. Record the calculated value
of centripetal force in the Data Table.
5. Calculate the percent difference between the measured centripetal force
and the calculated centripetal force for each set of points. Record the
percent differences in the Data Table.

Record your results in the Lab Report section.

82 88
 Name: _________________________ Date: _____________
Instructor: _____________________ Group Members: ____________

__________________________________________________

Lab Report - Centripetal Force on a Pendulum

What Do You Think?

What are the factors that affect the centripetal force on a pendulum bob as the
pendulum swings back and forth? Does the centripetal force depend on how fast
the pendulum bob is swinging?

Data Tables

Item Value
Diameter

Mass
Length

Points Fc, measured (N) v (m/s) Fc, calculated (N) % difference

1
2
3
4
5

Questions
1. How do your measured values of centripetal force compare to the
calculated values of centripetal force?

2. What are possible reasons for the differences between the measured and calculated
values of centripetal force?

83 89
Optional
• Try a different mass value for the pendulum bob or a different length
for the pendulum or change the speed of the pendulum and repeat the
data recording process.

Optional Data Tables

Item Value
Diameter

Mass

Length

Points Fc, measured (N) v (m/s) Fc, calculated (N) % difference

1
2
3
4
5

Questions
1. How do your measured values of centripetal force compare to the
calculated values of centripetal force?

2. How do the centripetal force values in the optional activity compare with
the values from the original activity?

84 90
Lab 12 Calorimetry
Theory:

This is an experiment concerning energy exchanges, specifically energy in

the form of heat. The total energy of the system is conserved. In this
experiment, heat will be exchanged, moving from the hot water to the ice
and to the calorimeter itself. Part of the heat transfer involves changing the
temperature of both the hot water and the ice, bringing them into
equilibrium, and some heat transfer occurs by changing the phase of the
water from ice to liquid.

Σ Qi = 0

micecice∆t1 + miceλice + micecH2O ∆t2 +

mhot H2O cH2O ∆t3 + mAl cupcAl ∆t4 = 0

mice = mass of ice ∆t1 = 0° - initial temp of ice

cice = specific heat of ice
λice = latent heat of fusion ∆t2 = teq – 0° (Temperature change
cH2O = specific heat of water of melted ice from zero to the final
mhot H2O= mass of hot water temp)
mAl cup= mass of aluminum cup
insert ∆t3 = teq – initial temp of hot water
cAl = specific heat of aluminum
∆t4 = teq of aluminum cup – initial
∆t = ∆tfinal - ∆ti temp of cup
teq = equilibrium temperature

Equipment:

85 91
Calorimeter (insulated flask) Ice
Thermometer Hot water Hot water heater
Balance Thermoses for ice and hot water

Procedure:
I. Record the temperature of the aluminum cup insert.
II. Mass of calorimeter and calorimeter components.
1. Determine the mass of the calorimeter: just the metal, first the insert
cup and then the outer flask. Record.
2. Record the mass of the stirrer.
3. Place the cup inside the larger aluminum flask.
4. Carefully place the thermometer through the stopper in the lid of the
insulated flask. Push the stirrer through hole in the lid. Place the lid,
with the thermometer and the stirrer, on the base.
5. Measure the mass of the calorimeter (flask, cup, lid, etc.). Record.
III. Ice.
6. Determine the temperature of the ice. Record. (The ice will be
brought to you with the thermometer already in the ice.)
7. Add the ice you are given to the calorimeter. Close quickly. Measure
the total mass. Record.
IV. Hot Water
8. Determine the temperature of the hot water. (The hot water will be
brought to you with a thermometer already in the hot water.)
9. Measure the volume of the hot water in a warmed graduated cylinder;
convert the volume to mass: 1.0 ml = 1.0 g
10. Quickly add the hot water to the calorimeter. Cover immediately.
11. Gently stir the mixture with the stirring rod.

86 92
 12. Determine the theoretical equilibrium temperature (see Analysis,
below) while you’re waiting for the mix to equilibrate.
13. Wait for the temperature of the mix to come to equilibrium. Record
the final temp.
14. As soon as the ice has melted and the mix is stirred, record the final
or equilibrium temperature.

Analysis:
While the mix is coming to equilibrium, determine the theoretical
equilibrium temperature by using all the measurements you have taken and
substituting them into the conservation equation (p. 1), solving for teq. (A ∆t
in Kelvin is the same as a ∆t in Celcius, so it is not necessary to convert the
temperature for the conservation equation.) Compare this value to the value
you actually obtained. Why are the values different?

Use a percent error calculation. Convert the temperatures to Kelvin for the
percent error calculation.

93
87
 Name: _________________________ Date: ___________
Instructor: _______________________________________
Group Members: __________________________________
_________________________________________________

Calorimeter Data:
Temperature of calorimeter cup insert ________________
Mass of calorimeter cup insert ________________
Mass of calorimeter, metal only, outer flask ________________
Mass of stirring rod ________________
Mass of entire calorimeter: thermometer, thermos flask, cup, lid, plastic
ring, stopper
__________________
Mass of entire calorimeter with ice __________________
Mass of ice __________________

Temperature of ice __________________

Temperature of hot water ___________________

Volume of hot water ___________________
Mass of hot water ___________________

Final or equilibrium temperature of mix ___________________

cice = 2090 J/(kg K ) cAl = 900 J/ (kg K)

cH2O = 4186 J/( kg K ) λice = 33.5 x 104 J/kg

88 94
Calorimetry Questions
Questions taken from Physics Laboratory Experiments, Jerry D. Wilson,
4th Edition

1. The percent errors of your experimental values of the specific heats

may be quite large. Identify several sources of experimental error.

2. Why does it improve the accuracy of the experiment if the final

temperature of the system is near room temperature?

3. The specific heaat of aluminum is 0.22 cal/g-C °. What is the value

of the specific heat in (a) 0.22 kcal/kg –C °; (b) Btu/lb- F ° ? (Show
your calculations.

89
95
4. Explain how the unknown temperature of a hot piece of metal may
be determined by the method used today with the calorimeter.
(Assume cm , the specific heat of the metal, is known.)

5. Explain why specific heat is specific and how it gives a relative

indication of molecular configuration and bonding.

90
96
 Physics 1401 and 2126

Simple Harmonic Motion

The Simple Pendulum

Purpose: To determine the value of g using a simple pendulum and

empirical analysis.

Equipment:

• Two meters of string

• Weight
• Timer
• Meter stick
• Ring stand with perpendicular rod
for hanging string

Procedure:

1. Tie string tightly to rod.

2. Tie weight to other end of string so that the weight clears the
floor.

3. You’ll need to know and record the length of the string to the
nearest millimeter from the knot at the rod to the center of the
weight.

4. Pull the weight away from its rest position to about four
centimeters. This should be less than 10°. Let it swing once or
twice to be certain the swing is in a straight line, not in a circular
pattern. Also be certain that the string is swinging from the knot
at the bottom of the rod, and that the string that encircles the rod
is not moving.

5. Turn on the timer at the same instant the weight comes to the top
of its swing, which is the greatest displacement from rest position

91
97
 6. The pendulum has made one complete swing or cycle when the
weight has moved from one side to the other and back. Count
“one” when it has made one complete swing.

7. Continue to count the oscillations for thirty oscillations, stopping

the stopwatch precisely when the weight comes to the top of its
swing.

8. Record both the time and the number of oscillations.

9. Shorten the string and repeat the above steps. (Do this for ten
different lengths.)

Analysis: Have you wondered how the all the formulas in your
textbook were determined? After researching a phenomenon and
collecting data, the relationship between the variables can be
determined by graphing them in a variety of ways. You will get to
determine the mathematical relationship of g to L and T.

Tn = 4π2 L / g

1. Determine the formula by plotting 4π2 L vs Tn where n is:

a. 1/2
b. 1
c. 2

The graph which yields the straight line gives the correct formula.

92
98
Alternate Procedure

1. Use thread that is nearly as long as the distance from the floor to
the ceiling. Insert thread though a dense ball or tie around the
ball (more dense that a tennis ball: massive enough to keep the
string taut.)

2. Tie or affix the string to the ceiling or rod near the ceiling.

3. Repeat the procedure as above.

Other Possibilities:

1. Have the students investigate the relationship of the mass to the

period. Offer several different masses.
2. Investigate the consequences of using angle greater than 10°.

93
99
 Name: ______________________________ Date: _____________
Instructor: _____________________ Group Members: ____________
________________________________________________________

The Simple Pendulum

Length
(of string to Time # of Period
center of t cycles T T1/2 T2 4π2 L
weight) (m)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

100
94
Lab 14 Sound Waves: Harmonics in an Open-Ended Pipe

Purpose: To determine the speed of sound in air using a water-filled, open

ended pipe, a tuning fork, and the knowledge of harmonics.

Theory:

Sound waves are longitudinal waves, meaning that the direction of the
displacement or movement of the particles is in the same direction as the
propagation of the wave. Interference can occur in sound waves: when there is
constructive interference of reverberating waves, the result is increased sound
intensity.

If a tuning fork is struck, the fork vibrates, causing a compression of the air
particles moving spherically outward from the fork. When the fork oscillates
inward, it creates an area of rarefied air particles. A region of compressed air
followed by a region of rarefied air constitutes one wavelength.

If the fork is struck over a tube filled with water, a sector of this wave will be
captured by the tube. When the air particles hit the surface of water, most of
energy is reflected at the water’s surface due to the differences in the densities
of the air and the water.

With each vibration of the tuning fork, another spherical wave front moves
out from the fork, and a part of the new wave is also captured by the tube.
When the height of the water is adjusted so that an incoming (compressed air)
wave front is just meeting a reflected (compressed air) wave front at the open
end of the tube, the waves will interfere constructively. When this happens
over and over again each second, our ears can detect this constructive
interference as increased sound intensity: it gets loud!

101
95
Using our simple tube and a tuning fork, we can discover the speed that
sound travels in air. We know that:

v=fλ The velocity of any wave is directly proportional both to

the wavelength λ of the sound wave created by the tuning fork and f,
the frequency of vibration of the tuning fork. The frequency is printed
on the tuning fork. We can determine the wavelength by knowing a little
about harmonics, and by creating harmonics with our tube and tuning
fork.

Harmonics: The surface of the water is considered a node. In transverse

waves, the node occurs when the displacement is zero. Likewise, at the water’s
surface at which the wave is reflected, the net displacement of the wave is zero.
At the open end of the tube, the air is free to move, and this point is an
antinode. Multiple nodes and antinodes will exist in the tube.

L is the distance from the top of the tube to the surface of the water, which we
will measure with a meter stick. The first harmonic is the case in which there
is only one node and one antinode in the tube, and this is also called the
fundamental mode. In the case of an open ended tube, one wavelength of the
fundamental mode is four times the length of the tube from the top of the tube
to the water’s surface:

λ = 4L

Substituting into v = f λ,

f1 = v/ 4L

The frequencies of the third and fifth harmonics are 3f1, 5 f1... That is, in
a pipe closed at one end and open at the other, only odd harmonics are
present. These are given by

fn = n v/4L n = 1,3,5....

*Note: The diagrams in the textbook are helpful, but also somewhat
misleading, as the diagrams are drawn as though the waves are
transverse. Imagine regions of compressed air molecules followed by
rarefied air moving through the tube to get a better visual picture.

102
96
Equipment:

Transparent Open-Ended Water

Tube
Bucket
Meter stick
Tuning forks
Ring stand and clamp
Pitcher
Procedure:

1. Secure the tube vertically to the ring stand. Clamp the tuning fork just
above the tube. Attach amplifier to the tube, if an amplifier is available.

2. Fill pitcher with water. If your tube does not have a valve, have one
partner hold their thumb over the bottom of the drain tube. Pour water
into the tube to within 5 cm of the top.

3. Strike tuning fork over the top of the tube.

4. First run: Drain water quickly from the tube, and listen closely for the
sound intensity to increase. Make note of the approximate height of the
water when that first “harmonic” is heard.

5. Continue to drain the water rather quickly, and a second harmonic will
be heard. Make note of the approximate height of the water.

6. Second run: Refill the tube with water.

7. Quickly run the water out to five or six cm above where the first
harmonic was heard. Then allow the water to slowly drain, listening for
the amplitude of the sound to maximize. Record the height of the water
when the sound peaks.

8. You may strike the tuning fork again.

9. Again, run the water down quickly to within five or six cm of the
point of the second harmonic. Then drain the water slowly, and record
the height of the water when the amplitude of the sound peaks again.

10. If you are careful, you may be able to find a third harmonic.
11. Repeat the procedure using two other tuning forks.

103
97
 Name: ____________________________________ Date: _____________
Instructor: _______________________ Group Members: ________________
______________________________________________________________

Harmonics Tables
Table 1

F T L λ

Frequency of Length from Top of Tube (in meters)

Tuning Fork
L1= λ/4

L2 =3λ/4

L3 =5λ/4

Σ=

Avg. λ=

98
104
 Name: ____________________________________

Table 2

F T L λ (in meters)

Frequency of Length from Top of Tube

Tuning Fork
L1= λ/4

L2 =3λ/4

L3 =5λ/4

Σ=

Avg. λ=

Table 3

F T L λ (in meters)

Frequency of Length from Top of Tube

Tuning Fork
L1= λ/4

L2 =3λ/4

L3 =5λ/4

Σ=

Avg. λ=

99
105
Analysis:

Knowing that

v=fλ=f/T

The speed of sound can be determined by making a graph, plotting f

versus T, with f on the ordinate (y axis) and T on the abscissa (x axis).
For each tuning fork you used, plot that frequency and the corresponding
average wavelength calculated in your tables. After plotting these three
points on the graph, find the best line to fit the data. The slope of the line
is the velocity of sound.

Compare what you discovered with the known velocity of sound in air of
343 m/s.

100 106