Repeat Title

Repeat Intro Department for Environment and Heritage

Maintenance and Repair of Older

Buildings in South Australia

Technical Note 3.1

1 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia www.environment.sa.gov.au

Contents
Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings
in South Australia

1 Introduction
The importance of maintenance
1.1 The aims of this guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 What is maintenance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Why maintain a building? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 A maintenance strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Conserving cultural significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Development approval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 Financial assistance and incentives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 Routine Maintenance
A program of basic tasks through the seasons
2.1 Summer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Autumn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Winter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3 The Building’s Exterior

What to look for on the outside
3.1 Roof and gutters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2 Stormwater disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3 Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.4 Woodwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.5 Verandahs and balconies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.6 Paving and landscaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

4 The Building’s Interior

What to look for on the inside
4.1 Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.2 Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.3 Ceilings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.4 Joinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.5 Building services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

5 Out of Sight - Out of Mind?

What to look for under the floor and in the roof space
5.1 The sub-floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.2 The roof space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.3 Structural adequacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

6 Technical Supplement
Understanding your building and the forces at work on it
6.1 Good housekeeping practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.2 Termites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.3 Borers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.4 Wood rot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.5 Rising damp & salt attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.6 Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

7 Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

1. Introduction
Repeating Title
Repeat
TheIntro
importance of maintenance

1.1 The aims of 1.2 What is

this guide maintenance?
This publication provides basic advice to owners Maintenance is one process which helps to
and managers/custodians of older buildings. It conserve a place, in conjunction with other
covers essential maintenance issues and provides a processes such as:
guide to problem solving. It is intended as a starting • preservation
point and does not replace expert professional
• restoration
advice. It aims to:
• reconstruction
• help you develop a basic program of routine,
seasonal maintenance tasks • adaptation

• encourage you to be observant - to notice a The generally accepted approach in Australia

developing or potential problem early and not to conserving the cultural significance of historic
ignore it in the hope it will go away places is guided by the ‘Burra Charter’ , which 1

adopts the following definition:

• let you know what to look for and alert you
to the tell-tale signs of an impending problem Maintenance means the continuous protective
care of the fabric and setting of a place, and is
• guide you in what you can do yourself, and
to be distinguished from repair. Repair involves
when you should seek professional advice
restoration or reconstruction.
• help you better understand the advice you
These words have particular meanings within
receive from professionals and contractors,
the Burra Charter and the conservation industry
as a basis for assessing the merits and pitfalls
generally - see Conserving cultural significance
of various approaches and making sound
(Section 1.5). A distinction is made between
decisions about the care of your property
maintenance to prolong the life of individual
• encourage you to consider how any work elements and components, and repair to prolong
done to the place might impact on its cultural the life of the place as a whole through fixing or
significance, and how the conservation of its replacing damaged or unserviceable components.
cultural value can best be achieved.
For example:
The Heritage Branch of the Department for • maintenance would involve regular cleaning
Environment and Heritage provides a free to prolong a gutter’s life and function
professional advisory service on all matters –
• restoration would be re-fixing a gutter that
including conservation and maintenance – relating
had pulled away or fallen (ie repair without
to State Heritage Places, or to places located
introducing new materials)
within a State Heritage Area.
A number of councils employ Heritage Advisers • reconstruction would be replacing the gutter
who can give professional advice in relation to with a matching new one (ie repair using
State or Local heritage places. Alternatively, a new materials)
professional consultant specialising in heritage These definitions are useful in understanding the
conservation can be engaged. Contact your effect that different types of maintenance and
local Council or the Heritage Branch for further repair may have on the historic fabric of a place.
information. However, in dealing with the actual process of
organising and carrying out work, it is useful to
categorise them in another way:
• Preventative maintenance - anticipating what
needs to be done to keep deterioration at bay.
This is a pro-active process of planning ahead
to carry out basic tasks in order to prevent
predictable problems developing, such as

Australia ICOMOS 1999 The Australia ICOMOS Charter for Places of

1

Cultural Significance (the ‘Burra Charter’)

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 1

 blocked gutters or paint breakdown. The terms measures, such as cleaning and touching up
routine maintenance, cyclical maintenance, paintwork. The frequency required is invariably
programmed maintenance and housekeeping greater than for a modern building, but all
maintenance could also be applied. Work in buildings will benefit from appropriate routine and
this category is often carried out by the building preventative maintenance. Given timely regular
owner or manager. attention, an old building can return much pleasure
• Corrective maintenance - work necessary to with relatively little pain.
bring a building back from a deteriorated state
Another common belief is that a newly-restored
to an acceptable standard (eg treating rising
building should need no attention for many years
damp, repairing or replacing a gutter). This
to come. Again, this illustrates a failure to
is a reactive process to remedy faults which
differentiate between preventative actions and
have developed, usually as a result of lack of
repairs that arise from a lack of timely attention.
preventative maintenance. The description
A brand new gutter needs the leaves cleaned
minor or major repairs might also be used,
out of it as regularly as does a 50 year old gutter
and reference is sometimes made to deferred
- all buildings need preventative maintenance
maintenance when the corrective work arises
to prevent unnecessary future corrective
from a lack of timely action. Work in this
maintenance.
category will sometimes be performed by the
building owner/manager, but will often require
the attention of specialist tradespeople. 1.3 Why maintain
• Emergency corrective maintenance - work
necessary to safeguard the health, safety or
a building?
security of a building and/or its occupants A building is a major asset. Its value, both in
and requiring immediate response (such as a financial terms and in the satisfaction it brings
roof blown off in a storm, graffiti, or a broken to its users, is affected by its condition.
window). Again a reactive process, and by
its nature usually carried out by specialist
Suffering in silence
tradespeople. Sometimes a building sustains sudden and
immediate damage - a storm tears away a section
It should be noted that some works that fall into
of the roof or a falling tree branch demolishes a
‘Preventative’ or ‘Corrective’ categories in the
verandah - and repairs are carried out promptly to
context of this document would be classified
return the building to a serviceable condition and
as restoration or reconstruction under the Burra
to minimise any secondary damage, such as that
Charter definitions. The purpose of this document is
caused by further rainfall.
to encourage the maintenance of older buildings,
ranging from simple housekeeping matters that Most buildings escape such dramatic events in their
can be undertaken by the property owner, to tasks lives. They suffer instead from the sort of damage
requiring highly specialised expertise in restoration that goes unnoticed for years, each small fault
and reconstruction. Engaging contractors with the triggering a whole chain of consequences. The
right skills, experience and attitude will minimise changes are so gradual that they do not attract
the risk of serious and permanent damage to the attention until they become quite advanced.
building, and perhaps the extra expense of having Some owners will take notice at this stage; others
to re-do inappropriate work. will turn a blind eye because they are unsure what
to do, and only become concerned enough to
Common myths seek help once major damage reveals itself.
It is a common belief that older buildings are By this stage, what may have started, for instance,
maintenance-intensive, however, the more onerous as a build-up of leaves in a gutter has progressed
and expensive repairs are usually corrective to overflowing and small rust holes. This leads to
maintenance - the result of neglected or dampness in the fascia boards and wetting of the
inadequate preventative maintenance. This is work walls, and results eventually in the bottom falling
that should have been done sooner, but, through out of the gutter, a rotten fascia board, cracks
ignorance or inaction, has compounded into appearing in the wall, fretting of the internal plaster
more serious damage. and a termite infestation in the sub-floor timbers.
The condition of older buildings is best managed by An exaggeration perhaps (or perhaps not ....),
frequent preventative maintenance. This generally but a good illustration of how the lack of simple,
comprises simple and relatively inexpensive

2 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

cheap, regular maintenance such as gutter monitoring of the building’s condition. This
cleaning can potentially lead to far more serious involves periodic inspection to detect potential or
problems, both in the extent of damage and the developing problems. In the intervening periods,
cost of repairs. And in the case of historic buildings, keep a watchful eye on the visible areas of the
there is the added risk of a permanent loss of property during normal day-to-day use, and
integrity in the historic fabric of the place. be aware of any changes. These might include
A number of observations should be kept in mind paintwork starting to chalk or crack, mortar
when reading this guide: beginning to fret, stains or bulges appearing in
ceilings, doors binding or jamming, walls looking
• Deterioration is a gradual process, a silent
patchy, and so on.
and furtive destroyer of the materials of which
buildings are made This is the first step, but attempting to deal with the
visible symptoms is generally futile if the root cause
• It is easy to overlook small problems until they
of any change is not first identified and corrected.
become more serious - and more expensive
If the cause is left unattended, the symptoms will
• The regular expenditure of moderate amounts reappear and the work will need to be
of time and money on routine preventative done again.
maintenance is better for the building, and
A structured course of action should be to:
more cost-effective, than large injections of
capital for major repairs every 10 or 20 years • observe and note any visible symptoms (for
example, a stain on the ceiling)
• When maintenance of buildings is neglected
or postponed, major and expensive repairs • identify the underlying problem (in this case,
can result. Regular maintenance can greatly a roof leak due to a slipped slate)
reduce the expense associated with these • rectify the cause of the problem (refix the slate)
unnecessary repairs, and in many cases • rectify the visible symptom (seal and repaint
eliminate them completely. the ceiling).
The single most destructive element at work against Vigilance and prompt action will save money, limit
the fabric of older and historic buildings is water, the extent of damage and protect the historic
and the majority of maintenance and repair work value of the place.
required on these buildings is related to the effects
of dampness and moisture. An analysis of the topics Eliminating unnecessary
covered in this publication will reveal that, with maintenance
very few exceptions, the problems encountered
One aspect of developing a maintenance
in caring for an old building are influenced, either
strategy is to identify ways in which maintenance
directly or indirectly, by moisture. These include
requirements can be reduced. For example,
rusting, wood rot, staining, mould, rising damp, salt
stonework which has been painted over at some
attack, roof leaks, termite activity and cracking.
time in the past, for reasons of fashion and personal
We need to maintain and ‘service’ our historic
preference, is likely to require repainting every 5-10
buildings to ensure the best possible ‘performance’
years - even if it has been done well and there are
and lifespan.
no signs of any physical problems such as moisture
The historic value of a building is enhanced by entrapment and rising damp. The cost and effort
ensuring that new components are sympathetic of doing this should be weighed against the one-
to the old, and that work is also carried out off cost of having the paint removed to reveal the
by tradespeople having the appropriate skills, original stonework.
experience and attitude.
Eliminating the on-going cost of regular repainting
will save money in the long term, particularly if
1.4 A maintenance secondary effects such as rising damp are also
controlled in the process. There will also be a gain
strategy to the aesthetic integrity of the building.

A sensible and effective approach to maintenance This example involves eliminating non-original
is based on developing a strategy tailored to the change. In other cases, it might be justified to
needs of the building, and to the abilities and make changes to original fabric, particularly where
experience of the building owner or manager. The the gain to the long-term wellbeing of the place
building should be considered both as a whole and outweighs the loss of historic integrity. For example,
in terms of the durability of its individual parts. rebuilding a box gutter to a larger size and more
efficient configuration could resolve an ongoing
At the core of such a strategy is the regular

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 3

overflow problem, without significantly affecting Great care is needed in unfamiliar situations,
the physical integrity of the roof. which might also require attention to the following
safety issues:
The inspection process
Ladders
The key to looking after an older building is
• ensure a firm footing, safe angle, and a secure
vigilance. By keeping your eyes open for anything
purchase at the top
untoward, you will be able to deal with problems
in a timely and cost-effective manner. This may • wear footwear with heels to help prevent feet
mean a simple repair, such as a leaking pipe, slipping off the rungs
carried out straight away, or a forewarning of a • keep well clear of power cables
future major outlay, such as re-roofing, giving you • avoid over-stretching to either side
plenty of time to budget ahead for the work. or backwards.
How much, how often? Roofs
The ideal frequency of inspection and preventative • avoid fragile areas of roof covering
maintenance depends primarily on the recurrence • take care not to bend galvanised iron or crack
pattern of events such as gutter blockage, and slate/tiles when walking on them
on the life expectancy of the least durable
• use non-slip footwear
components of the building. These frequencies
will vary enormously - gutters might need cleaning • use caution with steeper roof pitches
four times a year; repainting of exterior woodwork and potentially slippery surfaces - consider the
could be on a four to five-year cycle; at the other use of crawl boards or similar
extreme, stonework, under favourable conditions, • use a rope or harness on ‘open’ roof slopes
might remain in good condition for 100 years or that have no parapet or similar to catch you
more before it needs repointing. at the bottom.
General awareness will save time at periodic formal Roof space
inspections. Rather than having to laboriously • ensure a firm footing and avoiding potentially
inspect the building from top to bottom, you need weak ceiling joists
only concentrate on the areas that cannot be
• keep good balance to avoid stepping on
monitored during normal use, such as the roof,
the ceiling surface
the roof space and the sub-floor. It is suggested
that the repeat period for each item requiring • wear protective clothing and a face mask
inspection or preventative action be set on the where dust or insulation fibres are a problem
conservative side at first. Over time, it will become • wear gloves to avoid splinters from roof timbers
clear whether a particular item can perhaps be left • take care with old electrical wiring (see Section
for a longer period between inspections. 4.5 for precautions concerning old rubber-
As a general rule, an overall inspection of older insulated cables).
buildings should be carried out annually to check
Hazardous materials
for problems such as potential roof leaks, failing
paintwork, blocked gutters or downpipes, termite Be aware that an older building might expose you
activity and the like. Certain maintenance tasks, to hazardous materials, both in your day-to-day
such as gutter cleaning, usually need doing at use of the place and when carrying out inspection,
least twice a year - more often where large trees maintenance and repair tasks.
are nearby. • Asbestos
Fibrous cement sheeting (or ‘fibro’ as it is more
Safety commonly known) has for many decades been
It is important to take care and be aware of a widely used and versatile building material.
personal safety when inspecting and maintaining Today’s product is safe, clean and ‘green’, but
your place. It is strongly recommended that a many older buildings constructed or renovated
suitably qualified, experienced and equipped prior to the early 1970s contain asbestos fibres
person be consulted from the outset in situations for reinforcement.
involving risks to personal safety (such as inspection The fibres are microscopically fine and readily
of the roof). inhaled. Their role in causing serious lung
If any task is likely to place you or others at risk, disease and cancer is now well documented.
don’t do it. Satisfy yourself that anyone working The material is considered to be of low risk while
on your behalf carries a current license and it remains undisturbed and in good condition,
appropriate insurance. but if the surface deteriorates or is drilled,

4 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

 disturbed or damaged, hazardous fibres • National Heritage Places are exceptional
are released. natural and cultural places which help give
Asbestos cement sheets may be present as a Australia its national identity. Their cultural
significance is protected under the EPBC Act.
lining for walls or eaves, or as a ceiling material.
• Commonwealth Heritage Places are natural,
Corrugated sheeting may have been used as
indigenous and historic heritage places on
the roof covering. If in doubt, have the material
Commonwealth lands and waters or under
professionally inspected and identified. Its
Australian Government control which are
removal and disposal is a task for an accredited
identified as having Commonwealth heritage
contractor.
significance. Protection is provided for under
Asbestos may also have been used as lagging the EPBC Act.
around water pipes for insulation, or as a • State Heritage Places and State Heritage
sprayed fire retardant. Areas are places considered of heritage
• Arsenic significance to the state. Protection is provided
Arsenic trioxide and other highly toxic for under the Heritage Places Act 1993 and the
hazardous chemicals may have been used Development Act 1993.
to treat termite infestation (see Section 6.2 for • Local Heritage Places and Local Heritage
Areas
further information).
The listing of local heritage places and areas is
• Lead managed by Local Councils and Planning
Various lead compounds were common SA under the provisions of the Development
constituents of early paints, and their use Act 1993.
continued until the 1970s. A painted surface Heritage lists that do not provide protection
that is chalking, flaking, peeling or chipped include:
constitutes an exposure risk to lead poisoning, • Register of the National Estate –The national
as does preparation of the surface by scraping, register of Australian historic, indigenous and
sanding or using a heat gun. natural heritage places from 1976 to 2003. The
The dust encountered in the roof space may National and Commonwealth Heritage Lists
also contain harmful concentrations of lead, have since taken over this role. Inclusion in the
particularly in locations near main roads. For RNE is a mark of recognition of the cultural
further information on lead in paints, refer to or natural qualities of a place, and does not
Technical Note 3.7; Painting of Older Buildings carry any obligations for reporting, referral or
approval for private owners
in South Australia, in the Heritage Conservation
• National Trust Register of Historic Buildings
series. A good introduction to the health risks of
(Information on 'recorded', 'classified' and
lead and how to deal with them can be found
uncategorised places. The Register was closed
in the Commonwealth Government publication
for new entries in 1989)
Lead Alert - facts: lead in house paint (see
• The Australian Historic Engineering Plaquing
Section 7; Further Reading).
Program of Engineers Australia
• The Royal Australian Institute of Architects
1.5 Conserving cultural (SA) Register of Notable 20th Century South
Australian Architecture
significance The Burra Charter
Cultural significance means the aesthetic, historic,
The Burra Charter defines the basic principles and
scientific or social significance of a place.
procedures to be followed to conserve places of
Levels of heritage listing cultural heritage significance in Australia.
Heritage lists identify places of cultural significance. The guiding principles are:
There are different levels of heritage protection
• do as much as necessary to care for the place
as well as various types of heritage lists. Some
and make it useable; but otherwise
lists provide protection for places, while others
•  hange as little as possible so that its cultural
c
acknowledge significance but provide no
significance is retained.
statutory protection.
A careful approach, based on a knowledge and
The following levels of heritage protection apply in
understanding of the place, is at the core of good
South Australia:
heritage conservation practice.
• World Heritage Places are places of
outstanding universal value. Protection of For more information about the Burra Charter see
Australian places is provided for under the the Australia ICOMOS (International Council on
Environment Protection and Biodiversity Monuments and Sites) website http://www.icomos.
Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). org/australia/burra.html

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 5

Planning to conserve 1.6 Development
cultural significance
The cultural significance of a place is expressed approval
in a tangible way through its physical material The Development Act 1993 defines development in
– or fabric. Changes to this material as a result of relation to a State Heritage Place as:
inappropriate repairs and maintenance, or other • the demolition, removal, conversion, alteration
alterations, can affect the cultural significance or painting of, or addition to, the place, or any
of a place. other work that could materially affect the
This is why it is important that a detailed heritage value of the place.
understanding of its cultural significance is required The definition for a local heritage place excludes
before planning work on a heritage place. painting but is otherwise the same.
Conservation (Management) Plans set out a
methodical process for investigating, identifying When is approval necessary?
and conserving the cultural significance of a The categories of demolition, removal, conversion,
place. A crucial step in planning major change to alteration and addition are fairly self-evident, but
significant places, even the simplest work on an most repairs and maintenance tasks are likely to fall
unlisted place can benefit from consideration of into the painting and other work categories.
these basic steps: Painting
Analysis The Act does not differentiate between external
• Gathering information - this might include and internal painting. In practice, however, a
locating drawings or documentary references, certain amount of discretion is usually applied to
tracing an oral history of the place, and internal painting. Carrying out internal painting
conducting a physical investigation to without Development Approval is generally
determine how it was originally built and how it tolerated, except in the case of original unpainted
has changed over time. surfaces, or where early finishes or decorative
• Assessing the information to identify what schemes remain (this includes wall papers and
makes the place significant, and how and to grained or polished woodwork). It is recommended
what degree this is represented in the fabric that you seek advice from your local Heritage
(including individual sections of the place and Adviser or from The Heritage Branch when planning
separate stages of construction). internal repainting, to determine whether approval
• Preparing a Statement of Cultural Significance will be required, and how to carry out the work.
- a summary of the aspects of significance. It is important that preparation techniques do not
Policy damage significant underlying finishes, that the
• Using the Statement of Cultural Significance as products used are compatible with each other
a basis, develop policies that will best conserve, and also with existing finishes, and that they do not
enrich and present the cultural significance of exacerbate problems such as rising damp.
a place. This might mean deciding to demolish The painting of a building’s exterior has a greater
later stages of building where they detract potential to influence heritage significance (and
from the significance of the place or reversing its perception), not least because of its greater
unsympathetic alterations. visibility to the public. Matters to be considered
Implementation are colours, textures and finishes, materials and
• Devising priorities, strategies and timelines to preparation techniques. Detailed guidance is given
achieve the outcomes identified by the policies in Technical Note 3.7 Painting of Older Buildings in
- the 'action' stage. South Australia.
Approval will not normally be granted for painting
of previously unpainted surfaces such as stonework
and brickwork. The removal of later paint finishes
from surfaces which were originally unpainted is
generally encouraged.
Other work
This could include anything from a minor repair
on a heritage-listed place through to a major
development some distance away affecting the
visual setting of a heritage place. In both cases
the heritage significance of the place may be
affected.

6 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

However, some types of work will generally not components and detailing – how well the
threaten heritage significance, for example: new matches the old in size, profile, physical
• repainting a worn or deteriorating exterior finish properties, colour, finish, texture and so on
in the same colour and type of paint • the suitability of modern alternatives to
• reroofing with appropriate materials traditional materials, products and methods
– for instance, how the physical and aesthetic
• internal redecoration where no significant
properties of modern roofing materials and
early finishes remain, and where the applied
trade practices compare against their early
finishes won’t have any adverse affects, such as
counterparts; or how modern mortars based on
aggravating rising damp
cement and hydrated lime shape up against
• general garden maintenance and landscaping traditional mixes using slaked lime
works, where the setting itself does not possess
• the degree of intervention to significant fabric
individual heritage significance and the overall
– whether the injection of a chemical damp-
character of the setting is maintained in
course preserves the integrity of the wall better
harmony with the place’s heritage qualities
than partial rebuilding for a physical damp
• maintenance items which do not involve any proof course.
change to significant fabric, or where the work
can be demonstrated to have no adverse The Development Approval
affect on heritage value. process
This is a guide only. Council interpretations of what The approval process set out in the Development
constitutes development under the Act may vary. Act 1993 is based on a system of provisional
You are advised to consult the Heritage Branch consents. When the necessary consents have been
or your local Heritage Adviser for advice when obtained Development Approval is granted.
considering any work, however minor. This also For repair and maintenance works, the consents
provides an opportunity for details of the work to required vary according to the heritage status of
be discussed informally and for agreement to be the place.
reached before plans become too advanced. Provisional Development Plan Consent – (planning
consent) is required for repairs and maintenance
Why is Development Approval on heritage places under the control of the
necessary? Development Act – that is, State Heritage Places
In the context of repairs and maintenance, the including properties within a State Heritage Area,
Development Approval process allows careful or local heritage places identified in a Council’s
consideration of how a particular item of work is Development Plan.
likely to affect the cultural significance of an Repair and maintenance work on a non-listed
historic place. place does not require Provisional Development
It also allows the opportunity to manage the Plan Consent if it does not constitute new
process of change. A heritage listing does not construction under the Act.
mean that a place becomes frozen in time. Other Provisional Building Rules Consent (Building
than in exceptional circumstances, where a place Consent) is required in addition to the planning
is highly significant as a ‘museum piece’, making consent if the repairs and maintenance constitute
considered changes to a heritage place to allow 'work', subject to the provisions of the Building
new or continued use is actively encouraged. Code of Australia. Examples include load-bearing
structural work or work on wet areas.
When assessing the impact of repair and
For a place not protected by heritage listing
maintenance work on the heritage value of a
building consent is usually the only one required.
place, the following aspects are considered: Various regulated trades such as plumbing and
• the extent to which the significance of the electrical work must also be carried out and
place is embodied in the fabric being repaired certified to Code requirements by licensed
or replaced contractors.
• whether the work affects the physical or historic Obtaining Development Approval for a
integrity of the component or of the place as heritage-listed place
a whole The following steps are typical:
• the extent of replacement versus repair – for 1. Consultation – Approach your Heritage Adviser
example, whether the rotted end of a barge or the Heritage Branch to determine the
board is patched or the whole board replaced details of the work, such as the necessary and
• the accuracy of reproduction in replacement desirable extent of repair, how this is to be

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 7

 carried out, what materials and methods should 6. Building Consent – If required, the assessment
be used, any specialised skills required, and can be carried out by Council’s building
possible pitfalls to avoid. department or by a registered private certifier.
2. Documentation – This is useful both to lodge In some cases, a heritage condition in the
with your development application and to Planning Consent might require further
obtain quotations. Depending on the work, the information to be provided and approved.
documentation might comprise drawings and 7. Approval – Once the necessary consents have
sketches, a written schedule of works, a written been obtained, Council issues a Development
specification and annotated photographs. Approval for the work, and the project can
3. Lodgement – After a final check with your proceed.
Heritage Adviser or the Heritage Branch, Further information on the planning process in
complete and lodge a development relation to heritage places can be found in the
application form and required documentation Planning Bulletin – Heritage (see Section 7;
with your local Council. The Council will advise Further Reading).
which consents are needed and the
applicable fees . 1.7 Financial assistance
4. Referral –the Development Act requires that
an application affecting a heritage place and incentives
is referred by Council to the local Heritage The listing of places of cultural significance
Adviser or to the Heritage Branch for a implies their value to the community as well as
report on the heritage issues. Depending on to the owner. Financial incentives and grants to
how well-conceived the proposal is and to owners recognise this shared interest, as well as
what extent any issues have been resolved encouraging good conservation practice.
before lodgement, the response might be For information about financial assistance refer to
unconditional support, acceptance subject the Heritage website http://www.heritage.sa.gov.au
to conditions, or a recommendation that or contact the Heritage Branch.
the application be amended before being
considered further.
5. Planning Consent – the Council considers
the heritage response and other applicable
Development Plan issues before making a
decision about the application. If Council
decide not to fully adopt the heritage
recommendation, the matter is referred to the
Development Assessment Commission, who
then direct Council on how to structure the
Planning Consent.

8 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

2. Routine Maintenance
A program of basic tasks through the seasons

As the seasons change, there are various tasks Subfloor vents

that you can undertake to keep your property Maintain sub-floor ventilation keeping vents clear
in good condition. They include cleaning the of debris and wind blown rubbish
gutters, clearing downpipes and drainage systems,
Drains
checking and repairing the roof and repainting
Rod out stormwater drains and test to ensure water
outside woodwork. Use the following as a guide to
drains away easily and quickly
developing your own program.

2.1 Summer 2.3 Winter

Gutters and downpipes

Fire safety Monitor to see they are free of leaves and debris.
Remove debris and flammable materials, check
Check operation during a heavy downpour
condition of door and window screens. Ensure
eaves are screened against entry of air borne
Drains
Ensure sumps and drains remain clear. Check
sparks and embers.
that stormwater does not accumulate against
Roof the building
Ensure roof is watertight and that flashings
and cappings are secured and in good repair.
Pruning
Cut back shrubs and creepers over winter
Watering
Periodic deep watering of lawns, garden beds and
trees can help stabilise soil moisture where cracking 2.4 Spring
on clay soils is a problem.

2.2 Autumn

Gutters and downpipes

Clean gutters and downpipes
Creepers
Roof Cut back creepers and ivy. Allow tendrils to dry
Inspect with binoculars from ground level before removing from walls
Leaves Subfloor vents
Clear fallen debris and leaves from gutters, Check to ensure debris is cleaned and air is free
downpipes, roofs and gullies to flow through sub-floor space
Painting Watering
Repair and touch up external woodwork through Check operation of sprinklers – ensure they do not
dry weather wet the walls
Weeds
Remove emerging weeds around building

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 9

Repeat
3. Title
The Building's Exterior
What toIntro
Repeat look for on the outside

3.1 Roof and gutters which are the most vulnerable part of the
roof covering. Sometimes, however, it may be
appropriate to retain the traditional pattern of
The roof covering 6 ft sheets when renewing an historic roof.
Types of roof covering This material was sometimes used with particular
The range of roofing materials used in expediency in the remote regions of the State
South Australia includes: where building timbers were scarce, by forming
• Metal tiles - sometimes referred to as ‘pan’ tiles semi-circular vaulted roofs requiring little or no
because they comprise a flat tray with the long intermediate support. Individual sheets were
edges formed into a raised half-round profile. curved and soldered, and rivetted together into
These side laps are spaced 450mm or 600mm a single structural membrane which was able to
apart, giving the roof a characteristic broad- span from one side wall across to the other, with
ribbed appearance. Materials include zinc little or no supporting timber frame.
and galvanised iron. Before the introduction of the ubiquitous self-
The pan tile was briefly re-introduced to the drilling Tek screw, corrugated roofing was fixed
market in the late 1970s for conservation with either twisted-shank nails or slot-headed
work. Although again no longer commercially screws. The nails tend to lose their bite as the
available, its fabrication to order is timber battens dry out over time, and will
straightforward. quickly loosen again if re-nailed. Suitable screws
are no longer readily available for conservation
• Lead - similar to a flat metal tile roof, but
work, but Tek screws are generally considered
requiring special attention to fixings and
visually acceptable in most circumstances.
junction details, because of its softness.
Exceptions might be where a building has a
Lead is also commonly used for flashings at
particularly low and visible roofline, or where
joints and at junctions with other structures such
the degree of authenticity is important.
as parapets and chimneys, and for capping
• Slate - shingles are produced by splitting the
the top surface of masonry parapets and
slate into thin sheets along its natural cleavage
large projecting mouldings to prevent moisture
planes. Slate deposits found at Willunga were
soaking in.
exploited at an early date. Slates were also
• Copper - not commonly used in South Australia,
imported from Wales. They were widely used
but sometimes encountered on prominent
from the 1840s to 1870s, particularly the more
public buildings, either as pan tiles or profiled
prominent buildings.
sheets.
With age, slate shingles become increasingly
• Pressed metal - decorative architectural
brittle and are easily damaged. The action of
elements such as turrets, cupolas, gable
water penetration and evaporation also leads
infills and awnings were frequently clad with
to delamination (splitting into thin flakes) and
pressed metal tiles or sheets. Diamond and
powdering of the underside.
fishscale patterns are the most common. Usually
The shingles are fixed to wooden battens with
fabricated from galvanised sheet metal, but
copper or galvanised nails through one or
zinc was also used.
two holes in their upper edge, depending on
• Corrugated sheet metal - a popular roofing
size. The most common problems are broken
material in South Australia for over 130 years,
shingles, and slipping due to corrosion of the
‘galvo’ has become a quintessentially
nails or failure around the fixing holes.
Australian icon. The early iron sheet is thicker,
Even the best Welsh slates have a finite life,
heavier and more malleable than today’s
and cannot be expected to last indefinitely.
product, made from zinc/coated steel
This might range from 80-120 years depending
('zincalume') or zinc/aluminium alloy. The closest
on local conditions, compared to the less
equivalent today is a double-smelted curving
durable Willunga slates which tend to become
grade.
unservicable after 50-80 years.
The continuous lengths now available have
Supplies of suitable slates for re-roofing
the advantage of eliminating the end laps
are becoming harder to obtain. The blue

10 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

 Willunga slate is still available, but the purple • Thatch - widely used in the early years of the
Welsh slate required to match old shingles on colony, utilising locally found materials such as
many South Australian buildings is in growing straw, reeds, grasses or brush. Thatch fell out of
demand worldwide. Much of the slate now favour as the price and availability of superior
imported into Australia is Indian or Spanish, and materials improved, particularly as it presented
generally unsuitable in colour and durability for a high fire hazard, encouraged vermin and
conservation work. Supplies from Canada have required frequent maintenance. Examples of
been successfully used in recent years, but are early thatched roofs can still be found on rural
no longer available. outbuildings.
• Imitation slates - imitation slate tiles or ‘shingles’ Later twentieth century historic buildings may
have been available since the early twentieth have more modern roofing materials not normally
century as an imported product, such as associated with ‘heritage’ buildings. These might
‘Eternit’ tiles from Belgium. These were made include:
from fibrous cement, the same material later • Fibrous cement - this material was available
popularised as ‘fibro’ and ‘asbestos cement’. from the mid-1930s in the familiar corrugated
Refer to 'Hazardous materials' part of Section profile similar to its metal equivalent. The larger
1.4 under Asbestos for a maintenance strategy. ‘Deep Six’ profile was introduced by James
A similar product (eg James Hardies’ shingle) Hardie in the 1940s.
is still available today.
• Sheet membranes - bitumen-impregnated
• Terracotta tiles - the Arts and Crafts movement felts, and later rubber-based membranes,
at the end of the nineteenth century mainly used on commercial buildings with flat
introduced the terracotta tile to South concrete roofs concealed behind a parapet.
Australia, initially as an import from Marseilles.
• Concrete tiles - the popularity of the Marseilles-
Its popularity surged with the Federation style in
type interlocking roof tile continued with the
the early twentieth century, and a local version
emergence of a cheaper concrete version
was introduced by Wunderlich in the early
after World War II, in response to the very
1920s.
restricted availability of building materials. Local
The Marseilles tile was unglazed and orange- production by Monier commenced in the early
red in colour, but quickly picked up a darkened 1950s. Performance is generally on par with
patina of moss and lichens. It was formed terracotta tiles, but the unglazed type becomes
to interlock with adjoining tiles. Fixings to the increasingly porous with age and can absorb a
closely-spaced timber battens are by means considerable weight of water.
of twisted wire ties, which are readily visible
Compatability
from the underside.
It is important to note that some roofing materials
Problems generally occur through cracked
are not compatible with others, for example, a
tiles, or through slippage when the wire ties
zincalume clad roof running into a galvanised
have corroded.
gutter will result in accelerated corrosion of the
The half round ‘Spanish’ tile enjoyed a brief gutters. Other metals like copper will also react
popularity in the 1930s and again in the 1970s in contact with zinc, aluminium, galvanised and
residential market. zincalume roofing materials, and lead flashings
• Timber - before the ready availability of can be problematic on zincalume roofs without
corrugated sheet metal, shingles split from an appropriate barrier between the two materials.
hardwoods such as stringy bark were a When in doubt, check with a Heritage Adviser or
common roofing material. Strictly speaking, contact the Heritage Branch for further information.
these are ‘shakes’; the term ‘shingle’ applies
Inspecting the roof
to sawn planks. Both types were laid like tiles to
form several layers. Carry out a visual inspection of the roof from
ground level (binoculars are useful). This may
Their durability was limited to 10-15 years,
be sufficient if there are no problems evident
and they are often found preserved under a
from inside the building or the roof space. Many
later covering of corrugated sheet metal. They
problems however, can only be identified by
should generally be retained for historic and
getting up onto the roof. Use the ground level
interpretive reasons.
inspection to keep a general eye on things, but
Expediency arising from the need to employ
undertake a more comprehensive inspection at
local materials also saw bark as a popular early
least every two years. Safety should be the primary
roofing material, laid in overlapping sheets.

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 11

 13 1
12 2
Typical Roof Anatomy
3 11
1. Parapet Flashing 4
5
2. Parapet Coping
3. Ridge Cap 6
4. Box Gutter
5. Flashing
6. Hip Capping
7. Valley Gutter
8. Sheet Laps
9. C
 orrugated sheet
metal Roof Sheets 8
9
10. Rainwater Head
11. S tepped Chimney 10
Flashing 7
12. Chimney Soaker Tray
13. Rendered Coping 14
14. Barge Capping
15
15. Eaves Gutter

concern in deciding whether to do this yourself or Gutters and downpipes

engage someone else.
Blocked gutters and downpipes can overflow and
When inspecting from the ground, look for: cause saturation of the walls, which may result in
• faulty or slipped roof tiles and shingles mould or lichen growth, or in harmful salts being
• damaged or lifting cappings over ridges and deposited within the wall. These problems can
hips at the apex of the roof (see diagram) seriously affect the wall’s structural integrity.

• damaged or lifting flashings around chimneys or Gutter falls

at parapet walls (flashings are the overlapping Check that gutters are draining freely towards
metal sections that seal the gap where the roof downpipes or outlets and that they do not hold
covering is penetrated or abuts some other part water when it is not raining, which will accelerate
of the building) rusting of steel or iron gutters and considerably
• signs of corrosion at the joints between sheets shorten their life.
of galvanised iron — this occurs mainly at the Cleaning
end laps (the joint between the lower edge of
Using a safe and stable ladder, clean sludge and
one sheet and the top edge of the next), and
decaying leaf matter from the gutters. A build up
can be detected more easily from within the
of muck in the gutters not only blocks the flow of
roof space (refer to Section 5).
water and leads to overflow - it also retains highly-
The roof-top inspection should include a closer look oxygenated moisture for long periods, resulting in
at the above items, as well as the following: rapid corrosion.
• check that the flashings are securely fixed Purpose-made scrapers are available from
and well-fitting hardware shops, but an old washing-up brush does
• fixings (particularly nails) may have worked a very good job without scratching the finish on the
loose, and replacement with screws is often gutter. Wear heavy- duty PVC gloves to avoid cuts
necessary because they cannot be from sharp edges.
successfully tightened
Box gutters
• inspection of box gutters, chimneys and
Box gutters can potentially overflow into the roof
parapets. space, so it is doubly important to keep them clear.
They are often very shallow and therefore highly
susceptible to overflowing. If you have a persistent
problem, consider replacing them with new gutters
which extend up under the roof covering to
increase their depth.

12 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

 Particularly common is the practice of discharging
large quantities of water from the main roof gutter
onto a verandah roof, which is often fitted with
a smaller gutter and a single downpipe. The size
of guttering to the smaller verandah area will
usually be hopelessly inadequate to cope with the
concentration of water collected from a large area
onto a single point. Work out which areas of roof
drain to which downpipes, and decide whether
you should reconfigure the drainage system. In
doing so, be mindful of the historic locations of
downpipes if they have been changed, and
choose new locations with care to achieve
efficient drainage, good gutter falls and a solution
that is aesthetically appropriate and unobtrusive.
Rainwater heads
Check that rainwater heads are clear and in good
A blocked gutter and rainwater head have overflowed and saturated order. These are the often decorative reservoirs
the surrounding brickwork, encouraging the growth of an unsightly fungal
stain. Overflow such as this can also deposit harmful salts, resulting in salt at the tops of downpipes and their purpose is to
attack of the masonry.
funnel the water efficiently and quickly into the
downpipe. This arrangement has much better flow
Outlets characteristics than the standard gutter/downpipe
connection, and avoids a bottleneck at this point.
Whether it feeds into a downpipe or discharges
directly into another gutter or onto another part of Old rainwater heads are often removed when
the roof, the outlet from a box gutter must allow guttering and downpipes are replaced. Look for
the free flow of water. evidence such as fixings into the walls or a faint
outline, and consider replacing them if they have
Valley gutters
been removed.
In areas with overhanging trees, check the valley
Another form of rainwater head is a shallow tray
gutters, especially at the lower ends where they
concealed within the eaves, connecting the back
meet a horizontal gutter. Leaves can build up here
of the gutter to a downpipe that runs straight down
and obstruct the water flow both in the valley
the wall without the usual offset bends at the top.
gutter and the main gutter.
This arrangement may also be used to connect to
Secondary roofs a downpipe concealed within the wall.
Check that balcony roofs, awnings and bay Replacement of this system with the standard
window roofs drain effectively. These often have offset downpipe may be preferable to improve
small gutters and outlets which block easily. drainage efficiency, but consider carefully how this
Downpipes might affect the historic integrity of the place, its
aesthetics and detailing.
To avoid gutter overflow, it is not enough to have
the gutters clean. The downpipes must also be able
Chimneys
to carry the water away quickly without backing
Chimneys are a notoriously neglected element
up. A garden hose with the end fitting removed
of a building, particularly if they are not visible
makes an effective probe, using moderate water
from below. Even highly visible chimneys will often
pressure. Work from the top or bottom depending
be allowed to deteriorate despite other parts of
where the blockage is. You may need to pre-mould
the building being maintained. It is common to
the hose into a bend to get around the corners.
see once highly-decorative chimneys reduced
Downpipe capacity to a plain rendered stump because the original
From the time of their initial construction, some mouldings have fallen off through lack of timely
buildings have an insufficient number of downpipes maintenance.
for the size of the roof. It is also common practice The condition of chimneys needs careful attention,
when renewing gutters and downpipes to change because it is common for deterioration to occur at
the number and position of outlets for ease of a much greater rate from inside the flue than on
installation and to reduce cost. The result in both the outside. A chimney that appears sound from
cases can be inadequate drainage capacity and below can conceal serious erosion from within. This
an increased tendency for overflow. occurs typically when the fireplace is disused but

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 13

 Mortar joints
Inspect the mortar between the bricks or stones,
as repointing may be necessary.
Airflow
Consider unobtrusively capping disused chimneys
to control airflow. This is commonly done with a
slab of slate or a piece of galvanised sheet metal.
Ensure that any such capping is securely fixed.
Horizontal surfaces
Inspect the very top surface of the chimney,
and the tops of any ledges or decorative profiles
to ensure the render is not cracked. Moisture that
leaches into the chimney through these surfaces
will accelerate its erosion.
Parging
Check that the inside of the chimney flue has
Check the condition of chimneys while on the roof. The erosion of these
mortar joints will lead to eventual collapse of the brickwork. This chimney sufficient parging (render) to adequately cover the
should be repointed using a traditional lime mortar mix.
brickwork. A chimney that looks in good repair from
the outside may be eroding from the inside.
there is still unrestricted airflow up the flue.
The combination of airflow and moisture soaking
down into the masonry from the top surface
leads to a form of salt attack ('salt damp'). In the
presence of this falling damp, the natural upward
airflow results in a high evaporation rate of salt-
laden moisture from the inside surface, which
is exaggerated further if the external surface is
rendered, impeding evaporation from the outside
and concentrating it on the inside. The consequent
growth of salt crystals causes erosion of the mortar
lining (or parging) of the flue, and eventually of
the mortar joints and even of the bricks or stones
themselves.
Chimney flues remaining in use need to be swept
periodically to remove the build-up of soot and
tarry deposits. Failure to do so carries the risk of
Typical chimney flashings.
chimney fires.
Flashings
Flashings around the base of the chimney should
be checked for water tightness. The bottom part
of the flashing needs to be securely fixed to the
roof covering and to extend far enough over the
roof covering to get the water well away. The
upper edge of the flashing beneath the chimney
should be free of cracks or tears, and be securely
embedded into the chimney with mortar.
On the sides of the chimney, the down-turned
flashing is typically in several overlapping sections
set into the horizontal mortar joints and stepping
downwards to follow the slope of the roof.
On the upper side of the chimney, the up-turned
flashing is of a special type called a soaker, which
forms a gutter to catch the water running down
the roof from above and discharge it out past
High rate of airflow up chimney has caused severe salt attack inside the
flue, which is not visible from the outside.

14 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

the sides of the chimney. Check the soaker for
soundness and secure fixing.
3.2 Stormwater disposal
Ensure that debris does not collect under flashings
Drainage
as this may promote leaking into the roof.
Getting water away from the base of the walls is
Parapets very important with old buildings. They generally
have shallow footings, which are susceptible to
Parapets are walls that extend up past the roof line,
soil movement (resulting in cracking) if too much
with the roof finishing against them. The junctions
roof water or surface water is allowed to soak in
are sealed with flashings - at the lower end of the
close to the building. Poorly located discharge of
roof the flashing will turn down into a box gutter.
water can also contribute to the severity of rising
Parapets suffer many of the same problems as
damp. All stormwater and surface water should be
chimneys, including an apparently intact external
directed away from the building walls.
surface concealing advanced deterioration of
the rear face. As with chimneys, the prevention of Stormwater drains
moisture entry through horizontal surfaces is crucial Make sure that downpipes discharge into an
to their maintenance. effective drain. This can be either open (for
Mortar joints example a shallow brick gutter) or a closed
Make sure the mortar between the bricks or pipeline of earthenware or PVC. Downpipes should
stones is intact on both the front and rear faces not discharge at the base of the walls or near the
of the parapet. foundations. Check that the drains are clear and
that the water drains away without backing up.
Render Try to find where the drain discharges to - it may
If the parapet is rendered, check that the render is need relocating or extending to take the water
sound, and is not letting water in through cracks or further away.
where it may have lifted away from the masonry.
Old sumps and drains
Horizontal surfaces Old buildings with sub-surface pipelines for the
As with chimneys, inspect the top surface of the discharge of stormwater typically have downpipes
wall, and the tops of any ledge or decorative which empty into sumps, with earthenware drains
cornice to ensure the render is not cracked. These carrying the water to a soakage pit or open
surfaces should have a clearly discernible slope to discharge. These sumps are usually wet sumps
shed water away quickly. If these are sealed with (the drain pipe is above the bottom of the sump
lead sheet, check for any cracks, loose fixings or to allow sediment to collect without blocking the
signs of stress. pipe). Because they hold water, they can be a
Flashings source of excess moisture soakage into the soil if
they are not watertight - which they rarely are.
Junctions between the roof covering and parapet
walls are sealed with two-piece metal flashings in Leakage is also common from earthenware
a similar way to chimneys. Where the high edge of pipelines, which are susceptible to damage
a roof or the sloping side edges meet a parapet, from soil movement and tree roots. Old soakage
the upturned part of the flashing is fixed to the roof pits may have become ineffective through
covering. The down-turned part of the flashing is sedimentation over time, or may be located too
embedded into a horizontal mortar joint at the high close to the building.
end. At the low edge, the roof discharges into a If you suspect that leakage from the drainage
box gutter, and sloping junctions are sealed with system is contributing to problems with cracking
stepped overlapping sections of flashing as for the (soil movement) or rising damp, it may be
side of a chimney. advisable to install a new PVC system. The old
Check all the flashings for holes, tears or corrosion, system could also be left in place for its historic
and make sure they fit snugly and are securely value.
fixed. Air conditioner condensate lines
The condensate from refrigerated air conditioning
units should discharge into a stormwater pipe or be
directed away from the base of the building.
Rainwater tanks
A slow leak from a rainwater tank can soak a large
quantity of water into a small area, resulting in
localised cracking or rising damp. Check above-

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 15

ground tanks for leaks, including the tap, and pay stacked to dry. The bricks are larger, but are laid
attention also to the overflow pipe - as with a in much the same fashion, as clay bricks.
downpipe, this must be effectively connected to a Adobe is usually concealed by a layer of render
suitable drain. to protect it from the elements, but underneath
Underground tanks are usually of brick construction will have the characteristic appearance of
and lined with render for waterproofing. Cracking brickwork laid in a regular pattern. A roughcast
and leaking is common, and can affect the finish (also known as pebbledash) is sometimes
building’s footings. Look for any developing used, comprising a slurry of fine gravel, lime
problems, and consider having the tank re-lined and water thrown onto the wet render.
for environmental as well as preventative reasons. • Cob - a basic but effective form of earth
Vinyl liners are an alternative to re-rendering. construction, brought to Australia from Britain.
Surface water The raw materials of clay-bearing soil and
After heavy rain make sure there are no pools of straw are similar to adobe, but the wall is built
water or soft ground within four metres of the base by tossing clods of it onto the stone base,
of the walls. Water retaining for some hours after where it is compacted by treading. Progress
rain, is a sign of poor soil drainage. is slow as each layer must be allowed to dry
sufficiently before the next is applied. As the
Extremely water-logged soil may result in
wall proceeds, the faces are pared back to an
permanent ground subsidence, causing the walls
even alignment. Traditional practice for cob
to crack. Wetting during the winter months can
walls is to round off the corners because of the
have the opposite effect with clay soils, causing
difficulty in forming squared edges in such a
them to heave upwards as they expand.
material.
Damp soil conditions can also contribute to rising
The application of a render refines the finished
damp, cause sub-floor problems with sagging or
appearance and protects the cob from the
arching of floor joists and cupping of floor boards,
elements. Identifying a cob building, even
and attract termites.
where the underlying material is visible, can
Refer also to Section 3.6 Paving and landscaping be difficult but the presence of straw and
Extensions or additions discernible layers are clues.
If the original building has been extended, the • Pisé - also known as rammed earth, from its
pattern of water drainage may have been altered. full name of pisé de terre. This is the most
It is important to identify whether this is the case, sophisticated of the earth wall techniques, and
and whether you need to take appropriate steps can produce a construction of great durability
to remedy any problems. and strength. A good friable loam was
considered best, not too sandy nor with too

3.3 Walls much clay. The wall is built up in layers between

wooden forms, compacted by ramming with
This section covers identifying wall problems a long-handled pounder. Straw reinforcement
commonly found when inspecting a building is unnecessary, and the mix is stiffer than for
from the outside. Section 4 covers those typically adobe or cob.
encountered internally. As each layer is laid and compacted, the
formwork is moved up for the next layer.
Types of wall construction The timber cross-pieces or ‘putlocks’ that tie
The range of wall construction methods found in the two sides of the form together leave a
South Australian buildings includes: characteristic pattern of voids through the
Earth walls thickness of the wall. This together with the
horizontal and vertical jointing makes identifying
This broad category encompasses a number of
pisé straightforward.
distinct but fundamentally related construction
types, often found in various hybrid forms. The terms If good soil was used and the ramming was
used to describe the different techniques also done well, pisé does not have the same
tend to be applied fairly loosely, causing further need for a protective render, but it was
confusion. generally given a decorative finish anyway
for aesthetic reasons.
• Adobe - also referred to as mud brick and
sun-dried brick. Clay-bearing soil is mixed These are ancient techniques, widely used in many
with water, with chopped straw added for parts of the world for centuries. Their presence in
reinforcement. The mixture is pressed into South Australia is limited, owing no doubt to the
a rectangular mould, then turned out and general availability of building stone, particularly

16 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

of ‘calcrete’ - a form of limestone occurring as but if the old material is too friable, it will need to
irregular lumps close to the surface, and therefore be pared back to sound material.
readily and cheaply procured. The presence of The selection and proportioning of materials for the
surviving examples, in the light of their general repair mix is also crucial, but bear in mind that any
scarcity, is testimony to their durability when well loose old material can be collected and re-used.
built and maintained. Once it is re-hydrated and pugged to the right
The common characteristic of these techniques is consistency, it will regain its original qualities
that the base material is unfired - meaning that it on re-curing.
has not been vitrified at high temperature in the With any repair work, controlling cracking as
way that clay bricks are. This makes the material the material dries requires the utmost care.
more than usually susceptible to water damage. One method is the frequent application of a
Good building practice was for walls of these thin slurry to the finished surface, combined with
types to be built on a stone base finishing above regular misting.
ground level, but this is not always the case. Where Masonry
an earth wall is built directly onto the ground with
Stone and brick are the most common walling
no damp course, it must be protected from rising
materials found in South Australia’s surviving stock
damp by good surface and sub-surface drainage.
of historic buildings. Good building timbers were
The problem is not so much salt attack over an
scarce so the early settlers used readily available
extended period, but a more immediate softening
local materials to provide durability for their
of the material as it becomes moist.
dwellings. Information of a general nature can
Earth walls are also damaged by erosion through be found in DEH Technical Notes 3.3 Early Bricks &
the direct action of water running down the Brickwork in South Australia and
face or rain beating against it. Wide eaves 3.6 Stone Masonry in South Australia.
and verandahs were often used to protect the
Masonry walls in historic buildings will generally
walls from such erosion. If the eaves are narrow
be of solid construction, although the brick cavity
and there is a gutter set close to the wall, it is
wall made its first appearance as early as the
particularly important to keep it clear and to
1890s. The brick bond (that is, the pattern visible
avoid overflow.
on the finished face) can be used to identify the
Where the wall is finished with a protective render construction - the English bond with its rows of
or limewash, it must be kept in good condition to headers (the ends of the bricks) indicates a solid
do its job effectively. Fortunately, limewash is double-thickness wall; the stretcher bond (long
readily maintained by regular re-application, side of the brick) shows a single-leaf wall or cavity
provided the base underneath remains sound. construction.
The main problem to watch for with render is its Bulging of the face of a stone or brick wall can
shearing away from the wall, allowing moisture result from separation of the two sides of the
to infiltrate into the core of the wall. Repairing construction. In stonework, the outer layer of
small areas of defective render is relatively masonry can shear away from the soft core, and
straightforward with due attention given to with brick cavity construction the corrosion failure
matching the mix to the original. Large areas of of the internal wire ties can have a similar effect.
damage are more problematic, and may require The consequences for the structural stability of the
completely stripping the wall and starting again wall are serious.
with a new render.
The identification and management of problems
Seek professional advice from a heritage in masonry wall construction are given greater
consultant before proceeding with major work emphasis than for other types throughout this
such as this, and choose only a contractor who has publication.
experience in working with traditional materials.
Concrete
The greatest problems with earth construction
are experienced with major erosion of the walling This material has been used in a number of ways
material itself. The success of large-scale patching since the colonisation of South Australia and its
and repair depends greatly on the condition of use continues today in highly engineered, framed
the surrounding material, and on the experience structures and ‘tilt-up’ construction. Common
and skills of the contractor. Creating a good bond historic applications include:
between old and new is difficult because of the • mass concrete - A mixture of slaked lime, sand
variation in moisture content of the repair mix and an aggregate of stones or gravel, packed
relative to the old material. Slow and thorough into timber formwork which was progressively
wetting down without over-saturation is essential, raised as the wall was built up layer by layer.

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 17

 These walls are typically 500mm or more thick, material, but it will sometimes be encountered
with an external render sometimes lined in in buildings from the World War II era and the
imitation of large ashlar blocks. Austerity Period that followed. These blocks
In this form, concrete shares many physical were made on site in simple moulds, and the
characteristics with stonework, and suffers finished wall rendered to give it a satisfactory
similar problems including those arising from appearance.
dampness. Iron
Examples of mid-nineteenth century mass Iron came to prominence as a structural material
concrete buildings are not uncommon, in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Two
disguised under a layer of render. predominant types were used:
Poured mass concrete walls also had a brief • cast iron - so named because the molten
resurgence as a result of the shortage of metal is poured into moulds or casts. It cools
building materials after the Second World War. to a granular, brittle texture, which makes it
• reinforced concrete - The use of reinforcement unsuitable for tensile or bending stresses.
to improve the performance of concrete was Cast iron is used structurally in applications
pioneered by the Romans, but the technology involving mainly compressive loads, such as
was lost until the early twentieth century. columns and arched spans.
In South Australia, builders such as Walter • wrought iron - the iron is worked or ‘puddled’
Torode began experimenting with the use of in a semi-molten state, and cools to a
steel rods and wire mesh to create concrete malleable, ductile form with a distinctly
footing systems that would cope with the directional grain. It is readily worked into
movement of Adelaide’s reactive clay soils. different shapes and is used in applications
He also developed a cavity wall construction requiring good tensile performance such as
comprising two 50mm thick precast concrete beams and tie rods.
panels separated by a precast concrete stud. Nineteenth century iron tends to be relatively
The general term for lightly reinforced pure, which gives it a good resistance to
construction such as this is ferro-concrete corrosion compared to more modern steels with
- ie concrete with ferrous (iron or steel) higher carbon contents. The highest quality iron
reinforcement. components can survive years of neglect with
Increasing sophistication in reinforced little adverse effect other than a light surface
concrete design saw the emergence of oxidation, but regular repainting is warranted in
the concrete-framed building, in which the most circumstances. Refer to DEH Technical Note
structure comprised a three-dimensional grid of 3.7 Painting of Older Buildings in South Australia.
reinforced concrete columns and beams with Timber frame
non-structural infill panels.
This category encompasses many variants, with
The most serious problem with reinforced the following examples being the principal ones:
concrete of any description is corrosion of
Lightweight construction
the reinforcing. This occurs when moisture
penetrates through to the metal as a result of A term describing any construction comprising
cracks or imperfections. It is exacerbated by a light timber frame of regularly-spaced vertical
carbonation of the concrete, which reduces its ‘studs’ and horizontal ‘noggings’, sheeted with
protective alkalinity. When the metal corrodes, various cladding materials. The protection of the
it expands to five times its original volume. frame from damage by moisture and termites is
This action, known as concrete cancer, exerts common to any type of lightweight construction.
huge internal pressures and literally breaks Types of cladding which might be encountered,
the concrete apart. and particular problems to be aware of, include:
Repair is costly and labour-intensive, and • weatherboards - overlapping horizontal timber
you should seek appropriate professional boards, ranging from plain rough-sawn planks
advice if faced with this problem. Many early to tapered profiles with moulded beadings at
concrete structures suffer from it because the lower edge and rebated joints. Regular
the reinforcement is too close to the surface repainting is important in ensuring the maximum
and therefore has insufficient protection life of weatherboards. More rudimentary
from moisture. examples may be unpainted and naturally-
• concrete block - The concrete block is not weathered, and advice should be sought on
normally thought of as an historic building the appropriate use of timber preservatives or
lime washes to protect them.

18 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

• corrugated iron/sheet metal - well-known as a
roofing material but popular also in rural areas gable frames, but were sometimes used as
for walling because of its ease of transport and a form of lightweight construction for service
low cost. Used horizontally or vertically, inside or buildings and outbuildings. Application of the
outside, and in the standard profile as well as base render is usually onto a galvanised wire
the smaller ripple iron or mini orb. mesh for reinforcement. See the comments
above on ferro-concrete.
Problems with rust damage are generally kept
at bay by the protective zinc coating, but any Slab construction
prolonged moisture presence should be dealt This technique derives its name from the large
with, as much for the sake of the timber frame slabs or planks forming the wall panels. They are
as the metal cladding. generally split from River Red Gum (Eucalyptus
The appearance of corrugated sheet metal camaldulensis). There are several variants, with the
cladding can suffer from dings and dents over slabs sometimes set vertically into the ground, or
the years, but sheets that are otherwise intact held clear of the ground on timber cross-rails, or
can be removed and re-rolled, or replaced sometimes slotted horizontally into channels cut into
with salvaged sheets if necessary. However, the main uprights.
it is worth checking the width and depth of Slab buildings usually have a substantial timber
the corrugations to ensure a match to frame comprising large posts set into the ground,
adjacent sheets. each with a fork at the top to support the main
Full replacement with new corrugated steel roof timbers.
sheeting might be justified in more extreme The main problem with age is the gradual rotting
cases. of the timber posts at and below ground level. This
 ote that it is important to ensure material is
N not only causes localised settlement, but because
compatible – re-roofing in zincalume can result the lateral stability of the whole structure relies on
in the accelerated corrosion of galvanised their embedment within the ground, also results in
gutters and rainwater goods, and flashings progressive leaning and collapse. If the slabs are
need to be considered carefully for the same set into the ground, they will also be susceptible
reason. Generally, replacement of roof sheeting to rot.
and associated products in galvanised sheet Good drainage is crucial to the long-term
metal is the most appropriate for heritage maintenance of this form of construction.
buildings. Dampness in the soil encourages termite
It is important to note that some roofing attack in addition to wood rot, and measures
materials are not compatible with others, for to divert moisture away from the structure must
example, a zincalume clad roof running into be considered. Look for signs of subsidence or
a galvanised gutter will result in accelerated distortion in the frame as a warning signal of
corrosion of the gutters. Other metals like wood rot.
copper will also react in contact with zinc, Buildings of such rudimentary construction often
aluminium, galvanised and zincalume have no gutters to collect roof run-off, or the
roofing materials, and lead flashings can be gutters are only partially effective. Ensure that the
problematic on zincalume roofs without an ground surface around the building is well graded
appropriate barrier between the two materials. away from the structure. In some cases it may be
When in doubt, check with a Heritage Adviser necessary to install surface drains to divert run-off,
or contact the Heritage Branch for further or agricultural drains to intercept sub-surface water.
information. To get some idea of the condition of the timber
• pressed metal - any cladding material formed below ground level, you can dig down beside
from sheet metal. Designs used for external a post and check for softness in the outer layers,
walls include imitations of brickwork, rough- and for ‘waisting’ or narrowing of the post.
faced stonework and weatherboards. A technique which avoids disturbance is to drill
As with corrugated sheet metal, these panels down into the post at an angle to check for
are relatively maintenance free. Sheets which softness or sponginess. If done professionally, core
have lost most of their protective zinc coating samples can be taken for analysis, and the holes
can be removed and re-galvanised. Damaged used for treating against wood rot with boron-
panels cannot be reformed as readily as based capsules or rods.
corrugated sheet metal, but automotive panel Stabilising structures which are suffering advanced
beating techniques can be applied. damage is a specialised undertaking, and expert
• roughcast - infill panels of roughcast or advice should be sought. In some cases, cross-
pebbledash are more often found in timber bracing can be inconspicuously incorporated.

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 19

There are also techniques for repairing the main these loads.
posts, such as splicing in new sections of timber Pay particular attention to keeping the timbers dry
and introducing timber outrigger stumps or below ground level, and check regularly for any
purpose-designed concealed steel stirrups set in signs of termite activity. The techniques described
concrete pads. above for testing, protecting and conserving
Fachwerk timber frames can be applied here.
This building technique is also known as half- Look also for signs of distress in the masonry which
timbered construction where vertical, horizontal may indicate a developing problem, either with
and diagonal members are infilled with wattle the footings that support the walls or with load
and daub panels or brick. These buildings are transfer from the timber frame. Seek professional
normally set on a substantial stone base to protect advice if unsure.
the timber frame and brickwork from rising damp.
Where dampness is a problem, look for evidence
Dampness in masonry walls
that the ground level might have been raised Problems with dampness in external walls arise
over time (refer to Ground level build-up under generally from two causes - rising damp or
Section 3.6). falling damp.

The bottom rails of the frame may need to be Rising damp

replaced with new facsimiles if too far gone. One of the two most common sources of
Wattle and daub dampness in old buildings is rising damp - moisture
that rises up from the ground into the base of
Traditionally, wattling consists of a row of vertical
masonry walls. When this moisture contains high
stakes fixed to a top and bottom rail, leaving space
levels of dissolved salts, the problems of rising damp
within which another pliable material (usually straw
are compounded by salt attack. The action of the
in South Australia) is then interwoven. Both sides
two together is commonly known in South Australia
are plastered or 'daubed' with a plastic mixture of
as salt damp.
chopped straw and mud. Internal surfaces were
generally trowelled smooth, and sometimes even This is perhaps the single most destructive force at
covered with sail cloth or calico. A limewashed work against old buildings in South Australia. Further
finish internally and externally aided both information is given in Section 6, and the subject
appearance and protection. is covered in detail in the DEH Technical Note 3.8
Rising Damp & Salt Attack.
A variation on this technique is pug and pine. The
‘pug’ is another term for daub, and the ‘pine’ Damage in external walls from rising damp and salt
refers to the uprights of callytris or native pine. attack is typified by the ongoing breakdown of the
These are closely spaced without the inter-laced mortar joints between individual bricks or stones.
wattling and the pug applied directly to them. Decay of the bricks or stones occurs if the wall has
This technique can be found in rudimentary been repointed with a mortar that is harder and
outbuildings, and sometimes in place of brick less porous than they are.
nogging in timber-framed buildings of German The presence of rising damp, with or without salt
derivation. attack, indicates a dampcourse problem. This is
Problems to look out for include those described discussed in more detail in Section 6.5.
for fachwerk. Depending on the particular Falling damp
construction, the vertical staves may either be set
Moisture that enters the wall from above is known
directly in the ground or supported in a grooved
as falling damp. It is generally the result of overflow
timber base rail set on the ground. In either case,
in the roof drainage system, a leaking roof or
wood rot will result in the panels dropping and
ineffective flashings. These problems are discussed
sagging. Look for gaps developing at the top
in Section 3.1.
edge of the infill panel where it meets the top rail.
Common causes of overflow are blocked
New or old bottom rails and staves can be
downpipes or gutters (particularly box gutters),
protected from damp by digging a trench
because of lack of cleaning or poor design. If
underneath and packing it with coarse gravel. This
gutters are under-sized and are overloaded by too
will avoid direct contact with damp soil and allow
much water, the problem may be traced back to
moisture to drain away from the timber.
the original design, or from later changes to the
Composite masonry construction location and number of downpipes or outlets.
Structural problems will arise if the frame is Also look out for downpipes leaking from an
damaged by rot or termites, as loads are then intermediate joint because of a blockage low
transferred to the masonry. Cracking or buckling down in the pipe.
of the wall can result if it is unable to support

20 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

Identify the source
Having found signs of dampness in the external
walls, it is important to correctly determine the
source of the moisture. An accurate diagnosis will
avoid wasting time and money on inappropriate
treatments.

Stone and brickwork

Mortar joints
Inspect the condition of mortar in stone and
brickwork joints. Where the mortar has fretted
or is missing this may be a result of wind and rain
slowly eroding mortar, or of rising damp or
structural movement.
Cracking
Structural movement declares itself in masonry walls Lack of maintenance on top surface of cornice has allowed water to
seep in and damage the moulding.
by the appearance of cracks. The building owner
can help to identify the cause by keeping a note of the place and specialised skills are required to
of any changes in the extent or pattern of repair it, it will often be left alone.
cracking, but should seek professional advice This can provide useful information in determining
before proceeding with any repairs. the history of cracking, and yield clues which have
Cracks can be less obvious from the outside been erased internally. Reading the two together
because the texture of the wall will tend to mask will give a more complete picture and enable a
them, particularly with rough surfaces such as more accurate identification of the cause.
random rubble stonework or rock-faced work. Look for stepped cracking that runs horizontally
Movement that is readily apparent from inside and vertically through the mortar joints, and take
on a smooth plaster finish may not show up to a note of its extent and the width of the crack at
the untrained eye on the outside surface until it is different positions. If there are signs of previous
quite advanced. patching or repointing, this will generally indicate
This would suggest that there is little to be learnt that the problem was at some stage relatively
from investigating the exterior for signs of cracking, severe. Evidence of repeated patching suggests
but often the reverse applies. For aesthetic reasons, a long-standing problem which has never been
internal cracking is usually repaired promptly, but satisfactorily dealt with.
this is rarely the case externally - because it is less For further information on cracking, refer to
apparent, has less effect on the owner’s enjoyment Section 6.6.
Repointing
Wear and tear are a normal part of a building’s
aging process, and may include the deterioration
of mortar joints. These can be regarded to some
extent as an expendable component that wears
out in the course of doing its job. The lime-based
mortars used in traditional construction have a
resilience and self-healing quality that enables
them to absorb some of the movement and
stresses within the wall in a way that cement-rich
mortars cannot.
In addition, traditional mortar mixes are designed to
be softer and more porous than the stone or brick
from which the wall is built. The joints then form
the path of least resistance to rising damp and salt
attack, so that they sacrifice themselves over time
and thereby protect the masonry itself from decay.
Repointing is cheaper and simpler than replacing
These fine cracks are sufficient to allow in water and eventually lead to
the structural failure of this decorative cornice. decayed bricks or stones, and loss of the original

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 21

 stone or brick will also have a far greater impact on this method because the repairs are too readily
the historic integrity of the building. apparent.
Repairing mortar joints is critical; like the roof, they In cases of more severe damage, it may be
are a first line of defence in preserving the building. necessary to dig out and replace individual stones
When repointing a wall the mortar joints should or bricks with matching ones. If the condition of
always be weaker than the strength of the stone or the stone or brick has deteriorated to such an
brickwork. Repairs to mortar joints must match the extent that it crumbles like powder, then clearly
colour, finish and mix (the cement: lime: sand ratio) it should be replaced with new stone or brick to
of the original mortar joints in order to maintain the match. Again, it is critical that the cause of the
integrity, appearance and physical properties of problem is identified and rectified prior to repairing
the wall. damaged stonework.

This is specialised work and should be undertaken

only by someone with appropriate knowledge and 3.4 Woodwork
experience. Always have small samples done for
Timber in buildings is highly susceptible to decay if
approval before allowing the work to proceed.
it is not properly maintained. Termites, borers, other
Ledges and projections insects and fungal rot can attack the structural
Decorative stone mouldings, such as cornices or and decorative timber of a building, resulting in its
parapets, should be closely inspected to ensure eventual destruction.
There are three things that the building owner can
do to preserve the timber in the building. These are:
• Inspect the building at least every 12 months for
signs of termites or borers. If evidence of activity
is found, a qualified pest exterminator should be
engaged.
• Keep the timber dry. Wet timber promotes
fungal attack or rot as well as creating an ideal
environment for termites. Prolonged dampness
of the timber must be avoided.
• Repaint timber surfaces regularly to protect
them from the entry of water.
Inspect external joinery such as timber windows
and doors for breakdown of the painted surface.
Pay particular attention to the joints between
Mortar has been eroded from the joints in this stone cornice by the
penetration of moisture through the top surface. Failure to repoint the individual pieces of timber, checking whether
joints has caused considerable damage to the stone either side of the
joints. The damage is a form of salt attack due to air movement through looseness in the joint is allowing the entry of water,
the open joints in the presence of salts (from bird droppings for instance) or if rot is evident. Check paintwork for peeling,
flaking, blistering or mould growth.
that the mortar between individual pieces of stone, Repairing timber may simply involve cutting out
particularly the vertical mortar joints, is intact. Even the damaged or rot-affected wood and using an
minor cracking or a small loss of mortar between appropriate timber filler, or may require fitting in a
the stones can result in rainwater penetrating new section of timber. New timber should match
into the masonry and causing delamination the size and profile of the original. Ensure also that
(deterioration of successive layers) of the stonework joints between old and new timber are thoroughly
and structural weakening of the wall. prime painted to seal the timber.
Repair techniques Check the ends of timber beams, fascias and
Damaged stonework can be repaired by barge boards. The end grain is highly water-
resurfacing individual stones if the depth of erosion absorbent, and premature damage here is
is moderate. This technique is sometimes referred to common.
as ‘synthetic stone’ and involves using a carefully Timber should not be in contact with the ground
chosen mortar mix to approximate the colouring unless treated with suitable preservatives (eg
and texture of the original stone. It is more CCA treatment used for PermaPine). Where this is
successful with stonework that has a noticeable unavoidable, check regularly for signs of termites.
colour variegation. Brickwork and evenly coloured
stonework are not as successfully repaired by

22 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

Painting 8

Detailed advice on repainting can be found in DEH

Technical Note 3.7 Painting of Older Buildings in
South Australia. This publication covers an historical
10
perspective, the performance of various traditional
and modern paint coatings, the requirements for 5
effective surface preparation and the approach to 4
defining a suitable colour scheme.
Check the condition of exterior paintwork at least
every two years. This is particularly important for 3
2
painted timber as paint protects timber from
moisture absorption and therefore from rot.
Deteriorated paint must be removed and the 6
11
surface primed before repainting.
When painting window sashes and doors, open 7
and close them daily for the first few days to
prevent them becoming stuck. Acrylic paints are
not recommended for any moving parts like doors
and windows, because they are prone to sticking
even when fully cured. Enamel paints should be
used instead.
Avoid build-up of numerous coats of paint on
moving surfaces; rather let the top surface wear 1

away before re-coating.

9
12
Windows
Typical timber double hung sash window - Portion of frame cutaway view
Timber windows 1. Cill & Drip 7. Counterweight
The majority of historic buildings have timber 2. Parting Bead 8. Pocket for Weights

windows. The most common types are the 3. Meeting Rails 9. Flashing

casement (side-hinged) and the double-hung 4. Outside Lining 10. Top Sash
5. Inside Lining 11. Bottom Sash
window (vertically-sliding sashes with concealed
6. Pulley 12. Cavity Brick Wall
counterweights). Properly maintained, timber
windows have an indefinite life, but are susceptible The Australian Carpenter - C Lloyd Macmillan and Co, Melbourne 1951
to rapid decay if not adequately protected from
moisture. The maintenance of timber windows requires
attention to the following:
Hardware
Check that window hardware (such as locks and
latches, hinges on casement windows and pulleys
on double hung windows) works effectively and is
sufficiently lubricated. Use machine oil or grease
on pulley spindles and locks, and oil on hinges
and latches. ‘Dry’ lubricating sticks are good for
surfaces such as lock striker plates where contact
with clothing might be a problem.
Remove hardware from doors and windows when
re-painting - this makes the painting job easier,
and it avoids paint build-up on these components
which affects their operation and is detrimental to
the appearance of the room as a whole.
Window sills
The external sills on timber windows are particularly
vulnerable to weathering, and paint usually cracks
Peeling of paintwork is allowing rapid moisture damage or flakes here first. Sills should have a sufficient
to the window frame.

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 23

outward slope to shed rainwater. There should mentioned earlier, oil-based (enamel) paints should
always be a ‘drip’ - a small groove underneath the be used on windows, as acrylics have a tendency
front edge of the sill - running the full width of the to stick moving components together even when
window to prevent water running back underneath fully cured.
the sill and causing wood rot or masonry Metal windows
dampness.
Metal-framed window assemblies in historic
Sash operation buildings are usually associated with twentieth
Check that double-hung windows slide easily - care century commercial and industrial premises. On
is required in repainting to prevent build-up of paint rare occasions however, examples of nineteenth
thickness where the sashes slide in their channels. century cast iron windows are found.
Rubbing soap on the moving surfaces will help.
Metal windows are generally of casement design
Try moving double-hung sashes back and forth to (hinged outwards on pivots at the top and bottom
see if they rattle excessively - this can be remedied corners of the sash) but hopper types (hinged
for the bottom sash by adjusting the position of along the bottom edge to open inwards) and
the bead forming the inner edge of the vertical awning types (opening out from the top edge)
channel. are also encountered.
If the fit and operation of the sashes cannot be Steel was used generally for industrial and
readily fixed, it is advisable to approach a joiner residential applications, while more expensive
experienced with double-hung windows. Their metals such as bronze were the norm for prominent
construction is quite complex and it is easy to commercial and public buildings. Bronze windows
cause inadvertent damage. are normally unpainted, and care should be taken
Parting beads to avoid damage to the original patina, or the
Inspect the fine timber beads separating the temptation to polish them to a bright finish.
upper and lower sashes in double-hung windows General maintenance requirements are similar for
to ensure they are intact and not split. all metal windows, but protection from corrosion
Putty is particularly important with steel. Cast iron is
inherently more corrosion-resistant than steel, and
The putty holding the glass in the timber window
although intended for a protective and decorative
frame must be intact and provide a good seal.
paint finish, can survive relatively intact over long
Linseed oil putty is subject to rapid oxidation from
periods of neglect.
exposure, and must be painted to prolong its life.
When painting the putty line, carry the paint over Pay attention to the following points:
onto the glass by a few millimetres to properly • keep pivots and stays well lubricated to avoid
seal it. rusting and binding - if moving parts are seized,
Sash cords (not on diagram) try repeated applications of a penetrating oil
(eg ‘Penetrol’ or ‘WD40’)
These hold the counter-weights on double-hung
windows, and their condition should be checked • prevent rusting of steel frames and sashes with
periodically - look for thinning of the diameter of regular repainting - good preparation and
the cord, which indicates that it is stretching and the use of suitable primers and anti-corrosion
approaching the end of its life. Replacement is a products is important
specialised job requiring a detailed knowledge • check the condition of the putty and replace
of the construction of this sort of window - when it loses its flexibility and begins to crack -
unnecessary damage can be caused if this work paint protects putty from oxidation, so the putty
is undertaken without suitable experience. Avoid on unpainted windows will consequently have
getting paint onto sash cords when repainting, as a shorter life.
this stiffens and weakens them. If rust damage has occurred through inadequate
Structural integrity maintenance, prompt action is required. Once
Push and pull on the frame to ensure that it is corrosion has started to swell and flake the steel
soundly fixed within the wall. Seek advice from apart, repair becomes more difficult. In severe
someone experienced in this sort of work if there is cases it may be necessary to cut out the
any looseness or movement. damaged section of the sash or frame and weld
in a new piece.
Repainting
For the best result, remove sashes from their
frame when windows need repainting. Carry out
any repair work and glazing before painting. As

24 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

3.5 Verandahs material for highly ornamental designs was well
exploited in Victorian and Italianate architecture,

and balconies but simpler examples can be mistaken for timber

at first glance. The durability of cast iron posts is
Verandahs and balconies are important elements generally good, and maintenance of the paint
of historic buildings. They help define architectural finish is normally sufficient to keep them in good
style and aesthetic qualities. They also have condition, but there are a few points to watch
a physical role in moderating environmental out for:
conditions between outside and inside as well as
• Decorative capitals are often moulded from a
adding to the amenity of use that the building
softer material such as zinc or lead, and fixed
affords its inhabitants.
as four separate pieces around the cast iron
Yet they are perhaps the most neglected shaft. Because the capital tapers outwards,
component of many buildings, often being allowed the V-shaped cavity remains filled with mortar.
to fall into disrepair. Paradoxically, they are also The top surface of the mortar filling is sloped to
one of the most maintenance-intensive parts shed water away from the shaft, but if it is not
of a building. If ever there was a case for early kept sealed and water penetrates, the gradual
intervention to prevent a relatively simple problem corrosion of the iron will push the assembly
developing into something major, it is the verandah apart.
or balcony.
• Some post designs have collars at the base that
We have again begun to appreciate their merits, fit down over a bolted base plate. If moisture
but many verandahs and balconies were lost is able to penetrate into the cavity, a problem
altogether in less enlightened times between similar to the above will result. Again make sure
the 1950s and the 1980s. that gaps and joints remain sealed, and that
surface water does not collect around the base
Structure of the post.
Posts • One of the technological sophistications
These will typically be either of timber or cast iron. incorporated into some designs was to
Other less common types are reinforced concrete make use of the hollow core of the post as
or wrought iron. a downpipe. These are easily recognised by
Timber posts are most at risk from rotting at the the spiggot that projects at an upward angle
base, but if adequately protected they are near the top of the post to which the gutter
remarkably durable. Where posts are set directly discharge is connected. A second spiggot at
into the verandah floor, or paving has been built up the base of the post directs the water onto
around them, the usual result is gradual subsidence the ground.
as the ends of the posts rot away. It also exposes The downfall of this system is the small diameter
them to the risk of termite attack. of the spiggots. Blockage is inevitable, and the
Good protection is afforded by the decorative resultant conditions of extended dampness give
metal shoes that raise the post ends clear of the rise to fairly rapid corrosion of what is otherwise
ground, but where these were not originally used, it a relatively rust-resistant material.
may not be historically or visually appropriate to fit The usual solution to this problem is to bypass
them. Instead seek advice on having a concealed the built-in system with external downpipes.
bracket fitted to solve the problem unobtrusively. These however are often a visual compromise,
The routine maintenance requirements of timber and great care is needed to locate them
posts vary according to their design. Simple styles unobtrusively.
such as the square chamfered type or turned There are occasional examples of very slender
posts will generally need only regular painting to posts forged from wrought iron. These are solid in
keep them in good order. Complex designs with cross-section, and the natural resistance of the
decorative collars or capitals and moulded skirtings pure iron to corrosion means that anything more
will require more frequent and intensive attention than surface rust is rarely a problem. As with other
to ensure that the joints do not begin to open up types of metal posts, keep the paint finish in sound
and admit moisture. These elements will deteriorate condition for maximum protection.
rapidly once this happens, and timely repairs will Another variation is a patent metal post with an
avoid the expense and loss of historic integrity of iron pipe constituting the structural core, sheathed
having to reconstruct them. in a moulded decorative casing formed from zinc
Metal posts can be of several types, the most or sheet metal.
common being cast iron. The suitability of this

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 25

Roof structure good condition for many years, as long as the
Many verandah roofs in South Australia have no floor boards are capable of keeping water out.
roof framing, as the corrugated metal sheets span Eventually the outer ends of the boards begin to
directly from the wall plate out to the fascia without rot and moisture infiltrates to the ends of the main
intermediate support. Wider verandahs, or those beams where they connect with the fascia beam.
with other roofing materials, will have some minimal Once this stage is reached, deterioration can be
timber framing, but its maintenance is essentially rapid. The floor structure can also be put under
the same as for the framing of the main roof (refer considerable stress by subsidence of the posts.
to Section 5.2). At the first line of defence - the floor surface -
repair of the boards usually entails cutting out the
Flooring and floor structure damaged ends and replacing with matching new
Common types sections of board. The most expedient method,
although not the most preferred in terms of visual
The floor structure of a verandah most commonly
and historic integrity, is to cut through all the boards
comprises a low stone retaining wall with an in-fill of
in a straight line at 90 degrees to their length,
compacted rubble and a thin slab of unreinforced
locating the cut at the first joist in from the edge
lime concrete overlay. This may be finished smooth
(or the second if the rot has progressed further).
or used as a base for a tiled surface.
Trimmers are then fixed across from the joist to the
Balconies normally employ a timber-framed floor
outer edge and new boards laid at 90 degrees to
structure of beams projecting at right angles to the
the original.
wall, onto which are set joists running longitudinally
The preferred method is to take up all the
topped by timber floorboards set laterally. It is also
boards and to cut them to two different lengths
not unusual with rural buildings, particularly where
corresponding with two adjacent joist positions.
the floor level is set more than a couple of steps
They can then be re-laid in an alternating pattern
above ground level, for the verandah floor to be
so that the joints are staggered. This retains a good
similarly framed.
amount of original fabric for historic reasons and
Problems and how to deal with them keeps the boards all running in the right direction,
Structural problems encountered with slab-on-fill while avoiding an unsightly continuous straight joint.
construction usually arise from the very shallow Many timber balcony floors have at some
footings (or complete lack of them) under the stage been sealed with a membrane such as
retaining wall, and the absence of reinforcement malthoid. Consider laying a new membrane to
in the slab. As long as soil moisture is kept at a increase the life of the whole structure and to
relatively stable level year-round, these design reduce maintenance requirements. Modern high-
aspects may not cause any problem. However, performance membrane systems can closely
when the balance changes for any reason (paving replicate the appearance and character of their
alterations, blocked gutters or downpipes and so earlier counterparts.
on), the structure is unable to resist any resulting
If installing a membrane, it may be acceptable in
soil movement. The end result is cracking and
some cases to carry out repairs with waterproof
dislocation of the verandah floor.
particleboard sheet flooring without compromising
In cases of mild damage, pay attention to getting historic integrity. The Heritage Branch, or your local
the soil moisture balance back under control, and Heritage Adviser, can offer advice on this.
then repair the floor in accordance with good
conservation practice. Where the problem is Roof
more severe, it may be necessary to reconstruct Maintaining the roof of a verandah or balcony is
the verandah floor, using adequately reinforced essentially no different from the main roof of the
concrete footings and including some light building, and reference should be made to Section
reinforcing mesh in the slab. If the work involves 3.1 for general advice on what to look for. In some
re-laying historic tiles, ensure they are bedded in a ways they are more straightforward - for instance
weak lime-based mortar - there is little to be gained there is usually no ceiling lining, and problems can
(and much to be lost) by using a strong mortar. The be more readily spotted. However, there are some
weak mortar will absorb any minor movement in the peculiarities which merit special consideration.
slab and act as a buffer between it and the tiles.
The roof covering
It will also mean they can, if necessary, be more
Corrugated sheet metal is certainly the most
readily lifted, cleaned and re-laid at some future
prevalent roofing material for verandahs and
date. With a strong mortar this is usually impossible.
balconies. Early materials such as thatch, shingles
Timber-framed floor structures tend to remain in
or bark have usually been replaced long ago with

26 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

corrugated sheet metal, but slate or terracotta
tiles will still be found on the verandahs of buildings
3.6 Paving
where these are the main roofing materials.
and landscaping
A corrugated sheet metal roof on a verandah or
The landscape elements surrounding a building
balcony will often outlast a building’s main roof.
can be considered from two different points of
Examples of corrugated sheet metal roofs reaching
view - their direct physical impact on the fabric of
the end of their life after perhaps 100 years or more
the place, and their contribution to the aesthetic
in service are not uncommon, while the verandah
qualities of its setting.
sheeting of the same vintage remains in good
sound condition. For the purposes of this publication, the physical
issues are given greater emphasis, but it is
This is principally due to the absence of end laps
important to understand the aesthetic context if
- verandah sheets invariably span in a single length
the cultural value of the place is to be properly
from wall to fascia.
respected and conserved.
Gutters and downpipes
Where the setting of the place contains original
Both gutters and downpipes are often of a smaller
elements, they will invariably add to its meaning
size for aesthetic reasons, which increases their
and value. Maintenance of the place will mean
susceptibility to blockage. Balcony gutters can be
caring for these as much as for the building or
difficult to reach safely, which also affects their
structure itself.
maintenance.
Elements that are not original, or that do not
However, it is still important to keep them clean to
directly relate to the history or significance of
prevent blockage and overflow, which in turn will
the place, may nevertheless make a positive
protect the timber structure from damp and rot.
contribution to understanding and interpreting it,
Ceiling linings by reinforcing and supplementing the value of
It is common to find balcony floors lined the place as a whole.
underneath with materials such as timber A landscape, setting or garden may even have
matchboarding or fine-fluted corrugated sheet historic value in its own right, which might be
metal. Keeping this lining in good condition is recognised by a separate heritage listing.
dependent on the ability of the flooring above to Other elements might actually degrade the
seal out water. setting or work against an understanding of the
significance of the place.
Balustrading and trim
Consider carefully the status of different elements,
Timber
and how they contribute to the cultural value of
The outer edge of the verandah or balcony is the the place. Detailed information on understanding
most exposed to the weather, and therefore the historic settings can be found in DEH Heritage
most vulnerable to wetting and rot. To compound Guidelines 2.4 Gardens in South Australia 1840-1940.
the problem, timber balustrade panels and other
Take the time to inspect the condition of landscape
decorative features tend to comprise numerous
elements such as plantings, paths, paving and
small pieces with many joints. The most important
retaining walls, and determine what influences
maintenance task is to keep them well painted
(positive or negative) they might be having on the
so that the joints are sealed and able to keep
building or structure.
moisture out.
Before you consider making changes to the
Closely inspect these joints annually and touch
setting, ensure that you understand how it relates
up frequently. This is far more cost-effective than
historically, aesthetically and physically to the
eventual replacement
significance and cultural value of the place
Wrought iron and cast iron
As previously explained, old cast iron and wrought Paving
iron possesses a naturally low tendency to The presence of paving around a building’s
corrosion. Although a surface layer of rust forms, it perimeter can help to control the wetting and
does not generally penetrate deeply except under drying of the soil in the footing/foundation zone,
very adverse conditions. Keep it in the best possible thereby reducing the incidence of structural
condition with regular painting or touch-ups, but cracking in reactive soils and perhaps rising damp
pay due attention to the timber work it is fixed to. as well. Refer also to Section 6.
Iron panels can become loose and at risk of falling
if the timber at the fixing points deteriorates.

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 27

Precautions coarse sand screeded to the correct levels,
To identify problems which may relate to paving having first made sure the underlying ground is
in close proximity to the building, or if considering well compacted and stable. Avoid laying a
laying new paving take into account the following: concrete base or using a plastic membrane under
the paving.
Damp proof course - Paving should be kept below
the level of the damp-proof course where one Garden beds and plantings
exists, ideally by at least 10 cm. Avoid bridging
Over-watering and under-watering of the area
an existing damp proof course when laying new
around a building can cause problems with
paving or planning new garden beds. Refer to
cracking and rising damp (refer to Section 6). This
Section 6.3 for assistance in identifying old damp
is of particular concern for buildings on clay soils
proof courses, as they can often be masked by
because of their pronounced shrinkage/swelling
later work or repointing.
characteristics.
Ground level build-up - Over time, considerable
The aim is to maintain constant soil moisture
build-up can occur as new surfaces are laid directly
content in the footing/foundation zone.
over old. This incremental raising of the ground level
is easy to detect in buildings with suspended floors Automated irrigation
by looking for encroachment over sub-floor vents, The growth in popularity of automatic watering
but with other construction types you may need systems in recent years can potentially assist in the
to look a little harder. Excavating a small area to control of soil moisture content, particularly during
search for earlier finishes and levels can be very long dry spells, provided the watering program is
revealing. carefully set according to season and rainfall.
Where raised ground levels are causing damp Automatic systems should be routinely checked
problems, consider excavating back to the for optimum operation and condition. They are
original level. often set to operate at night or when no-one
Surface water - Paving should be graded away is likely to be around, and problems with leaks,
from the wall of the building, with a positive cross- component failures and sprinkler spray patterns can
fall of at least 1 in 20. Generally speaking, it is go undetected, with the potential to cause serious
satisfactory to allow run-off from paving to soak building damage and considerable water wastage.
into the ground as long as the width of the paving A watering system should not be regarded as a ‘set
is at least 1.2 m and the run-off is evenly distributed. and forget’ installation, but should receive ongoing
Where a concentration of water occurs, it may attention to its condition and the programming of
be necessary to install a drain to carry away the watering cycles.
excess. Sprinklers
Concrete paving - Poured concrete paving (that Make sure that sprinklers close to buildings are
is, concrete laid wet) should generally be avoided positioned to avoid wetting the walls. This is
around old buildings, as its impermeability prevents particularly important in the design and installation
the evaporation of excess ground moisture from of automatic watering systems.
below. This can increase the moisture load on
Gypsum
masonry walls and exacerbate rising damp and salt
attack problems. The heavy clay soils prevalent on the Adelaide
Plain respond well to the addition of gypsum,
Materials - To work effectively, paving needs to
which breaks down the adhesion between the clay
have some porosity to allow moisture to permeate
particles and improves the structure and workability
to the surface where it can evaporate, while still
of garden soil.
shedding the majority of the surface water. Suitable
materials include low to medium-fired bricks and However, it should not be used near buildings with
concrete ‘cobblestone’ pavers. porous masonry footings and walls. It is readily
dissolved by soil moisture, and can significantly
Slate pieces can be used, but the joints need
increase the salt concentration already existing
to have good porosity to compensate for the
in the natural groundwater. It therefore has the
impermeability of the slate itself. Gravel provides
potential to increase the risk or severity of salt
good upward permeability but must be laid on a
attack in masonry.
firmly-compacted base having sufficient cross fall
to shed surface water quickly and effectively. Creepers
The paving base - Attention must be paid to the Creepers and other aggressive wandering or
base on which the paving is laid to ensure that clinging plants should be kept clear of buildings.
the entire paving system achieves the necessary They will ultimately work their way into small cracks
qualities of permeability. Use a bed of well-washed and gaps between different elements of the
building and literally push it apart!

28 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

Trees Tree management
Damage by trees If there is no sign of structural distress to walls, well-
established, fully-grown trees close to buildings are
Trees or large bushes close to buildings can cause
best left alone. Monitor their condition to determine
structural distress to buildings, particularly those with
any changes in their health.
shallow unreinforced footings, by two means:
Seek expert advice if a large tree is to be removed,
• moisture extraction - Trees’ peak demand for
as the sudden cessation of the tree’s moisture draw
moisture typically coincides with the period
can cause a rebound effect and result in soil heave
of maximum soil dryness at the end of a long,
as the moisture balance in the soil adjusts to a new
hot South Australian summer. The two factors
equilibrium.
combined will magnify the problems already
associated with the shrinkage of reactive Supplementary watering
clay soils, and the results can be particularly One method of managing the adverse effects
damaging. of a large or growing tree is to provide it with
• root growth - The physical increase in the girth additional water to encourage its roots away from
of tree roots as they grow can be sufficient the building. Several pits can be drilled at strategic
to heave shallow footings upwards or to push points around the root zone and backfilled with
sections of a wall apart by penetrating a crack. coarse gravel or rock, topped with sand. During the
This effect can work in combination with dry season, give these watering points a periodic
moisture damage as described above, when deep soaking. Seek professional advice before
water-starved trees seek out the moister soil excavating to avoid damaging the tree’s root
under buildings. system.

Significant trees Cut-off trenches

Before considering what action to take when a Another method of root control is the cut-off trench.
building is suffering damage from nearby trees, first A deep narrow trench is dug between the tree
establish whether there is any heritage significance and the affected building, extending laterally and
attached to them. This will have a considerable vertically beyond the root zone. An impermeable
bearing on the right course of action. A tree may barrier is installed into the trench - concrete or
be significant in its own right, belong to a significant heavy-duty plastic sheeting can be used. The
garden, or contribute to the setting of a heritage barrier isolates the footing zone from the tree’s root
place in a way that enhances or complements system.
its significance. These trenches are sometimes installed by local
In addition to a tree’s potential cultural or botanical Councils where street trees are affecting building
significance, the Development Act 1993 identifies frontages close to the boundary. Again seek
trees as significant in relation to their trunk girth and professional advice, both on the ability of the tree
height. Development Control applies to the felling to withstand the loss of some of its root system, and
or trimming of trees over certain sizes, with different on the engineering aspects of the barrier.
classifications for native and exotic species
Development Approval is mandatory for any work
affecting or potentially affecting a protected tree,
with the exception of light pruning. Check with your
local Council.
Choice of trees
Select suitable trees and plants for growing near
buildings. As a general rule, a tree should not be
planted closer to a building than a distance equal
to its mature height, or to 1.5 times this height if
planted as a group.
In the case of existing plantings, identify the type
of trees growing around the building in order to
determine if their growth could cause damage in
the future.

29 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 29
Repeat
4. Title
The Building's Interior
What toIntro
Repeat look for on the inside

4.1 Floors • weakness in the floorboards (excessive

bending, loss of stiffness or actual failure)
• sagging or arching of the floor surface (whole
The most common type of floor in old buildings
floor or large sections out of level)
is the suspended timber floor - floorboards on a
timber frame, supported clear of the ground. Refer • bounce in the floor surface (moves up and
to Section 5 for further information on the sub-floor down under foot traffic).
space and structure. For advice on identifying and repairing these faults,
refer also to Section 5 1.
Other floor types which may be encountered,
particularly in buildings dating from the earliest days
Cupping
of settlement in South Australia, include:
If the surface of the floor becomes ridged because
• earth floors - rammed or compacted earth
the boards have curled upwards at the tongue
with a binder such as lime, ashes, cow dung or
and groove joints, this indicates that excessive
blood, finished to a hard, smooth surface
sub-floor humidity has caused the underside of the
• wood block floors - a floor surface formed of boards to expand. Because the upper surface is
durable timber sections. Two typical formats drier, the boards curl.
are short lengths of Native Pine (Callitris) set
vertically in the ground with the top surfaces The first step is to identify and fix the cause of the
finishing level; and Eucalyptus cut into large sub-floor problem (refer to Section 5.1). Only then
rounds and laid in similar manner to paving can repair of the floor surface be attempted.
stones The floor should not be sanded to achieve a more
• wooden slab floors - wide slabs or boards laid level surface. This will permanently damage the
on timber battens directly on the ground floor because the sanding machine will attack
• paved floors - stone flags (eg slate), stone the raised edges of the boards and remove
or bricks laid directly on the ground. considerable material before it reaches the central
section of the board. Once the tongue and groove
Concrete floors may also be found, typically
joint is weakened and starts to split away, the floor
consisting of unreinforced lime concrete about
is damaged beyond repair.
100mm thick, laid directly on the ground or on a
rubble base. Cupping can be reduced quite effectively, once
the boards have dried out from underneath, by
Tiled floors are common on verandahs, in the
entrance halls of substantial houses and in public 1

and institutional buildings. These are generally laid

on a base of building rubble topped with lime
concrete.
2
Terrazzo became popular from the 1920s onwards -
this is essentially a concrete floor, but using carefully
chosen aggregates and pigments to achieve the
5
desired colour and pattern when the surface is
3
ground and polished. Borders, inlays and patterns
of different colours were sometimes introduced, 4
separated by brass strips.
For information on the repair and maintenance
of any of the above types of floor, contact the
Heritage Branch or your local Heritage Adviser.

Suspended timber floors

Problems beginning to develop in the sub-floor
can, in many cases, be detected from above.
Symptoms might include:
• cupping of the floorboards (curling up at Cupped Floor Boards
1. Tongue and Grooved Boards
the edges)
2. Hardwood Joist
• squeaking or creaking under foot traffic 3. Plate
4. Dwarf Wall
5. Soil Moisture Humidifies Sub-floor

30 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

wetting the surface down with kerosene and Even if the floorboards have sufficient thickness
re-nailing them. The kerosene expands the top to survive the initial more aggressive sanding
surface, thus tending to straighten the board, but operation, the use of a polyurethane finish will
evaporates readily. As the surface dries out again, eventually reduce the thickness of the floor to such
the boards are held in place by the re-nailing. This an extent that strips of timber will start to split away
method should only be undertaken by a trained at the joints. Once this occurs, the floor is beyond
professional. saving.
After re-nailing, the floor can be prepared for
refinishing as outlined in 'Alternative finishes' and Alternative finishes
'Patina and age'. If a floor covering is to be used, In situations where the floor is subjected to heavy
first install a tempered hardboard underlay to use and a traditional finish is considered too labour
provide a level surface. This is also an option when intensive, there are modern alternatives that can
the cupping cannot be successfully reduced to be readily patched and re-coated. Increasingly
the extent desired for a bare, polished surface. popular on new and old timber floors are products
based on tung oil, a natural tree resin which dries
Squeaking floorboards to a hard glossy surface. There are also wax/acrylic
Floors that squeak or creak when walked on emulsions available that are far more wear-resistant
indicate that movement is occurring at the joints than traditional waxes without requiring constant
between the boards. This is generally caused by maintenance.
long-term shrinkage of the boards, drying out after
a period of being damp, or loosening of the nails. Patina and age
The simplest remedy to try is puffing some talcum Some modern products share with traditional
powder into the joint to lubricate it. If this is not finishes the quality of allowing the feel and texture
enough, re-nailing that section of the floor will of the timber to be appreciated, in contrast to
usually work. If the noise is caused by the boards polyurethane finishes which give the timber the
bending because they are too thin (either appearance of being coated with a thick layer
from excessive sanding or sub-standard original of plastic.
construction), seek professional advice on the In deciding which product to use, carefully
best remedy. consider the character and visual qualities of
the floor. Usually the historic value of the floor
Traditional finishes and of the room are enhanced by allowing the
An important part of maintaining a timber floor floor to retain its patina and the evidence of age
is the choice of finish and the cleaning routine. acquired over many years. This approach calls for
Traditional floor finishes such as waxes, japans and the minimum preparation of the surface before
varnishes provide a renewable wearing surface re-finishing, and an acceptance of blemishes and
(see Section 6.1; Housekeeping) as well as sealing marks as an integral part of the history of the place.
out dirt and moisture. Keeping the protective finish Sanding back to clean timber removes years of
in good order and avoiding excessive wetting accumulated evidence, and markedly alters the
of the floor will greatly extend the life of the character of the floor, inevitably leaving it
floorboards. somewhat sterile.

Polyurethane finishes Limit preparation to light sanding with a hand-held

machine, following the contours of the floor, rather
The popular practice of using modern polyurethane
than trying to achieve a perfectly level surface.
floor finishes to replace traditional finishes is
unsuitable for floors in historic buildings where the Another option is to use nylon scouring pads (eg
objective is to prevent damage to the floor and ‘Scotchbrite’) which can be bought as discs
extend its life as far as possible. The problem is two- suitable for use on a rotary floor polisher. This
fold, with long-term damage to the floor because: method also has some ability to follow the floor’s
contours, and cleans up the surface with minimum
• the initial sanding of the floor back to clean
removal of timber.
new wood significantly reduces the thickness
and structural capacity of the floorboards
(particularly if the boards are slightly cupped)
and
• when the finish begins to wear through,
re-coating of the floor can only be done on
clean wood - this requires the whole floor to
be re-sanded each time to remove the
previous coating.

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 31

4.2 Walls dampness is rarely a concern unless roof or gutter
problems are causing falling damp. Like its modern
This section advises how to identify wall problems counterpart - the timber or steel stud plasterboard
when inspecting the interior of a building, including partition - lath and plaster walls are much more
the inside faces of a building’s outer walls. Section 3 forgiving of minor structural movement than are
covers problems typical to external walls as seen from masonry walls, and cracking is generally minor,
outside. readily repaired and of no structural consequence.
The problem most likely to affect this type of wall is
Types of wall construction termite attack. Detection can be almost impossible
Typical materials for external wall construction until major weakening of the timber frame has
in South Australia are described in Section 3.3. occurred, but try flexing the wall by pushing
A number of these will also be found internally, rhythmically against it if in doubt. Refer to Section
including: 6.2 for general hints on detecting and dealing with
• masonry (stone and brick) termite activity.
• fachwerk
Common maintenance issues
• lightweight construction, with lining
The majority of maintenance concerns with internal
materials such as corrugated sheet metal,
walls are those that affect masonry construction, of
matchboarding, compressed fibreboard (eg
which the most common are well-known scourges
Caneite) and fibrous cement (‘fibro’)
in South Australia. These are:
• wattle and daub
• salt damp (the term commonly applied to
• earth construction (adobe, pisé and rammed the combined action of rising damp and salt
earth) attack); and
• hard plaster • cracking of masonry walls.
Maintenance issues are essentially as described for Refer to the following guidelines, and then to
the equivalent external wall construction. Section 6 for more detailed information on these
Fibreboard is a fragile lining material requiring particular problems.
special attention because of its particular
susceptibility to dampness. If a moisture problem is Dampness in masonry walls
not attended to promptly, considerable damage In buildings of masonry construction, internal
can be done through mould growth, swelling and evidence of dampness is most commonly
softening. It is also easily damaged by physical encountered on the inside face of the external
impact. walls, but can also manifest itself on either side
of the internal walls. Its presence is normally
Corrugated sheet metal cladding can suffer
attributable to three causes - rising damp, falling
from dings and dents over the years, and should be
damp or condensation.
repaired with matching second hand or new iron,
rather than replacing it with plasterboard or some In addition, if damp patches are encountered in
other finish. the vicinity of bathrooms, kitchens or other wet
areas, there could be faults such as:
Lath and plaster is another form of timber-
• leaking water or waste pipes within the wall
framed lightweight construction, and is similar in
principle to a lath and plaster ceiling. It comprises • defective tiling or grouting within shower
a timber frame lined each side with closely- cubicles, and poorly sealed corner joints
spaced timber strips or laths, and covered with • leaking waste pipes or sewer pipes below floor
hair-reinforced plaster. The plaster is applied wet level.
and brought to a smooth finish. In appearance, In some cases, dampness can penetrate directly
this construction is virtually indistinguishable from a through an external wall to the inside face. A
plastered masonry wall, but is readily identified by common cause is leakage from a downpipe joint
its hollow sound when tapped. due to a low-level blockage within the pipe.
It is commonly found on upper floors where the wall Where the ground level outside is higher than floor
positions do not coincide with ground floor walls. level, the moisture may be coming straight through
The lath and plaster act as a structural skin over the because there is inadequate drainage away from
timber frame, resulting in a wall that is practically the wall or no effective vertical moisture barrier. This
self-supporting, despite the considerable weight of is a common problem in cellars.
the plaster.
Lath and plaster walls are generally trouble-free.
Being most commonly found on upper floors,

32 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

 of the three factors to modify - by opening
windows or doors, unblocking sealed wall vents
or installing an exhaust fan.
• surface temperature - condensation is likely
when the wall surface is cold relative to the
air temperature. Technically, condensation will
form when the surface temperature is below
the dew point of the air. The warmer the air, the
more water vapour it can hold.
As the air is cooled, for instance by contact with
a colder surface, it reaches a point where the
quantity of water vapour (ie the gaseous form
of water) within the air can no longer be held,
and the excess condenses to the liquid form. The
temperature at which this happens is the dew
point.
The surface temperature of the wall is affected
Etflorescent powdering on wall surface indicates active salt damp attack by the temperature on the other side and the
insulating properties of the wall. Masonry walls
Rising damp have a low insulation value, and because in older
buildings they are often solid, improving their
Dampness in internal walls (including the inside
insulation performance is difficult. If condensation is
face of external walls) is most commonly
a problem, reverse cycle air conditioning can help
experienced as staining or damage of the plaster
because dehumidification of the air is an inherent
finish, due to the presence of moisture rising up
part of the heat exchange process on both the
from the ground into the porous masonry.
heating and the cooling cycles.
Commonly in South Australia, the rising damp
will be accompanied by salt attack, which is
Dealing with dampness
characterised by a white powdery deposit on Before undertaking any cosmetic repairs to a
the wall surface and bubbling or powdering of damp-affected wall surface, it is important to
the plaster. identify the root cause - rising damp, leaking gutter
etc - and to remedy this before going any further.
The presence of rising damp, with or without salt
There is little point in spending time and money on
attack, indicates a dampcourse problem. This is
rectifying damage that can recur.
discussed in more detail in Section 6.3.
Falling damp Cracking of masonry walls
As the name implies, this is dampness due to Cracking of masonry walls is common in South
moisture coming from above. It is identified by Australia and can, in severe cases, lead to
damp patches forming on the ceiling or upper extensive and serious damage if action is not
parts of the wall and is usually the result of overflow taken to stabilise the problem. Even minor cracking
in the roof drainage system, a leaking roof or internally can unsettle the occupants’ sense of the
ineffective flashings. These problems relating to the structural stability and integrity of the building, and
building’s exterior are discussed in Section 3.1. mar the visual character and appeal of a room.
Condensation When to fill cracks
There are several contributory causes to the As with other aspects of building maintenance, it
presence of condensation on the surface of the is important to identify the cause of any cracking
wall, and their influence relative to each other will for remedial action to be effective. Avoid the
vary from one situation to another: temptation to immediately fill and paint over
• humidity - warm, humid air is generated from cracks as they appear, because this will often
sources such as a hot shower or bath, and worsen the damage over time.
un-flued gas room heaters. The quantity of Much of the cracking which occurs in South
moisture being generated can sometimes be Australia is seasonal - the cracks open and close as
lowered by, for instance, modifying showering the moisture content of the soil changes through
habits or changing the type of heater. the cycle of the seasons. Filling cracks when they
• ventilation - a low rate of air change within a are at their widest means that they are unable to
room allows the air humidity to rise too high. In close again as the cycle progresses, and the wall
older buildings, ventilation is usually the easiest will be literally ‘jack-knifed’ out of alignment as it

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 33

tries to close up again. With the next dry season,
the crack will re-open and the cycle begins again.
4.3 Ceilings
With repeated filling over time, the misalignment of In many instances, old buildings have ceilings of
the wall can become far greater than what would plaster-based construction. The earliest form is
have occurred with simply the annual movement. the lathe and plaster ceiling, with fibrous plaster
Only after the cause has been correctly identified gradually taking over from the early twentieth
and steps taken to manage the problem should century. Today’s equivalent is the paper-faced
patching and repair proceed. plasterboard sheet. Other frequently encountered
ceiling materials are corrugated sheet metal
The most effective way of identifying the cause of
(commonly the small-fluted ‘ripple iron’), timber
cracking is to record changes in the pattern and
matchboarding and decorative pressed metal.
width of cracks over time. This is easily done in the
In the early days of the colony, buildings were
case of plastered internal wall surfaces because
often ceiled with stretched canvas or sail cloth,
any cracking can be readily observed
lime-washed for durability and appearance.
and measured.
Hessian or re-used wheat bags were substituted
The subject of cracking in masonry walls is
in rudimentary buildings. A lime-washed rope
reviewed in greater detail in Section 6.6.
sometimes formed the cornice at the wall junction.

Plaster repairs Problems encountered with ceilings may be

Masonry walls are almost without exception related to:
finished with lime render and plaster internally. • the structure supporting the ceiling - these are
Attempts to strip away the finish and re-point the covered in Section 5.2
wall as an exposed masonry feature will invariably • the materials or construction of the ceiling itself
result in disappointment - the lower standard of
• indirect causes such as roof leaks or termite
workmanship and inferior quality stones and bricks
attack - refer to the relevant sections of this
used in constructing the wall will prove quite
publication.
unsuitable. Other imperfections such as chases
for wiring and piping will mar the finished result Generally
even more.
Water damage
This approach is also harmful to the historic and
Ceilings are highly susceptible to damage from
aesthetic integrity of the place, and would
leaking roofs, overflowing box gutters and faulty
normally be ruled out for this reason alone.
pipes or water heaters within the roof space. Areas
Interior plaster may require repair due to normal of localised dampness resulting in unsightly staining
wear and tear or as a result of rising damp, salt and perhaps mould growth can be rectified
attack, falling damp or structural cracking. without great trouble. But if damp problems are
Materials for repairs allowed to persist over a period of time, either
through inaction or because they are not readily
Note that the lime mortars, renders and plasters
evident, more serious damage is likely.
used in traditional building construction have a
degree of flexibility which enables the structure to Intact examples of early cloth ceilings are very
tolerate and absorb small amounts of movement rare, and their preservation depends on constant
without cracking. The cement renders and hard vigilance to protect them from moisture (which
plasters which are now the industry standard are will rapidly rot them) and from damage by nesting
stronger and more brittle - qualities which are taken birds, rodents and so on. Seek professional advice
into account when designing modern masonry from a conservation consultant, your local Heritage
buildings with substantial footing systems and the Adviser or from the Heritage Branch.
articulation of walls into small panels using The absorption of water by the various types of
control joints. plaster ceiling will soften the material and cause
Their use in the repair of older buildings means an localised patches to fail. More serious leaks can
incompatibility in physical properties between the potentially overload the ceiling to the point of
repaired sections and the original construction, collapse. Plaster ceilings are capable of absorbing
and should be approached with caution, large amounts of water, which weakens the plaster.
particularly if the contractor undertaking the Metal ceilings have the advantages of light weight
work is inexperienced in the appropriate repair of and initial resistance to water damage, and
traditional construction. structural problems are unlikely. They will however
In general, repairs to old plaster finishes should be be progressively damaged by corrosion if persistent
carried out using a lime-based render and set coat, dampness is not rectified.
to retain the integrity and performance of the
original construction.

34 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

 6
1
1
2

Typipcal Lath & Plaster Ceiling with Ornate Cornice

1. H
 ardwood Branders 3. Rough Bracket 5. Plaster Ceiling 7. Brick wall
(Battens) 350c/c Max
4. P
 laster Cornice 6. J oists at more than
2. Split Hardwood Laths Projecting more than 350c/c
150 formed with
running mould

Lath and plaster • failure of the nails fixing the laths up to the joists,
resulting in both laths and plaster pulling away
Description
from the joists.
This form of ceiling uses closely spaced timber laths
Inspection is best done from the top of a ladder,
- timber cut or split into narrow strips - to support
as these faults can be difficult to spot from normal
the considerable weight of the plaster. The laths
eye level. Looking across the ceiling from just
are nailed up to the ceiling joists, and wet plaster
below its surface will clearly show up any sagging.
reinforced with animal hair or natural fibres is forced
A moderate and even curvature of the whole
up from underneath. Plaster is squeezed through
ceiling from the walls into the middle will often be
the gaps and bulges out above, forming a physical
attributable to long-term deflection of the joists - an
‘key’ between the two materials. The unevenness
inherent property of timber with its natural flexibility
and roughness of split (or ‘riven’) laths assists this
- and is of no concern if the joists are otherwise
bond. The under surface is finished off smoothly.
structurally adequate.
A central rose was usually formed in place using
If in any doubt about the condition of the ceiling,
wet plaster and a metal template, its purpose
inspect it from within the roof space to determine
being to ventilate the room of combustion gases
the nature of the problem. Refer to Section 5.2.
from gas lighting or candles. Decorative cornices
were also run in wet plaster in the more important Fibrous plaster
rooms, but it was common otherwise for the wall-
Description
to-ceiling junction to be simply finished off square
without any form of decoration. Fibrous plaster is the term used to describe
prefabricated plaster components, as distinct from
Identifying problems working with wet plaster on site. It derives its name
Old lath and plaster ceilings often show a from the natural fibres incorporated into the plaster
characteristic pattern of fine surface cracking for reinforcement, weight reduction and
from long-term sag of the ceiling joists, but may transportability. Common applications in historic
otherwise be in good serviceable condition. buildings include moulded cornices, ceiling
When they do fail however, the results can be roses and ceiling panels (either as plain sheets or
spectacular. To prevent the damage and disruption decorative moulded panels, used in conjunction
of a collapsed ceiling, and to avoid unnecessary with moulded ribs and bosses to cover the
loss of historic fabric, it is important to keep an eye joints). Because of its versatility and suitability for
on their condition. prefabricated work it was used extensively to
Problems specific to lath and plaster ceilings cheaply produce highly intricate mouldings for
include: ceiling work and other decorative elements such
as arches, columns and wall niches. In its plain
• failure of the plaster at the narrow neck
form, as a flat sheet, it was the precursor to modern
between the laths, causing the plaster to
plasterboard.
separate from the laths

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 35

By the mid-twentieth century its use for decorative The practice of fixing a new plasterboard
work was declining, but the larger flat rectangular ceiling under a damaged old ceiling should be
sheets remained popular for low-cost ceilings using approached with caution, as the extra weight of a
plain timber battens over the joints. Its demise was second ceiling can overload the joists.
almost total by the 1970s until a flicker of interest Fibrous plaster
began to emerge from the fledging restoration
Re-securing fibrous plaster components is generally
industry, and its resurgence since then has
simpler than for lath and plaster because it is easier
been rapid.
to conceal new fixings. Strapping is again useful for
Identifying problems re-fixing to joists.
Fibrous plaster ceilings share with lath and plaster Replacement components are readily available
a susceptibility to softening and damage from to match many historic patterns, often taken from
dampness, the ability to soak up a considerable original moulds. Where unavailable, a reproduction
weight of water and a tendency to pull away from can be made by taking a new mould from an
the ceiling joists. The approach to identifying and intact component.
dealing with these problems is as outlined for lath
and plaster.
2
It should also be noted that the relative thinness of
the sheets can result in them sagging under their
own weight if the supporting timbers are too widely
spaced. The material, despite a relatively high initial
resistance to fracture, also becomes quite fragile in 6
its sheet form once damaged or damp. 5

Ceiling repairs
Lath and plaster
Several techniques are available to re-support lath
and plaster ceilings:
• Brass screws with perforated washers can be
used with care to re-secure the ceiling to the
joists from below
• Fracturing at the neck between the laths can 3
be repaired by removing the broken material
from above, cleaning thoroughly and pouring 1 4
epoxy or new plaster into the gaps to provide a Ceiling Stabilisation screwed and peforated washers
new bond to the old plaster looped method
5. 2
 5x6 split hardwood laths fixed
1. S crew with washer fixing from with galv clouts
• Where the nails securing the laths to the joists beneath
6. g
 uaged stuff pricking coat
have pulled away, fibrous strapping soaked in 2. F ibres set in plaster or acrylic – 1:2:6, plaster/lime/sand and
resin oxhair reinforcing keyed to laths
plaster or epoxy can be draped over the joists
3. Ceiling joists – 350 max Mitchell Advanced Building
and bonded to the cleaned top surface of 4. L aths resecured to ceiling
Construction 14th Edition 1944

the ceiling. joists using brass screws with

These are specialised techniques requiring

experience for successful application. In some Metal ceilings
cases, the ceiling can be pushed back into place
The need to repair a metal ceiling usually arises
from below; in others, it is best stabilised in the
from a persistent moisture problem causing rust
sagged position.
damage. Having first attended to the source of the
Areas of localised damage (such as from a roof water damage, repair of the ceiling itself can be
leak or termite attack) can be readily repaired by either by treating the rust or if necessary replacing
applying new plaster to existing laths or filling in with the damaged section.
new laths. Expanded galvanised mesh can be used
Consult a reputable paint manufacturer for
in place of timber laths where the historic integrity
advice on a suitable preparation, treatment
of the ceiling is not the primary issue.
and repainting specification - it is important that
In cases of total collapse, it will normally be the process from start to finish is considered as a
acceptable to install a new plasterboard ceiling, complete system, to ensure compatibility between
paying attention to replicating the original detailing each stage of preparation and each of the
and appearance. products used.

36 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

For replacement work, a wide range of pressed • Wood rot - Check for early signs of moisture
metal patterns is available off-the-shelf, or if damage from dampness, such as bubbling
necessary a mould can be made from an intact of paint or swelling of timber, and take prompt
panel and new pressings replicated. Corrugated action. Don’t forget to include built-in furniture
ceilings present no supply problems, but carefully in your inspection.
check the exact pitch of the flutes (ie the spacing • Original finishes - Care for the original finish
between one ridge and the next) - it may be where this remains intact and has not been
necessary to use salvaged material to match the overpainted.
original ceiling.
• Redecorating - Avoid removing earlier finishes
Historic value when redecorating - the various layers are
Even with highly decorative ceilings, the ready an important record of how the room has
availability of off-the-shelf and made-to-order changed over time, and contribute to its
components makes replication in all new materials cultural value.
a realistic option where damage is considerable. • Reversibility - Avoid the use of any new coating
However, consideration must first be given to the which may complicate the possible future
effect the loss of original fabric will have on the removal of non-original layers to reveal the
heritage value of the room or building. The more original finish. This concept of reversibility is
culturally valuable the ceiling, the greater will an important one to keep in mind when
be the effort justifiable in saving and repairing it. making any changes to the interior of an
Professional advice should always be sought prior to historic building.
making such decisions. This will assist in the process
of gaining the necessary Development Approval for Windows
undertaking work on listed heritage places. For advice about the care and maintenance of
internal and external windows see Section 3.4.

4.4 Joinery Doors

The design of interior joinery and its quality of
Inspect doors to check the following:
workmanship and finish are important in defining
• The door opens freely, and hinges and locks are
the character of an historic building. Maintaining
lubricated and working effectively
the integrity of a room’s design requires an
awareness of its original fittings and finishes, and • The lock and the strike plate are aligned so that
careful judgment to preserve the essence of its the door closes properly
character in the face of changing fashions in • The doorframe is square, meaning that the
interior decoration. jambs are vertical and the head of the frame
The use of inappropriate mouldings in new or is horizontal. An ‘out of square’ door frame
restoration work can easily compromise this indicates wall movement due to soil subsidence
integrity. So too can practices such as stripping or structural failure (refer to Section 6.4)
woodwork back to bare timber and applying a • The door frame has not worked loose in the
clear finish. wall opening - to remedy this it is necessary
Care is also needed to avoid the ‘gentrification’ to remove the architraves and rewedge or
of a plain, simple interior. Avoid the temptation to remake the fixings into the masonry.
introduce, for example, more decorative skirtings
or cornices, to exchange early ledged and
Stairs
braced doors for panelled doors, to change metal Timber stairs can range from a simple, open flight
doorknobs to porcelain, or install elaborate light to a grand staircase of complex design. Over
fittings or window furnishings. time, the weight and vibration of people using the
staircase, in combination with long-term drying and
Generally shrinkage of the timber, can cause movement to
The general approach to maintaining interior develop between the different pieces. This causes
joinery and retaining its integrity is to have regard the stairs to creak when used, and the rubbing
for the following: movement in the joints promotes further wear.
Re-securing the loose joints will restore the original
• Termites - Regularly check for signs of termite
integrity, preventing creaking and arresting wear in
activity. This can be difficult to spot even
the staircase structure.
when an infestation is quite advanced. See
Section 6.2 for advice on what to look out for, Arrange for another person to walk up and down
particularly with skirtings, doors, windows and the stairs while inspecting them from below. In
architraves. many cases a slight movement in the staircase

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 37

 8
2 seal the joints
7
• lead for above-ground waste pipes - malleable
lead pipes, with formed junctions and sweated
6
joints
• cast iron for vertical sewer stacks servicing
upper floors, and sometimes as downpipes on
larger buildings. Like earthenware, cast iron
pipes were cast in sections with flanged joints
requiring a caulking compound for sealing
5 • galvanised sheet metal for water supply, both
4 underground, built into walls and exposed - in
relatively long lengths, threaded at the ends
to take a variety of connectors and junctions.

3 1
Common problems
Leaks which cause excessive dampness in the soil,
Timber Stair From Beneath the sub-floor or the walls of a building increase the
1. Wedges 5. Carriage Piece risk of:
2. Blocks 6. Treads
• termite activity - damp soil and damp timber
3. String (Wall) 7. Risers
provide ideal conditions for termites to live
4. Square Blocking 8. T & G Joint
and feed
will be evident, enabling the loose joints to be • rising damp - the higher the moisture content of
identified and refixed. Driving a screw into the joint the soil, the greater is the height to which damp
or fitting a blocking piece with screw fixings are will rise in the wall if not intercepted by a damp
normally the most effective remedies, or a purpose- proof course
cut timber wedge can be used to tighten the joint. • salt attack - the nitrate salts that make their
For anything more than simple repairs, it is wise way into the soil from a leaking sewer are
to seek the assistance of a qualified carpenter particularly aggressive on masonry
or joiner experienced in stair construction. Some • wood rot - damp timber provides ideal
forms of staircase in particular require a good conditions for the growth of destructive fungal
understanding of how they were built and how organisms
the various components interrelate structurally.
• cracking - the clay-rich soils common in South
This would include stairs with winders (ie climbing
Australia are particularly sensitive to moisture
as it turns, without an intermediate landing) and
variations, and a localised increase from
cantilevered stairs (having support along one
leaking plumbing will swell the soil and cause
edge only).
cracking in masonry walls
• subsidence - some soils lose their load-bearing
4.5 Building Services capacity when saturated, resulting
in permanent subsidence.
Plumbing Undetected leaks in water supply pipes can also
Faulty water supply and waste pipes can create increase your water bill significantly.
enormous problems within a building, particularly
as they may go undetected for lengthy periods. Earthenware
Regular maintenance checks are therefore critical. The seasonal swelling and shrinkage characteristic
As a routine measure, periodically check traps of many South Australian soils in built-up areas can
under sinks and basins for water tightness, and easily fracture earthenware sewers and drains.
renew defective tap washers. Being made of a rigid material with rigid joints,
Check drain trays under water heaters to ensure an earthenware pipeline has very little capacity
that there are no leaks and that any overflow will to tolerate movement.
be piped to the outside. Even a small amount of soil movement can
The materials used in old buildings for plumbing fracture the pipes themselves or the mortar joints,
pipe work are typically: and cause seepage into the surrounding soil. The
seepage attracts tree roots, which will push their
• earthenware for below-ground sewer pipes and
way into the pipeline in search of more moisture,
stormwater drains - supplied in short lengths with
causing blockages and eventually extensive
one end belled into a flange to receive the end
physical damage.
of the next pipe, and relying on mortar to fill and

38 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

Larger degrees of movement (perhaps even fashions and the transition to electric lighting, the
promoted by the initial seepage) can actually shift central ‘ceiling rose’ vent began to disappear.
adjacent sections of the drain out of alignment Early domestic electric installations typically
with each other, so that some of the flow within provided a central ceiling light in each room and a
the pipe is diverted directly out into the soil, further two-pin power socket with rotary switch in the more
exacerbating the problem. important rooms - power demand was minimal,
If you suspect that an old earthenware pipeline is with little more than reading lamps and maybe an
causing a problem, consider replacing it entirely electric fan being used. Electric bells also became
with a new PVC drain. With its solvent-welded joints popular, particularly in the larger houses which still
and inherent flexibility, it can be expected to give employed staff, and it is not uncommon for the old
long service without trouble. In reactive soils, new indicator board to have survived.
drains should be bedded and backfilled in sand to Light switches were located at the ceiling outlet
protect them from the worst of the soil movement. and operated by a cord, or brought down to a
position near the door. The electricity meter and
Galvanised sheet metal fuses (often just one power fuse and one light) were
Galvanised water pipes are largely resistant to usually located on an exposed wooden board
damage from soil movement thanks to the ductility in a readily accessible position near an external
of the iron, but are prone to rusting with age. Initially door. In updating the electrical installation to meet
the flakes of rust breaking away from the inner modern demands and codes, and in carrying out
surface will clog filters, water heater valves and renovations generally, valuable evidence of these
so on. As the rusting increases, its expansion within earlier services is preserved by retaining any disused
the pipe will restrict water flow - iron oxide grows to hardware - gas outlets, electric boards, switches,
five times the volume of the original sheet metal. sockets, bell pushes, and so on.
Eventually the pipe will start to seep as the rusting
reaches the outer surface, at which stage it will
Precautions
be very prone to fracturing with the least physical Exercise extreme caution if old rubber-insulated
pressure. Failure usually occurs first at the joints, wiring is still in use. It can remain intact and
because cutting the thread removes the protective serviceable for decades if undisturbed, but
zinc coating and reduces the metal thickness. age turns the rubber very brittle and the least
movement can cause it to disintegrate and the
Test for sub-surface leakage by monitoring water
wiring to short circuit. This form of wiring is generally
meter readings last thing at night and first thing in
considered to be below current safety standards
the morning, having turned off toilet cisterns and
and should be checked by a qualified electrician
the like to ensure zero usage during the test period.
who can advise on the adequacy or otherwise
If a galvanised water main is found to be leaking,
of the wiring, particularly if the building has been
consider replacing it in copper, but be wary of
recently acquired.
partial replacement which mixes the two materials,
as their incompatibility will cause further galvanic Early installations may not be earthed, adding to
corrosion of the iron. their danger. Other potential problems that should
be checked are the mechanical wear of switches,
Electricity and gas wear, arcing or corrosion of electrical contacts and
Early installations any sign of abnormal deterioration.

The earliest examples of electric light and power New installations

supply in South Australia date from the late 1880s,
Renewal of plumbing and electrical installations
and it was still a rarity at the turn of the century.
should have regard for the historic fabric of the
Many buildings dating from the early twentieth
place. Often, a little thoughtfulness in the layout
century will have originally been fitted with gas
of these services can avoid unnecessary damage,
lighting. By 1920, the provision of electric power
particularly if they are to be chased into walls.
and light in new buildings was commonplace, but
Careful planning can also avoid unsightly exposed
many older buildings were not converted until
runs of cabling or piping internally and externally.
some years later.
Surviving gas wall bracket lights (or at least the Licensed contractors
wooden mounting plate and gas tap) can Any work involving the reticulated water supply,
sometimes be found in buildings pre-dating this waste water drainage, sewerage, septic systems
period, but often the only visible remnant is the and the mains electrical supply must be carried
old gas supply piping in the roof space. Other out only by a suitably qualified person. Refer all
signs of the early use of gas are the presence of plumbing and electrical problems to a licensed
ceiling vents to dispel the gas fumes. With changing contractor.

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 39

Repeat
5. Out ofTitle
Sight - Out of Mind?
What
Repeat to look for under the floor and in
Intro
the roof space

The function of a building, at the most basic level,

is to provide us with interior spaces to suit our
particular needs, whether it be a factory, a home
or a public building. We visualise a building in terms
of its external presence and its internal spaces,
ignoring the hidden zones - the sub-floor and roof
space - which are vital to its performance but
beyond our normal day-to-day experience.
To properly maintain your building, you need to
start thinking of these hidden zones as distinct parts
of the building between the external environment
7
and the interior spaces, and to become aware of
1
how they relate to the well-being of the building 8
2
as a whole. With some vigilance you can deal with 3
developing problems in their early stages, or even 4
5
prevent them altogether, rather than being taken 6
3
by surprise when the trouble eventually manifests
itself within the inhabited areas of the building. By Potential Subfloor problems

this time, considerable extra damage and expense 1. Dampness in subfloor area from downpipes or leaking plumbing
2. Water ponding near wall, or entering through subfloor vents
may have been incurred. due to raised paving or ground levels
This Section provides an introduction to these 3. A
 bsence of ant caps or damp proof membrane between timber
floor plates and masonry dwarf walls
zones, and guides you in identifying and dealing
4. Termite tunnels giving access to timbers
with the problems that can arise. 5. Insufficient clearance between soil level and floor joists
6. Damaged or unstable dwarf walls

5.1 The sub-floor 7. No damp proof course in external walls, or damp proof course
damaged or bridged by repointing

8. Termites attracted by scraps of timber left on ground

Section 4.1 of this Technical Note identifies various
types of floor construction encountered in historic
buildings, and details the care and maintenance • variations in soil moisture content - causing
of the most common flooring material - timber relative movement between the various dwarf
boards. In this section, the inspection and walls and external walls supporting the timber
maintenance of the sub-floor space is investigated. floor framing, with consequent sagging or
The term sub-floor describes the supporting bounciness in the floor
structure of a suspended timber floor - that is, the • damp soil or timber - providing conditions
system of joists, bearers and dwarf walls which conducive to termite activity or fungal rot.
supports the floor clear of the ground. The sub-floor
space is the space between the ground and the Ventilation
floorboards. Checking conditions within the sub- The control of ventilation is central to the
floor space is critical to both the structural and maintenance of the correct sub-floor moisture
aesthetic integrity of the floor. conditions. Too little ventilation encourages high
For a suspended timber floor to remain in good moisture content in the soil and the air. Too much
condition, the most important consideration is the ventilation can increase salt attack damage to
moisture environment - maintaining the air humidity under-floor masonry, because of the accelerated
and soil moisture content at stable and relatively evaporation rate that results.
dry levels. Many of the problems experienced The number and positioning of vents around the
with the sub-floor can be attributed to unsuitable perimeter of the building is crucial to achieving
moisture conditions, including: an adequate quantity and distribution of fresh air.
• excessive air humidity - leading to cupping of Good cross-ventilation is the aim, without dead
the floor boards (curling up at the joints) as the spots. The flow of air from one side of the building
under-surface expands to the other will be obstructed at internal wall lines
unless openings have been built into the walls.
• excessive moisture in walls and dwarf walls -
promoting rising damp and salt attack Consider the placement and number of vents
around the building, particularly if alterations,

40 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

additions or landscaping works have modified the or replacing any broken vents and sealing pipe
original arrangement. If you suspect there may be penetrations etc through external walls
a problem with ventilation, seek professional advice • Remove any rubbish from the sub-floor space
to determine the best way to proceed. to avoid obstruction of ventilation and for fire
safety. Offcuts of wood can attract termites
Access
• Secure any loose electrical wires and conduits
Gaining access to inspect the sub-floor space is not
always possible and was rarely provided for as part • Check water pipes for signs of leaking or
of the original construction of most older buildings. sweating. Even a slow drip can raise moisture
Fortunately, sub-floor problems can in many cases levels enough to cause water-related problems
be detected by careful observation from within the such as corrosion, cracking, rising damp and
room, as outlined in Section 4.1. salt attack

If the building has a cellar, access to the sub-floor • Check the under floor space for evidence of
is often possible, although it may be necessary termites, borers or wood rot (refer to Section 6
to break away narrow sections of the dwarf walls for details of what to look for).
to get through to adjacent compartments. Care If abnormalities have been observed in the floor
is needed when breaking through to ensure that from above, look for signs to indicate the cause
adequate support is maintained for bearers or of the trouble. These might include:
joists. Keep the breaching of dwarf walls to the • sagging or bounce in the floor because
absolute minimum - adequate visual inspection of settlement of dwarf walls or main walls
of a compartment can usually be made from an
• lifting of a section of the floor because of
adjacent compartment by peering over the top
heaving of dwarf walls or main walls
of the wall between the joists or bearers.
• weakness or flexing in a section of the floor due
In many cases, access hatches will have been
to termites or rot
cut in the floor in the course of termite inspections
• disintegration of dwarf walls or the supporting
- often very crudely. If the historic integrity of the
ledge of main walls due to salt attack, resulting
floor will not be compromised, cutting new hatches
in loss of support for bearers or joists
can be a good option for gaining access.
• localised wetness or dampness from a leaking
Seek advice from a Heritage Branch Architect
water pipe, waste pipe, sewer or shower
or Heritage Adviser about the best location and
cubicle
method before cutting floors. Take care to locate
them where they will be covered by rugs or • generalised dampness of the ground surface
furniture, considering not just the current placement or timber surfaces due to poor ventilation.
of furniture but also possible future changes in room
layout. Strike a balance between the number of
hatches and the necessary number of gaps in the
5.2 The roof space
dwarf walls. Although access to the roof space is generally
easier than to the sub-floor space, it is often a
If using a circular saw, avoid overshooting on
neglected part of the building. The major elements
the cut - use a jigsaw to carry the cut through to
within the roof space are:
the end, and don’t forget to adjust the saw to
the correct depth before you start. This can be • the roof framing
ascertained by drilling a small hole through the • the roof covering
board clear of the joist and noting the drill depth • the ceiling framing
at which it breaks through the underside. A length
• chimneys
of timber nailed in place as a temporary guide for
each cut will ensure a straight line. Avoid breaking • building services
the tongue and groove joints by using temporary
screws to help spring the cut pieces up and out
Roof framing
once the nails are removed. The timber framing that supports the roof covering
is susceptible to attack from wood rot and
Inspection termites, and may suffer structural problems from
Look out for the following potential problems when overloading, inadequate design or workmanship,
inspecting the sub-floor: or fatigue.

• Externally, check that sub-floor vents are clear Dampness and rot
of rubbish and vegetation. Ensure that surface Run a strong torch along each section of the
water is not entering through the vents framing, looking for darker-coloured water staining
• Keep the sub-floor vermin-proofed by repairing or white fungal growth, particularly at joints in the

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 41

roof covering, valleys, hip and ridge cappings, of the building from the potentially damaging
and at gutter lines. Refer to Section 6.4 for further effects of rainwater entry. To do this successfully,
information on wood rot. Before making any the entire assembly - the roofing material itself as
repairs, it is important to identify how the water is well as the cappings, flashings and fixings - must
getting in, and to rectify the cause. remain intact and sound. The roofing material must
Termites be free of holes, cracks or other faults, and every
other component, joint and junction must be well-
Check for termite shelter tubes, particularly where
executed and in sound condition.
the framing rests on internal and external walls,
and around chimney shafts. Refer to Section 6.2, To effectively monitor the condition of the roof
and take care not to disturb the workings until covering it must be inspected both internally and
professional treatment is undertaken. externally. Refer to Section 3.1 for an introduction
to the range of roofing materials used in South
Structural problems Australia and how to inspect the roof from the
Be on the lookout for any timbers that are out of outside. The main items to look out for within the
alignment, twisted or bent - this may indicate either roof space are covered in this section.
structural overloading or loss of strength because For further information on roofs, refer also to
of termite attack. DEH Technical Note 3.10 Early Roofing and Roof
Check for joints that may have loosened because Materials in South Australia. Topics covered in
of long-term shrinkage of unseasoned timbers, or detail include roof structure and geometry,
where splitting or rot has reduced the strength of roofing materials, detailing and maintenance,
the joint. Repairs can be made by bolting a incorporating modern services, and advice on
new piece of timber across the joint as a splint, trade skills and workmanship.
or by using suitable, off-the-shelf, galvanised Early detection
metal connectors.
Often the first sign of roof problems is the
A generalised sagging of the roof framing may appearance of damp patches in the ceilings or
be the result of re-roofing with a heavier material upper sections of the walls. But the deterioration
- for instance original corrugated sheet metal of the roof covering is a gradual process, and
being replaced with tiles. This can be remedied the time lag between a problem developing and
by adding additional support down to the walls, visible symptoms becoming apparent can be
usually involving the installation of purlins running considerable.
at right angles under the mid-span of the rafters,
By keeping a watchful eye on conditions within the
with struts to take the loads from the purlins down
roof space and on the outside of the roof, faults
to suitable internal wall lines. Care is needed to
can be identified and rectified as they develop,
avoid diagonal forces onto the tops of the walls
long before the damage has spread and the
or overloading the internal walls, and professional
effects have filtered down into the occupied
advice should be sought.
spaces. By the time a damp patch has been
Problems also arise when the roof framing is not noticed from within the room, what began as a
adequately tied across from side to side. This is simple and easily repaired leak has escalated into
usually done with collar ties running horizontally extensive water damage.
between pairs of opposing rafters, but if these
are missing or set too high up, the weight of the
Checking the underside
roof can cause the ridge to drop and the ends of Finding the exact source of roof leaks can be
the rafters to spread outwards. The solution to this difficult because of the tendency of water to track
problem is to introduce new collar ties, or perhaps downwards until it encounters some obstruction
cross-ties in the form of rods and turnbuckles at and starts to drip. The key is to be observant
ceiling level. As before, seek professional advice and thorough.
to ensure that the repair method is tailored to the Depending on weather conditions, there are
particular situation, particularly if the movement of several ways to identify leaks:
the rafters has pushed the tops of the external walls • during a shower of rain, run a torch over the
out of line. underside of the roof covering and look for any
Deformed timber roof members may also result in moist areas or drips
disturbance of the roof cladding, with the potential • on a sunny day, look for any shafts of light
for water leaks. which might indicate a potential leak

Roof covering • after rain, inspect the roof timbers for any dark
moisture staining, and similarly go over the
The relative thinness of the roof covering belies its
ceiling surface looking for evidence of damp
fundamental task of protecting the main structure
patches.

42 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

The source of water entry will often not be defence against water entry, with the additional
apparent. The wind can drive water up under benefits of condensation control and reflective
cappings and flashings, or between poorly fitting thermal insulation.
tiles. Capillary action can draw moisture into close
fitting joints such as between tiles or roof sheets. Ceiling framing
Problems commonly experienced with ceilings are
Corrugated sheet metal
covered in Section 4.3, as well as repair techniques
Corrugated sheet metal invariably begins to fail
where the ceiling material is pulling away. The
where the ends of the sheets overlap. The close fit
structural adequacy of the ceiling framing is
at this joint encourages capillary action which sucks
discussed here.
water up into the joint, and once there it becomes
trapped, particularly if dust has infiltrated the joint. Joist deflection
The conditions are ideal for corrosion - initially of the Ceilings are normally supported by timber joists
protective zinc coating and eventually of the sheet spaced at 450 mm or 600 mm centres, running
metal itself. across the shorter dimension of the room and
Rusting at these joints is normally clearly evident, supported on the walls of the longer sides. A
and once pinholes of daylight become visible the structural problem with the framing is indicated by
roof sheet needs repair or replacement. The most sagging or deflection of the joists.
appropriate action will be guided by the historic In many cases this will be nothing more than long-
importance of the roof. The life of the original term deformation of the joists due to the inherent
sheet metal can be extended considerably by flexibility of timber and the dead weight of the
‘sleeving’ the joints - slipping a narrow strip of ceiling. In other cases the joists may be a little
iron up between the sheets to bridge the undersized but nevertheless quite adequate - refer
damaged section. to the comments on timber sizing in Section 5.3.
If replacement is necessary, new full-length sheets More serious deflection may be the result of
will avoid end laps, but heritage considerations overloading of the joists by the build-up of large
might favour using short sheets to retain the original amounts of debris or rubbish, or because of
pattern of sheeting, or even good salvaged sheets waterlogged insulation or ceiling material.
to avoid an inappropriately new appearance. Deflection can be measured quite simply with a
The standard finish on the market today is a string line stretched between the ends of the joist.
zinc/aluminium alloy known as Zincalume. It has If in doubt, seek professional advice, particularly
markedly different physical and weathering if there are obvious signs of structural distress or
properties to the traditional galvanised finish, and is cracked timbers.
generally unsuited for use on historic buildings. Hanging beams
Tiles The simplest remedy for excessive joist deflection
Because of the numerous joints in a slate-tiled or is to install a hanging beam. This is a large, deep
clay-tiled roof, there is increased potential for it beam set at right angles to the joists and supported
to lose its integrity of cover. Look for individual directly up off the tops of the walls across the
cracked or broken tiles, and for slippage due to middle of the room. Its size should be determined
breakage at the fixing point or failure of the nail or by engineering calculation or reference to beam
wire fixing holding the tile in place. sizing tables. The joists are fixed up to the beam
A powdery appearance on the underside of a clay with joist hangers or hoop iron straps, thereby
or slate tile is due to damage by salt attack, and halving their span.
indicates that the material is absorbing rather The ceiling may be supported this way in its
than shedding water. Its ability to continue sagged position, or pushed carefully up from
providing an adequate waterproof barrier below to its original alignment or to some point
diminishes, and overloading of the roof structure in between, depending on its condition and the
can be a concern because of the increasing degree of deflection.
weight of water absorbed. Storage
Seek professional advice on the most appropriate Avoid using the roof space for storage unless it is
action to take, bearing in mind the historic value specifically designed for this purpose, or the weight
of the roofing material. is borne by the walls and not the ceiling joists. Be
If renewing or re-laying the tiles becomes aware also of the potential fire hazards and of
necessary, ensure that a layer of sarking is installed inadvertently providing nesting places for rats
underneath. This is a reinforced moisture barrier and other vermin.
such as Sisalation which provides a second line of

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 43

Insulation Electrical
The use of thermal insulation in ceilings has only Seek the advice of a qualified electrician if in any
recently become common practice, but will be doubt about the safety of the electrical wiring.
found from time to time in old buildings. Early
Take care entering the roof space until you have
insulation materials included seaweed and wood
determined the safety of the electrical wiring.
shavings - both highly flammable. While the use
Early installations used wiring with rubber insulation
of such materials is of interest historically, their
which becomes brittle with age. If the electrical
retention will rarely be justified because of the fire
wiring within the roof space is contained within
danger. Their performance will also fall far short of
metal conduits or covered timber channels (‘cap &
the best modern materials.
casing’), great care is needed to avoid disturbing
Insulation batts or granules laid directly onto the the wiring, to minimise the risk of damaging the
ceiling surface should not present a problem, being insulation and causing shorting. Refer to Section 4.5
light in weight, but inspect the condition of your for more information on old electrical installations.
ceilings carefully beforehand because it will be
Note that electrical cables should be clipped
the last time you will have such easy access. Look
into position and not loosely draped. Avoid laying
particularly for any problems in the fixing of the
insulation over cables, as it can cause them
ceiling material to the joists.
to overheat.

Chimneys Water heaters

The chimney shaft, as it rises through the roof Gravity-fed hot water systems use a cold water
space, is typically of brick construction (but header tank within the roof space, or an integrated
sometimes stone), and is not normally prone water heater cylinder and header tank. The tank or
to problems within this zone of the building. cylinder should sit within an overflow tray drained
Nevertheless, a few points are worth checking usually out through the eaves. Check that the
while you are in the roof space: tray is dry (it is intended only as a precautionary
• Look at the point where roof covering meets measure), and if possible run some water into it
the chimney, keeping an eye out for signs of to check that it is watertight and drains freely to
leaking flashings or dampness coming from the outside.
above Trace the water pipes to and from the tank and
• Make sure mortar joints are sound and that look carefully for any signs of weeping or leaks.
there are no signs of fretting Gas pipes
• Look carefully for any signs of cracking - the Redundant gas pipes from early gas lighting
roof covering disguises the true height and installations are frequently found in roof spaces,
slenderness of the chimney shaft, which relies and pose no particular problems or risks.
heavily on the roof framing to brace it against
Mechanical plant
earth tremors and high winds. Any signs of
cracking should be followed up with The maintenance of mechanical plant such as
professional advice. ventilation or air conditioning equipment is beyond
the scope of this publication, but pay attention to
Building services the following points:
Services which may be encountered in the roof • roof penetrations - check around any duct or
space include: pipe penetrations through the roof covering
• electrical wiring for signs of leaks

• water pipes and water heaters • drip trays - check drip trays (as for
water heaters)
• gas piping
• air conditioning plant

44 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

5.3 Structural adequacy
The timber framing supporting the ceilings, roof
and floors of an older building may not conform
to current codes of practice for timber sizes or
spacings. Before the introduction of codes and
standards for timber framing, the sizing of structural
timbers was more often by a combination of on-
site experience and guesswork rather than by
calculation, and can vary from spindly to massive
- often in direct proportion to the status of the
building. However, if the timber is well seasoned (as
would be expected in an old building) and in good
condition, the structure is usually adequate.
Should any evidence of structural failure or distress
arise, seek professional engineering advice. Signs to
look for include:
• deflection - noticeable bending of a timber
member, generally indicating excessive vertical
loading or undersizing
• twisting - suggests that the timber is too slender
for the loads imposed on it
• splitting - indicates serious overloading to the
point of actual failure, perhaps in conjunction
with a localised weakness such as a major knot
or sap vein.
Look also at whole structural entities, rather than
just the individual parts. For example:
• stand well back from the building and look
at the general line of the roof to detect any
sagging or misalignment which may not be
readily detectable from within the roof space
• bounce up and down in the centre of an
upstairs floor to see if it flexes excessively
• check the static deflection in the floor by
stretching a string line between opposite walls
and measuring the difference between the
floor level at the walls and the centre.
Bear in mind that alterations or additions to a
building may redistribute existing loads or impose
new loads on the older parts of the building. Even
though this might not be sufficient to cause the
physical fracture of a timber structural member or
any immediately evident distress, it can cause long-
term deformation and deflection if the structure is
loaded beyond its safe working strength.

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 45

Repeat
6. Title Supplements
Technical
Understanding
Repeat Intro your building and the forces
at work on it

6.1 Good housekeeping Humidity and temperature

To minimise stress on the interior decoration,
practice finishes and joinery of a building, extremes of
humidity should be avoided, as should excessive
The adverse effects of age and the day-to-day
and rapid fluctuations in humidity. If heating or
use of a building can be reduced by sensible
air conditioning systems are in use, monitor the
practices that recognise the various environmental
humidity within the building to ensure that it is
agents responsible for gradual deterioration. For
maintained at a constant and appropriate level.
most domestic situations and in buildings with
limited public access, being aware of these Similarly, rapid changes in temperature
factors and developing good housekeeping can damage finishes such as plaster. As the
practices will usually suffice. In complex or larger temperature of the surfacing material changes, it
buildings subject to heavier traffic, incorporate a will expand or contract relative to the base which
detailed routine housekeeping schedule into a remains at the original temperature. This action can
maintenance logbook, and update it regularly. be strong enough to shear the finish from its base.
Refrigerated air conditioning
Wear and Erosion
Rapid temperature changes can be a particular
Wear and erosion from the day-to-day use of a
problem with refrigerated air conditioning systems
building can be very destructive to old surfaces
in old buildings. Rapid changes of surface
over time, but can be moderated by protecting
temperature can occur on start-up when a system
vulnerable surfaces with replaceable overlays - for
has been off for some time. Avoid unnecessarily
example a runner over a bare floor or a valuable
high or low thermostat settings in response to
rug, or a timber walkway over fragile tiling. Some
extreme external conditions.
degree of visual intrusion is acceptable if there is
Problems can also arise with long-term drying out
a nett protective benefit.
of building elements as a result of the
Wax polish dehumidifying effect of refrigerated air
Another form of renewable overlay is the wax conditioning (this is an inherent characteristic of the
polish used on timber finishes. The application of process, both on heating and cooling cycles).
wax builds up a protective layer against material Components such as large plaster mouldings
abrasion and wetting. As long as the thickness of will shrink as their moisture content is gradually
the layer is maintained, the wear and erosion is reduced, and can in some circumstances shear
taken by the wax rather than the underlying timber. away from the base masonry. Timber may also
Waxes that can be removed by water or turpentine begin to curl as the exposed surface dries out.
should be used in preference to other types such
as silicone-based compounds.
Other heating and cooling systems
Different types of heating and cooling systems vary
Cleaning
in their effect on air humidity.
The abrasiveness of dirt plays a major part in the
Evaporative air conditioning systems, for example,
erosion of a building’s fabric. Give priority to the
rely on raising the humidity of the air to produce
cleaning of areas where dirt can enter the building.
the cooling effect. Provided they are used as
Tracked-in dirt is a major cause of damage to
recommended, with sufficient doors and windows
floor surfaces and can be minimised with good
open, the humidified air is quickly exhausted and
matting outside entry points to the building. Clean
an acceptable equilibrium maintained.
doormats regularly to maintain their effectiveness.
Electrical resistance heating of all types - radiators,
Historic carpets and special reproductions should
convection and fan heaters, panel and column
be cleaned only under the direction of a specialist
heaters, and radiant floor or ceiling heating - result
in this field. The Heritage Branch can provide
in varying degrees of dehumidification of the
advice if you require assistance.
air. Radiant systems will also tend to dry out the
Excercise care when cleaning historic surfaces, surface they are directly heating, but can be very
using only neutral-base cleaning agents (pH 7.0). useful in old buildings as they can be completely
concealed. They also cope well with the large
interior volumes of rooms with high ceilings.

46 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

Gas and oil-fired systems produce water vapour as Types of termite
part of the combustion process, but this is rarely a
Termites play a number of vital and beneficial
problem, except with unflued installations.
roles in the natural environment. Some species
Painting go largely unnoticed within and around our built
environment, while others are capable of inflicting
In order to avoid unnecessary paint build-up, rather
extensive damage. The principal categories of
than completely repainting, areas which have
termite are the harvester, drywood, dampwood
worn more quickly should be touched up from time
and subterranean. Each has particular patterns of
to time (eg window sills, doors, hand rails). Keep
nesting and feeding.
leftover paint for touch-up work, and store it in a
cool place upside down in airtight containers. This The harvester and drywood termites are found
will avoid skinning on the surface when the tin is mostly in tropical and sub-tropical regions, and are
re-opened. not a concern in South Australia.

Touch-up work requires skill for a successful result. The dampwood termite can cause damage to
timber in direct contact with the ground, as well as
Repair graffiti and vandalism promptly to
to trees (they nest and feed in the damp conditions
discourage additional damage.
at the junction of branches with the trunk). They
can be a problem where rudimentary construction
6.2 Termites or poor detailing result in timber having direct
ground contact. The group of greatest concern
In order to understand how termites (commonly
to building owners in South Australia is the
known as white ants) affect buildings, how
subterranean termite.
to discourage them and how to detect their
presence, it is useful to have an appreciation of Subterranean termites
their nesting and feeding habits. The information This group of termites derives its name from its
given here is intended only as a general tendency to build nests underground, from where
introduction to a very complex topic, about which they radiate to the various food sources in the
there are still many unknowns and some common vicinity. Nests may also be found as mounds or in
misconceptions. the hollow bases of trees, but will remain sealed
Much of the information in this publication on the from the external environment, maintaining direct
subject of insect pests is sourced from Building contact with the ground.
Out Termites by Robert Verkerk. The characteristic of the subterranean termite
which dictates its nesting and feeding habits is its
The natural vs built environment sensitivity to moisture and temperature conditions
The destructive effects of natural threats (including - it cannot tolerate the wide environmental
termites, borers and fungi) to the timber incorporated fluctuations associated with exposure to the open
into our buildings should be considered from the air, and relies on the protected environment within
perspective of the natural world. These agents of the nest. Subterranean soil conditions provide the
destruction to the built environment are in fact the stable temperatures and high relative humidity they
catalysts of new growth and regeneration in the require for survival.
natural environment, fulfilling an essential function
Their staple diet is cellulose, derived chiefly from
in converting fallen and dead timber back into soil
timber. Certain timbers used in old buildings, such
and nutrients to stimulate new growth.
as Australian cedar (Toona Australis) and native
Once a tree has died, the natural order is for the pine (Callitris), are naturally termite resistant, but
process of recycling to begin. The fact that we cut the more common timbers such as pine (baltic,
down trees, mill the timber to convenient sizes and kauri, radiata) and douglas fir (oregon) are
season it to a suitably ‘dead’ state to incorporate favourite termite fodder. Hardwoods are generally
into our built environment means nothing to a considered to be more immune, but not if the
termite or a borer or a wet rot fungus. They are Nasutitermes species is around - they have a
simply doing their job. We should also recognise preference for eucalypt hardwoods, and will make
that we will always be fighting nature itself in our a meal of jarrah while leaving adjacent softwoods
battle to prevent incursion and damage. alone.
To maintain the necessary temperature and
moisture conditions, the subterranean termite
moves between the nest and the food source
within sealed tunnels and galleries. Where it

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 47

becomes necessary to traverse open space, they The sub-floor inspection (see Section 5.1) should
will build shelter tubes having the appearance of include a thorough investigation of the zone
mud tunnels. This is typically how they gain access between ground level and the floor framing,
to building timbers, although their route of entry looking for tell-tale signs of shelter tubes running
can also be concealed within cracks or cavities in between the two. Do not break into shelter tubes
masonry and in concrete floors. as this can put the colony into ‘shut down’ mode
The distance that termites will travel to food sources and make treatment more difficult.
varies according to the species, but a radius Cracks and crevices
around the nest of up to 70 metres is not unusual. Shelter tubes are not the only means by which
The nest contains the queen and king, and forms termites will move from soil to a tempting piece of
the centre of a highly ordered social system. The timber. The masonry sub-structure in old buildings
various castes within the colony each have their is typically built with the stones or bricks set in soft
particular functions and physical characteristics lime mortar, and with a core of loose rubble or
- the workers, the soldiers, the reproducers, and mud. Depending on the condition and standard
so on. of construction of the base masonry, there can be
many concealed paths up through the centre of
What to look for the wall without any visible signs.
The detection of termites requires experience, skill
Cracks caused by footing movement on reactive
and a good knowledge of their behaviour. Regular
soils can also provide a suitable path, even in
inspection by a qualified contractor or consultant
masonry which is otherwise soundly and solidly built.
is recommended. An important adjunct is the
Other potential points of entry are cracks in
building owner’s or manager’s vigilance, both in
concrete floors, or where pipes and other services
observing good housekeeping practices, and in
penetrate the floor or walls. It is not uncommon for
keeping a watchful eye for signs of trouble.
termites to get into a roof space undetected by
Attention to the following points will help in early
tracking along an old electrical conduit set into
detection and enable prompt action before
the wall.
serious damage is done.
Ant caps
Nests
Ant caps are horizontal barriers made from
Subterranean termites may be present in the
galvanised sheet metal inserted between the sub-
gardens and trees surrounding the building,
floor timbers and the sub-structure (eg masonry
whether they have gained access into the building
dwarf walls) at the time of construction. They
or not. Nests within the ground which protrude
project beyond the sub-structure and have their
slightly as a dome or mound shape are readily
edges folded down at an angle of 45 degrees.
detected, and will often be found at a rotting
Although they can certainly hinder easy entry,
tree stump.
do not assume that their presence prevents
Nests within the bases of trees are more difficult
termite access. Their value lies more in forcing the
to identify without experience and knowledge,
termites out into the open, where the shelter tubes
as there will usually be no external sign.
around the edge of the metal cap can be readily
Underground nests can prove very difficult to detected during sub-floor inspection. Without the
locate, often being built under concrete slabs, caps, it might be possible for the termites to pass
verandahs or steps, where the overlying directly up through the masonry into the timber
structure helps to insulate the colony from with no externally visible trace.
environmental fluctuations.
Tell-tale signs
Although finding the nest will assist in taking
Termite attack frequently goes unnoticed until
appropriate action to deal with termite attack,
considerable damage has occurred within the
it is not essential.
affected timbers. Restricted sub-floor access may
Shelter tubes make effective inspection difficult, or the path of
Good building practice ensures that the various entry may be completely concealed. Often the first
timber components and structures of a building are evidence will be when the timber surface begins
kept clear of the ground, both to keep them dry to deform or break up.
and to protect them from termite attack. Because Detecting the presence of termites at an earlier
the subterranean termite is unable to traverse open stage than this is not easy, and is made more
areas away from the controlled microclimate of its uncertain by lack of experience. Nevertheless,
nest and underground galleries, it constructs mud- the building owner can reduce the chance of an
like shelter tubes to get from the soil to a suitable infestation going undetected with regular and
piece of timber. careful observation. Using a powerful torch,

48 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

look out for:
• architraves, skirtings or mouldings starting to
come away from the wall, pushed out by the
construction of shelter tubes
• similarly, dislocation of small trim beads around
frames, built-in furniture and so on
• signs of mud tracking appearing from cracks
running up plastered walls
• timber that sounds hollow when tapped with
the handle of a large screwdriver
• slight rippling or buckling in the surface
of painted or polished timber, including
floorboards
• a feeling of ‘give’ in floors that previously felt
firm, or in the boards themselves.
It is also possible in some cases to detect termite
presence by sound. Depending on the species, The door frame, lining and structural timber lintel of this doorway have
been completely eaten by termites. A mud gallery is clearly visible at the
the termites can be heard at work if the level centre of the picture.
of ambient noise is very low. Another test is to
tap a suspect piece of timber with a screwdriver identified to you, and to be thoroughly inspected.
handle or mallet, and listen for any response - a Observe carefully how the inspection is conducted
stethoscope will help. Some species will react with - ask questions and make notes afterwards to
a warning signal which can be heard as a ticking help you in keeping an eye on things between
sound. Bear in mind however that although an inspections.
audible noise can confirm the presence of The effectiveness and thoroughness of the
termites, silence should not be taken to indicate inspection will depend on whether good access is
their absence. available, particularly to the sub-floor zone and the
building’s perimeter. Consider ways in which access
Protecting older buildings can be improved.
The protection of buildings against termite attack Housekeeping
requires the successful combination of four distinct
The susceptibility of a building to attack by
but inter-related approaches:
subterranean termites can be reduced by
Construction practice attention to good practices in managing and
The protection of any new structure from termite maintaining the building and grounds.
attack requires attention to building design and Damp soil
construction details, the choice of materials and Termites are less likely to establish colonies where
the provision of effective termite barriers. There are soil moisture content is low. Assess the area around
certain mandatory requirements under the Building the building for any of the following problems (refer
Code of Australia and applicable Standards, but it also to Section 3.6):
is a topic beyond the scope of this publication.
• Roof water drainage - overflowing gutters,
However, when undertaking any alterations or blocked downpipes, downpipes discharging at
new building work affecting an older building, or near the base of the building, and ineffective
pay careful attention to avoid increasing the or blocked drains
exposure risk. Replacing suspended timber floors
• Surface water drainage - paving fall that
with concrete slabs and butting new slabs up to
doesn’t shed run-off well away from the
old external walls are two common mistakes which
building, localised concentrations of surface
can substantially increase the risk of termite attack
water due to paving design or ground levels, or
in the old structure, even if all the relevant Code
areas that fail to dry out quickly after rain
requirements are met.
• Garden watering - excessive watering,
Inspection particularly with inappropriately-programmed
Have the building and grounds inspected or leaking automatic irrigation systems, or plants
annually by a qualified and reputable pest control with high water demands planted close to the
contractor or consultant. Ask for potential nesting building
sites and the vulnerable parts of the building to be • Ground water - sub-surface water making its

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 49

 way under the building because of ineffective have shorter effective life spans, requiring re-
or non-existent drainage to intercept and divert application at shorter intervals.
it - a problem associated with sloping sites. Physical barriers
Wood rot
Termites can be attracted to the odour of the
fungi growing in or on timber that remains damp
for extended periods. Dampness in the timber also
helps the termites maintain humid conditions within
the workings.
Keep exterior timberwork and sub-floor timbers dry
by paying attention to paintwork, flashings, leaking
plumbing and so on.
Gardens
Practice good housekeeping habits within the
gardens and grounds, such as:
• removing tree stumps, which may provide
attractive nesting conditions
• checking the health and condition of trees,
particularly old specimens which may have
developed hollows within the trunk conducive
Termite attack on a stump
to termite colonisation
• keeping the grounds clear of dense The discontinuation of the organochlorines in
undergrowth which can obscure active South Australia has seen the appearance of
termite mounds environmentally sound physical alternatives on
the market. The two most widely used currently
• keeping the grounds clear of timber in contact
are crushed granite and stainless steel mesh. Both
with the ground, including fallen branches and
of these materials rely on their ability to block
scrap building timber
the passage of subterranean termites, on being
• taking care with the use of landscaping
too hard for the termites to chew, and on their
materials such as untreated railway sleepers
durability in contact with the soil.
and thick bark mulches, which can provide
Like a chemical barrier, correct placement is critical
potential artificial nesting sites.
to protect every potential path of entry through the
Termite barriers building’s sub-structure. An advantage is that their
For many years, new buildings have been required presence and continuity is readily apparent.
to have some form of barrier to the entry of As with the liquid termiticides, achieving a full and
subterranean termites. This integration within the effective barrier in existing buildings between the
construction process means that there can be a soil and the below ground structure of the building
good degree of certainty in its correct application is not possible. They can, however, be successfully
and performance. An older building, on the other used to protect the more accessible parts of the
hand, may have no termite barrier at all, or may sub-structure.
have been given a retro-active treatment during
extensive alteration or addition work, or in response
Limitations with old buildings
to a termite attack. Existing buildings are much more difficult to protect.
Attention can only be paid to potential paths
Chemical barriers
of entry which remain visible or accessible, such
By far the most common form of termite barrier
as around the perimeter of the building and to
used during the past five decades has been
accessible ground surfaces within the sub-floor.
the chemical barrier - the application of large
quantities of poison to the ground around and It is not practically possible to extend a barrier
under the building, to interrupt the migration of under or through the base walls of an existing
subterranean termites from the soil into the building. masonry building, so the zone of contact between
below ground masonry and the soil remains
Until relatively recently, the most common chemical
unprotected. The sub-floor structure can be given
termite barriers contained organochlorines, a
some protection by installing galvanised sheet
group of termiticides (such as DDT) that have been
metal ant caps between the dwarf walls and the
banned in South Australia due to health concerns.
bearers, but this is generally not possible at the
Alternative products have been developed,
main wall lines.
including pyrethroids and organophosphates. These
are considered safer alternatives, but generally Paved areas around the building and floors, such

50 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

as concrete slabs, are normally drilled close to A highly toxic fine powder, used since the early
the wall at regular intervals for the injection of twentieth century as a very effective means of
termiticide. In theory, this provides a continuous eliminating termite activity by destroying the
barrier along the wall line, but in practice the colony. Arsenic trioxide is used only in the case
odds of achieving this are minimal. The flow and of termite presence, and has no application as a
absorption of the chemical under the solid surface deterrent or preventative measure.
is totally unpredictable, and unless grossly excessive A small quantity of the powder is puffed into an
quantities are used, there are likely to be numerous opening made in a main gallery, and the opening
paths remaining between patches of treated soil. resealed. Traces of the powder are picked up by
termites returning to the nest, where their grooming
Dealing with infestation habits aid its spread. The objective of the treatment
It is important that the building owner understands is to eventually destroy the queen. With no means
what is being done by the pest control contractor, of reproduction, the colony cannot then survive.
and that the likely outcomes and limitations of the
Its use requires judgement and experience for the
treatment are clearly understood. It is a common
successful elimination of the queen, for without
assumption that the treatment instigated in
this the colony will recover and the infestation
response to an outbreak of termite activity will fully
will continue.
protect the entire building for a given additional
period, but in many cases this is not so. Arsenic trioxide treatment can be carried out only
by a licensed pest exterminator, and great care is
If the treatment isolates the nest from the building,
required in handling and disposing of any timbers
but does not actually destroy the colony, there is
into which the powder has been puffed or carried.
every likelihood that the problem might recur by
means of another point of entry. Even destroying Nest destruction
the colony responsible for a particular attack does If the nest containing the attacking termite colony
not preclude the possibility of attack by another is located and accessible, it can be physically
nearby colony. destroyed by digging it out or burning it. As above,
No form of treatment should be taken as a reason the queen must be destroyed if the colony is to be
to relax your vigilance. An alarming number prevented from re-establishing.
of termite infestations occur within a few years The workings within the building must be inspected
of the completion of a new building, or of major again after a couple of weeks to determine
preventative works to an existing building, whether activity has ceased, in case the wrong
because the owners believed they were protected. nest has been destroyed or more than one colony
The principal approaches to treatment are listed in is responsible.
approximate order of prevalence. Research and
Termite traps
development on other methods continue, both in
When the nest cannot be located and the
the fields of chemical deterrents or poisons, and
workings or shelter tubes within the building are
in natural or benign controls such as predation
unsuitable for conventional dusting, termite traps
by other insect species, biological agents, new
or lures can be used to attract the termites so that
physical barrier materials, behavioural disruption
arsenic trioxide can be successfully introduced into
using pheromones and the application of artificial
the colony.
light and heat sources.
Traps vary in design, but the principles are the
Termiticide
same. A typical trap comprises a wooden box
When a termite infestation is discovered in a with slots cut into the base and a removable lid
building, the response is generally to apply a which can be sealed in place. The box contains
chemical termiticide at the point of entry. This will dampened layers of cardboard which provide
immediately isolate the workings from the nest, and an attractive food source. The box is bedded into
in most cases will successfully eliminate the activity. dampened ground in the vicinity of a suspected
The termites remaining on the building side of the termite access route, and left undisturbed for
barrier will under most circumstances die from lack several weeks.
of moisture, but the colony within the nest is likely
Once termites have infested the box, arsenic
to remain unaffected. Re-entry at the site of the
trioxide is introduced and the lid resealed. It is
treatment is prevented while the poison maintains
possible to achieve a more effective distribution
its effectiveness, but the surviving colony can re-
of the poison by this method, but again success
infest the building via any other available path.
relies very much on the judgement and experience
of the contractor, and on their knowledge of the
termites’ behaviour and habits.
Arsenic trioxide

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 51

6.3 Borers Treatment
Chemical agents have also been used by spray
The term borer is loosely used to describe a number or injection to treat active infestations. Alternative
of insect species (beetles, weevils, wasps and treatments include:
moths) which feed on timber. Some attack only
• fumigation - suitable only for portable items of
living or newly-felled wood, and can therefore
furniture, as the treatment involves highly-toxic
be a problem with new buildings or renovations.
methyl bromide and must be carried out off-site
Others prefer seasoned (dried) timbers such as
by a licensed operator under tightly-controlled
those found in an older building. There are two
conditions. It is however very effective and
main types responsible for the damage commonly
leaves no toxic residue within the timber.
experienced in building timbers and furniture - the
Fumigation does not protect against
furniture beetle and the powderpost beetle.
re-infestation.
Furniture beetle • heat - the larvae are readily killed by heat,
which can be aplied by careful use of a hot
What to look for
air gun, microwaving small articles or wrapping
The furniture beetle is an introduced species, and
large items in black plastic and leaving them
its damage is indicated by the presence of:
out in the sun for a day.
• emergence holes - small holes in the surface
Before undertaking any treatment, seek expert
of the timber, actually the exit routes made
advice to determine whether there is any current
by mature adult beetles which have recently
activity. The presence of emergence holes and
emerged from the pupal stage; and
frass may date back to a long-ceased attack,
• frass - a fine dust deposited within the timber as and unnecessary treatment and expense can
a feeding by-product. be avoided.
Although the emergence holes are the visible
signs of attack on the timber, the majority of the Powderpost beetle
damage is in fact done at the earlier larval stage What to look for
of development. The symptoms of powderpost beetle attack are
Eggs laid in crevices within the timber hatch into very similar to the furniture beetle, but the
larvae, which tunnel through the timber as they emergence holes are smaller and the frass is
feed. The larval stage lasts about two years. finer and of a flour-like texture.
Susceptible timbers Susceptible timbers
The furniture beetle has a liking for old softwoods The powderpost beetle’s preference is for new
(including baltic pine, hoop pine, radiata pine, building timbers, and it is therefore of little concern
kauri and oregon) in cool, dark, humid situations. It in conserving historic fabric. It attacks mainly
very occasionally attacks well-aged hardwoods. hardwood species and eats only the sapwood,
The damage caused by the tunnelling larvae is leaving the heartwood intact. Because the
slow, but over the space of many years, a heavy sapwood comprises only a small proportion of
infestation can reduce the strength of load-bearing a good quality construction timber, its destruction
timber to the point of collapse. usually has no practical effect on structural
performance.
Prevention
Prevention and treatment
Avoiding furniture beetle attack is often difficult
because of the conditions to which built-in timbers The powderpost larva has a much shorter lifecycle
are exposed. Nevertheless, their presence can be than its furniture beetle counterpart (4-6 months).
discouraged by reducing humidity and increasing As a consequence, the consumption of the
the levels of light and ventilation. sapwood by repeated infestation is usually
quite rapid, and in practice there is little point in
Residual chemical treatments have been used in
attempting to prevent it. Once the sapwood is
the past, but one of the agents - an organochlorine
gone, the beetle will move on, leaving the timber
termiticide - is no longer permitted, and the
still well able to carry out its intended function.
substitute pyrethrum-based agent is not
particularly effective.

52 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

6.4 Wood rot Prevention and treatment
The moisture content of seasoned timber in a
Wood rot occurs as a result of fungal organisms
normal stable building environment is typically in
penetrating and feeding on timber. The terms dry
the order of 10 to 15 per cent. From this fact two
rot and wet rot are commonly used to describe
observations can be made:
fungal decay of building timbers, but the distinction
• timber at normal stable moisture content will
between the two is often blurred.
not be affected by wet rot; and
Dry rot refers generally to fungi which are able
• for wet rot to occur, a substantial additional
to conduct water from a remote source such as
amount of moisture needs to be introduced
damp earth or timber. Although requiring suitably
into the wood.
moist conditions to establish themselves, they have
the ability to spread to and feed on dry timbers. Therefore, the principal method of control against
They are almost unknown in Australia. fungal decay is to keep timber dry.

Wet rot describes those forms of fungal decay Common moisture-related problems to be avoided
which can sustain themselves only in damp include:
conditions, the fungus extracting its moisture • wood in direct contact with the ground
needs directly from the timber on which it is • leaking or overflowing gutters and downpipes
feeding. This is the form responsible for the majority
• leaking water pipes or sewer pipes
of damage locally.
• faulty damp proof course or none at all
What to look for • inadequate sub-floor ventilation
Timber destroyed by dry rot has a characteristic • condensation due to poor ventilation, high
shrunken, dried appearance and sounds hollow humidity and temperature differences between
when tapped. The most readily identifiable feature outside and inside
is the deep cracking which occurs both along and
• breakdown of protective paint coatings
across the grain, giving the surface a distinctly
(infrequent repainting)
geometric, cubed appearance. The timber can
usually be turned to a fine powder by rubbing it • paint types which impede the evaporation
between the fingers. of moisture

Wet rot damage can vary in appearance • exposing the end grain of timber to excessive
according to the particular fungus responsible. moisture
Soft rot is commonly used to describe a darkening
End grain
of the wood, usually confined to timbers that are
The cellular structure of timber is linear in nature,
more or less continuously damp such as stumps and
with fibres running lengthwise. This is analogous to
bearers in contact with the ground.
a long bundle of straws, which draws up water
The most common form of wet rot fungus is
readily through the open ends, but is resistant to
known as white rot, which takes its name from
moisture penetration along its length. In a similar
the characteristic white ‘stringy’ appearance when
fashion, the absorption of water into a length
the surface is broken open. Probing with a small
of timber is chiefly through its end grain. The
screwdriver is a good way of determining if rot is
prevention of wood rot is highly dependent upon
present, as the timber’s impact resistance is
good detailing and regular re-painting to avoid
greatly diminished.
exposing the end grain to moisture.
Moisture content
Wood rot requires the presence of fungal spores,
timber on which to grow and feed, a supply of air,
a suitable temperature and a supply of moisture.
In the case of wet rot, the moisture is derived from
the timber under attack. To sustain the fungus, the
moisture content in the timber needs to be at least
25 per cent. The greatest susceptibility occurs at a
moisture content of between 30 and 50 per cent.
Above this level the respiration of air by the fungus
is increasingly impeded, and despite the impression
given by its name, wet rot is not a problem in
timber that is really wet.

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 53

6.5 Rising damp Old damp course types
A damp course comprises a continuous barrier
and salt attack through the wall above the ground level, and
serves to intercept the upward passage of
Rising damp moisture. Buildings from the 1870s onwards can
This is the term used to describe the dampness usually be expected to have some form of damp
occurring in porous masonry walls as a result of course, but the earlier and more rudimentary the
moisture rising up from the ground by capillary building, the greater the chance that it will not.
action, in much the same way as oil in the wick
One of the most common types in use during
of a lamp. It has been a widespread problem
the first half of the twentieth century comprised
throughout the world for many centuries, affecting
sand and tar, mixed and laid hot as a continuous
walls without adequate damp courses. It results in
layer. Earlier materials included sheets of slate
mustiness and unsightly staining, and in some cases
or lead, hardwood blocks, and even glass. Also
mould growth.
encountered might be perforated terracotta
The nature and extent of a rising damp problem tiles, hard-burnt bricks and blocks of smelter slag.
depends on a number of factors, including: Chemical additives to the mortar were introduced
• the porosity of the masonry in the 1940s, followed by bitumen-based products
• the moisture load such as Alcor and malthoid in the 1950s and the
first uses of polyethylene in the 1960s.
• rates of air movement and evaporation;
• effective drainage of surface water and Bridging
roof water Many instances of rising damp result from the
• the concentration of dissolved salts present original damp proof course being bridged, allowing
• the properties of the surface finish moisture to penetrate into the wall at a higher
level. Bridging can occur from the build-up of soil
Salt attack level in a garden bed; from new paving being laid
In South Australia, the unusually high concentration over an earlier surface; or as a result of re-pointing
of dissolved salts in our groundwater creates a of mortar joints.
further problem - salt attack. The two actions Sand and tar damp courses become quite brittle
together - rising damp and salt attack - have and fragile where exposed to the elements, and
become known in South Australia as salt damp. are frequently found to be eroded back from the
As moisture rises up into the wall, the dissolved surface - care is needed when re-pointing to repair
salts are carried up with it in solution. At the damp the dampcourse rather than bridging the joint
surface of the wall, evaporation of the saline with mortar.
solution takes place. As the water molecules
evaporate in the form of water vapour, the
Prevention and treatment
dissolved salts are forced out of solution. The return There are various approaches to the prevention
of the salts to their solid form involves a large and treatment of rising damp and salt attack in
increase in volume as the crystals grow. Depending masonry walls. For detailed information refer to DEH
on the nature of the wall surface, this growth may Technical Note 3.8 Rising Damp and Salt Attack.
be on the surface, or the crystals may actually
Generally
grow within the pores just under the surface.
Decay due to salt attack occurs in the presence
Surface growth takes the form of a white powdery
of four factors:
deposit known as efflorescence.
• porous masonry
Crystallisation occurring within the surface pores
literally explodes the surface structure of the • moisture
masonry. This is salt attack, a process of slow • dissolved salts
erosion which over a period of time is capable • evaporation
of eating deep into the masonry, progressively
Theoretically, controlling any one of these factors
reducing it to a fine dust.
will arrest the decay. In practice, two of the factors
The importance of an appropriate mortar should are beyond practical influence - the porosity of
not be underestimated, as a soft mortar (not the masonry is a quality inherent to the particular
containing too high a proportion of cement) will material, and dissolved salts are determined by the
act as a sacrificial element, preserving the stone regional groundwater salinity.
by drawing the salts in the mortar joints rather than
The presence of moisture can be controlled by a
the stone itself.
number of means, including:

54 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

 Chemical damp proof courses
The wall is saturated through its full thickness at a
low level using a fluid which dries to form a water-
repellent lining to the pores of the masonry. This has
the effect of cancelling the capillary suction within
the masonry and thereby preventing the rise of
moisture against gravity.
Application is by pressure or gravity feed into holes
drilled at closely spaced intervals. The nature of the
masonry and the thickness of the wall will influence
the spacing of the holes and whether drilling is from
one side or both.
Pressure injection is rarely suitable for old brick and
stone walls, because the central core of the wall
typically contains numerous small cavities and
voids which can secretly drain large quantities of
fluid away to waste, leaving sections of the wall
Typical case of rising damp due to lack of damp proof course.
untreated. Problems will also arise due to differing
porosities between the stone or bricks and the
• introducing a damp course into the wall
mortar in which they are bedded - the fluid will be
• improving drainage of roof water and surface
concentrated in the normally softer mortar at the
water away from the wall
expense of the masonry units.
• improving sub-floor ventilation
Gravity feeding involves the use of cups attached
• keeping garden beds and sprinklers clear of to feed tubes into each hole, the cups being
the wall regularly re-filled until thorough soakage of a
Reducing the rate of evaporation is difficult continuous layer right through the thickness of
externally, but can be useful in managing dampness the wall has been achieved. The process takes
internally. Panelling installed over the lower part considerably longer, but loss of fluid into voids is
of the wall will restrict airflow across the surface, minimised and soakage into the denser parts of the
thereby slowing or arresting the formation of salt masonry is encouraged.
crystals. However, it is likely that because of the The advantages of chemical damp proof courses
lower evaporation rate, the dampness will tend to are that:
rise higher in the wall until it finds a new equilibrium.
• historic fabric is retained
Undersetting • mess and disruption are reduced.
The salt-affected masonry is removed to above the The main disadvantages are that:
height of salt damage by taking out and rebuilding
• the continuity and effectiveness of the damp
a short section of the wall at a time. In rebuilding,
course are not visually apparent
a new damp proof course (usually of heavy duty
embossed polyethylene) is inserted through the full • the quality and performance of the treatment
thickness of the wall. is highly dependent on the skill, judgement,
experience and integrity of the contractor
The advantages of this method are that:
• the masonry and plaster above the level of the
• the continuity and quality of the new damp
new damp proof course remain impregnated
proof course are readily apparent
with salts, and can perpetuate damage by salt
• the old salt-laden masonry and plaster is attack (see Rehydration)
replaced with ‘clean’ materials.
• the common practice of using waterproofing
Disadvantages are that: agents when re-plastering internally (to
• historic fabric is lost prevent the re-emergence of salt damage by
• a good match between new and old masonry rehydration) can adversely affect the valuable
is difficult to achieve external face of the masonry because the
sealing of the internal surface concentrates
• considerable disruption and mess is involved.
the action on the unsealed external face
• the internal face is normally drilled just above
the floor with the skirting board removed - this
leaves the floor joists and bearers still prone to
damage by contact with damp masonry.

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 55

Envelope damp proof courses If it is decided, after seeking professional advice,
A third technique involves the cutting of a slot to repair a damp-affected wall with render, it must
through the thickness of the wall for the insertion be designed to work in harmony with the physical
of a special flat tubular envelope fabricated from properties of the underlying masonry. Careful
a similar polyethylene material to the normal damp attention is required to the mix to provide a suitably
proof course. soft and porous render; one that will protect the
wall by acting sacrificially (taking the brunt of the
A short section at a time is cut using a chainsaw
salt attack and thereby protecting the valuable
with an elongated blade and special masonry
masonry). The render should be regarded as
chain. Overlapping sections of the envelope
expendable, to be replaced as often as necessary
damp proof course are inserted and injected
to protect the fabric underneath.
with expanding grout to fill out the envelope and
re-support the masonry. Once set, the exposed This approach can also be useful as a temporary
edge of the envelope is neatly trimmed. By using a measure before the later restoration of the wall.
waterproofing agent in the grout, the new damp A suitably soft and compatible render will easily be
proof course is effectively three layers in one. removed later, having prevented deterioration of
the wall in the interim. .
The advantages of this method are as for the
chemical damp proof course. Rehydration
Disadvantages include potential problems with It is not unusual for the apparent signs of salt attack
rehydration if separate action is not taken to draw to persist in a wall even after the source of rising
the remaining salts out of the masonry above the damp has been eliminated or a new damp proof
level of the new damp proof course. It can also be course installed. This is a result of rehydration, which
invasive and time consuming. can occur when the remnant salts contained within
The cement render cure the old masonry have not been extracted.

There are many examples of old masonry The types of salts encountered in masonry tend to
buildings which have been given a facing of grey be hygroscopic in nature - some highly so. This is
cement render up to waist height in the belief defined as the propensity of the crystalline form of
that this would cure the rising damp problem. the salt to attract any available moisture and to
This misconception is grounded in a belief that revert to the dissolved state by rehydration. By this
relatively soft stones and mortars lack the ‘strength’ means, salts remaining within a treated wall can
to resist the effects of damp, and that they are not continue the destructive cycle of crystallisation
‘waterproof’. and dissolving by absorbing atmospheric moisture,
even when rising damp is no longer present.
Such an approach is detrimental to the
appearance of an historic wall, and most Refer to DEH Technical Note 3.8 Rising Damp and
importantly, it does not actually work, causing even Salt Attack for advice on removing salts from
more extensive damage to the wall over time. It masonry.
displays a lack of understanding of the dynamic
environmental forces at work in traditional masonry 6.6 Cracking
construction, and the importance of keeping these Cracks in masonry walls appear when the stresses
in equilibrium. within the wall exceed the wall’s ability to resist
Applying a cement render coating means that the them. In the majority of cases, the cause of stress
path for evaporation of the moisture is blocked. will be soil movement under the building due to
Moisture then finds a new path of least resistance one or more of the following actions:
by rising higher in the wall to a level above the • the physical properties of the ground under the
render band, or by diverting to the inner surface of building - different soil types react in different
the wall. This simply transfers the problem from one ways to drying and wetting caused by tree root
area to another, increasing the extent of damage systems, evaporation, soakage of rainwater or
to the building’s fabric. surface water, variations in the height of the
The very strength of a cement render is also its water table and so on
weakness. Being far more brittle and less resilient • initial settlement between old and new sections
than the masonry to which it is applied, it is unable of the building - some compaction of the
to absorb small movements. As a result it cracks foundation zone can be expected as the
and shears away from the underlying surface, new construction beds itself in, and will cause
becoming unstable and providing further means for cracking at the junction with the old part if a
water entry and retention. flexible joint design is not used

56 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

• on-going movement between old and new (for example, stone laid in mortar, loose rubble,
sections - where the footing design of the new lime concrete or even timber slabs), and these are
section makes it less vulnerable to fluctuations typically at a shallow depth. In addition, masonry
in soil conditions than the old section wall construction in older buildings is continuous
• earth tremors. and rigid, without any form of control jointing to
absorb the movement.
Other potential causes of cracking in masonry
walls are unrelated to the soil characteristics, The shallowness of the footings means that the
and include: foundation layer is close to the surface and
therefore more susceptible to environmental
• rusting of iron strapping built into brickwork -
conditions such as rainfall, surface drainage,
this appears as a long horizontal crack through
temperature variations, periods of drought and
a mortar joint line, and may occur at several
moisture draw by trees. There may also be a
different levels depending on the positions of
wide variation in the structural capacity of this
the iron reinforcing straps
foundation layer due to natural geological
• lateral forces transferred from the roof framing variations, previous earthworks and landfill.
- this may be a long-term problem of poor
So, typically, with an older masonry building,
design, or may result from structural failure of
the foundation zone is subject to variations in its
some part of the roof structure
behaviour - both a natural variation as an inherent
• overloading due to alterations and additions characteristic of the near-surface conditions at the
- where an old wall is required to provide time of construction, and a seasonal fluctuation
structural support for new work, rather than according to on-going environmental factors.
the new wall being self-supporting. Unreinforced footings are unable to resist the
Soil movement induced by changes in soil moisture resulting movements in the foundation soils, and
content is by far the most common factor affecting therefore transfer these directly to the masonry
older buildings in South Australia. walls. These, being a continuous network of rigid
and brittle construction, are similarly unable to
absorb the movements transferred from the
footings and therefore develop cracks at the
points of stress.

Reactive clay soils

Cracking of masonry walls in older South Australian
Types of Cracking – Cogged, Vertical, Horizantal and Stepped buildings is commonly due to the effect of drying
and wetting on the physical properties of the soil
in the foundation zone. This arises from the high
Soil movement concentrations of clays in the surface strata,
The sub-structure of a building comprises some particularly across the Adelaide Plain.
form of footing system, which is the part of the These soils are classified as reactive - meaning that
structure that transfers the building loads onto the they swell in volume when moistened and shrink as
foundation (defined as the ground supporting the they dry out. By comparison, a sandy soil is quite
building). stable under such conditions.
Modern buildings employ a wide variety of footing The degree of reactivity depends on the clay
designs, including reinforced concrete strip content and the thickness of the clay-rich layer,
footings, raft slabs and beams supported on deep and can be graded from moderately to highly
piers. These are designed in accordance with reactive.
Building Codes to protect the building from ground The factors affecting soil moisture content are
movements by being strong enough to resist them examined in Section 3.6, and their control is
and by taking the building loads down to a known generally the key to the successful management
stable foundation stratum. of cracking on reactive soils. The aim is to maintain
Further resistance to the effects of ground as constant a level of soil moisture as possible
movement is achieved in modern masonry throughout the cycle of the seasons - the actual
buildings by articulation - the use of flexible vertical level, whether fairly dry or quite moist, is not of
joints to divide the walls into a series of separate relevance; it is the changes from one extreme to
panels which can move freely in relation to the other that are the problem.
each other. The seasonal cycles of drying and wetting of the
Older buildings, on the other hand, commonly foundation soils will typically produce cracks which
have very rudimentary and unreinforced footings open and close, reaching their widest at the end

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 57

 1.

3.

of summer and beginning to close again as the soil

takes up moisture again, often returning to fully-
closed by late winter. Refer to Section 4.2 for the
reason why you should not repair cracks when they
are at their worst, but only when the underlying
cause has been identified and rectified and the
wall has been allowed to stabilise. 2.

The seriousness of this cyclical cracking will depend

on the difference between the seasonal extremes
and on the nature of the building’s construction.

Monitoring
To accurately identify the cause of cracking,
collect detailed information on:
• building construction type
• soil type
• crack width, length and location
• crack type - cracks may taper in width from
top or bottom depending on the nature of
the structural movement, and may be vertical,
4.
stepped or horizontal
• the history of the cracks (how they have
changed over time)
Tell-tale device
• any factors potentially affecting soil 1. Crack tell-tale ex. – aluminium angle 20x30x2
moisture content. 2. Aluminium angle jig to hold tell-tales in place while epoxy glue sets.

Having collected as much information as 3. Epoxy glue taped to wall surface

4. Tell-tales in place with jig removed – use vernier caliper to measure
possible, seek structural advice from an engineer movement
or architect to ensure that the cause of serious
cracking is analysed prior to any remedial work. accurate picture of the movement of the crack.
Incorrect diagnosis of a cracking problem could General weather conditions could also be noted,
result in further damage and unnecessary expense. for example the months during which rainfall
Monitor cracks to determine if they are cyclical in occurred.
nature as a result of soil moisture content, or if they
are caused by other factors.
Stabilising cracks
Before repairing the damage, the underlying cause
Observe the location and pattern of cracking and
of the cracking needs to be rectified. The potential
record and note any changes over time. This can
causes of foundation movement are covered in
be done with a simple sketch or by marking up a
Section 3.6, along with some basic remedies to
photograph.
help control soil moisture content. More advanced
Tell-tales approaches are sometimes needed, and include
A simple method of checking if a crack is moving the following:
is to mark a cross in pencil on either side of the Underpinning
crack in question. The crosses should be at right
This involves digging the foundation soil away from
angles to the crack and about 100 millimetres
underneath a section of footing and pouring a
either side. Accurately measure the distance
concrete pier (or pin) underneath it. The aim is to
between the crosses and record this distance. At
transfer the load from the footing down to a more
regular intervals, say every two months, measure
stable stratum (determined from a soil test). Where
the distance again and record this with the
the reactive soil is deep the point of support should
previous results. If a straight line is drawn between
be below the zone that is affected by seasonal
the two crosses, any movement along the length
environmental conditions.
of the crack can also be measured by noting the
Seek professional engineering advice before
dislocation between the two halves of the line.
proceeding with underpinning. There is a tendency
A more complete method involves the construction
in the building industry to regard underpinning as
of a 'tell tale' as illustrated. This monitoring should
the universal cure-all for buildings on reactive soils,
be carried out for at least twelve months, and
but results can be disappointing if the solution has
preferably two years, in order to obtain an
not been determined by engineering calculations,

58 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

based on a soil test to identify the nature of This is because that unless the footing movement is
underlying strata. It can be an expensive mistake to eliminated, the wall itself is subjected to opposing
approach underpinning in a hit-and-miss manner. forces - being moved at its base but held rigid at
Even in situations where it can help, you should be the top. Traditional masonry construction is not
aware that sections of the sub-structure which are well-suited to resisting this sort of loading, and it is
re-supported on underpins will probably be more common to see a small patch of stonework held
stable than the untreated sections, and that new in place around the plate while the rest of the wall
problems with cracking may well develop at has broken away from it and continues to lean
the interfaces. outwards.

Hydration Repairing cracks

Various methods of controlling soil moisture content A crack that carries through the full thickness of
are described in Section 3.6, but in some cases a wall represents a loss of structural integrity; the
may not be entirely adequate. For situations in loads and stresses are no longer distributed and
which excessive drying out during the summer absorbed by the wall as a single structural entity.
months is a problem, artificial hydration of the The standard approach to patching cracks is to fill
foundation zone under the footings may prove them with a rigid, plaster-based compound, which
suitable, subject to engineering advice, and satisfies the aesthetic aim but does little for the
water restrictions. structural performance of the wall.
A method which has been used with success in In many cases this is not a problem, and may
Adelaide involves laying a perforated pipe into prove quite adequate where the movement that
a trench around the perimeter of the building. A caused the cracking has been brought under
dripper line made up of standard garden irrigation control. However there are situations in which
components is fed into the pipe. By adding a the stability of the wall is compromised by a major
controlled amount of water into the system, the crack, and some method of re-joining the two
drying out of the soil during the summer months sides is recommended. The following methods are
can be prevented. suitable for internal wall faces where the repair is
The design of the system, including the positioning concealed by a finish such as plaster.
of the pipe in relation to the footings, and the Metal mesh
quantity, rate and frequency of supplementary
The plaster is stripped back to a width of about 50
watering, should be left to a structural engineer.
centimetres either side of the crack, and expanded
A more sophisticated version of this method uses galvanised steel mesh or a heavy aluminium mesh
moisture sensors in the soil to automatically control is fixed across the crack. The fixing method will
the watering cycle. In either case, the aim is to add depend on the condition and construction of
just enough water at different times of the year to the wall, but might be masonry nails or masonry
maintain the moisture content of the foundation anchors. The wall is then re-plastered with the mesh
soils at a constant level. being fully embedded in the new plaster.
A note of caution - adding moisture into the This method is useful for regaining partial continuity
ground around the building increases the risk of of the wall construction, but depends very much
related problems such as rising damp or termites. on the absence of any but the smallest movement
If soil moisture levels are already unusually high between the two sections of wall, and on the
at their wet season peak, the control of cracking ability of the wall construction itself to resist the
should look at reducing this rather than using localised forces at the fixings.
artificial hydration to lift the dry season low up
to this level.
Stitching or dental repair
The term refers to the technique of bridging across
Tie rods
the crack with new stones. At intervals along the
Many older buildings have tie rods added at crack, individual stones broken through by the
some stage during their life to control a cracking stresses in the wall are removed and replaced
problem. They are typically set up near the ceiling with new stones, literally stitching the wall back
level, running across the building from side to side, together.
terminating each end in a forged or cast iron
The finished result is not intended to be seen and
spreader plate on the external wall face.
is plastered over. The reconstruction of a cracked
As a general rule, their use should be restricted section of external wall can adopt the same basic
to situations where the sideways forces on the principle, but of course requires the replacement
wall originate up at that level - for instance from of every broken stone or brick, with careful
spreading roof framing - rather than from the base attention to the matching of colour, texture, finish
of the wall, as in the case of footing movement. and pointing.

Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia 59

7. Further Reading

Australia ICOMOS
The Australia ICOMOS Charter for Places of Cultural Significance (The Burra Charter), 1999.
Available online at http://www.marquis-kyle.com.au/burra99.htm

DEH Heritage Branch

Technical Information
Available online at the DEH Heritage website http://www.heritage.sa.gov.au

Heritage Victoria
Technical Information
Available online at the Heritage Victoria website http://www.heritage.vic.gov.au/page.asp?ID=84

J. S. Kerr
The Conservation Plan
National Trust of Australia (NSW), 2004, sixth edition.
Available for online purchase from the National Trust Shop
http://www.nsw.nationaltrust.org.au/shop/index.htm

NSW Heritage Office

Maintenance Series
Available online at the NSW Heritage Office website http://www.heritage.nsw.gov.au/03_index.htm#M-O

Planning SA
Planning Bulletin: Heritage
Dept for Transport, Urban Planning and the Arts, Adelaide, SA, 2001
Available online at the Planning SA website http://dataserver.planning.sa.gov.au/publications/704p.pdf

M. Walker & P. Marquis-Kyle,

The Illustrated Burra Charter: good practice for heritage places
Australia ICOMOS Inc., Burwood, 2004
Available for online purchase at the Australia ICOMOS website http://www.icomos.org/australia/

We acknowledge the permission of the Heritage Council of New South Wales to use material from
their publication Maintaining an Old House (1989) in this Technical Note

60 Maintenance and Repair of Older Buildings in South Australia

For further information please contact:
Department for Environment and Heritage
T: (08) 8124 4960
E: [email protected]
Disclaimer
While reasonable efforts have been made to ensure
the contents of this publication are factually correct,
The Department for Environment and Heritage makes
no representations and accepts no responsibility for
the accuracy or completeness of the contents, and
shall not be liable for any loss or damage that may
be occasioned directly or indirectly through the
use of or reliance on the contents of this publication.

© Department for Environment and Heritage

All rights reserved
ISBN: 1 921238 48 8
FIS 2498.06 July 2008