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 BDA20303
Mechanics of Machines

 Machines - devices to alter, transmit, and

direct forces to accomplish a specific
objectives.
 Mechanism – mechanical portion of machine
that has function of transferring motion and
forces from a power source to an output.

 Mechanism consider rigid parts that are

arranged and connected to desired motion of
machine.
Simon Stevin's problem

Simon Stevin (1548-1620) Stevin's ball-ramp experiment

  Machine  Structure
 Transform energy to  Not transform energy
do work
 Motion  Not move
 Transmit motion and  Transmit forces only
forces
 Physical Principles
Force and Torque

 Force: an agent or influence that, if applied to a

free body results chiefly in an acceleration of the
body and sometimes in elastic deformation and
other effects.

 Torque: Something that produces or tends to

produce rotation and whose effectiveness is
measured by the product of the force and the
perpendicular distance from the line of action of the
force to the axis of rotation.
 Motion
Motion: a change of position or orientation.

 Motion Along a Straight Path

Position and displacement along a line
Velocity
Acceleration
 Linear Motion in Space
Position vector and displacement vector
Velocity vector
Acceleration vector
 Motion of a Rigid Body in a Plane
 Newton's Law of Motion

 Newton's First Law

When no force is exerted on a body, it stays at rest or
moves in a straight line with constant speed.

 Newton's Second Law

When a force F is applied on an object, V, the change
of the velocity of the object, increases with the length
of time delta t increases;
The greater the force F, the greater V; and
The larger the body (object) is, the less easily
accelerated by forces.
 Momentum and Conservation of
Momentum

Impulse
Momentum
Conservation of Momentum

 Work, Power and Energy

Work
Power
Energy
CHAPTER 1

GEAR SYSTEM
1. Introduction to Gear System
2. Types of Gear system
3. Relationship between pitch diameter and pitch
circle
4. Gear Ratio
5. Gear Train
6. Gear Efficiency
7. Power Transmission in a Gear Train System
8. Equivalent Moment of Inertia
9. Gear Train Applications
10. Vehicle Dynamics
 1. Introduction to Gear System
 Gear is a toothed machine part, such as a wheel
or cylinder that meshes with another toothed part
to transmit motion or to change speed or
direction.

 Gears are the optimal medium for high accuracy

and low energy loss.
 Gears being an important part of a machine have
immense usage within various industries.

 Gears are used for two basic purposes; increase

or decrease of rotation speed and increase or
decrease of power or torque.
 2. Types of Gear System
Gear can also be classified according to the relative position of the axes of mating gears.

Intersecting Non-Intersecting Rotary to

Parallel Axes
Axes (Non-parallel) Axes Translation
Spur Gears Bevel gears Hypoid gears Rack and Pinion
Helical Gears Straight bevel Crossed helical gears -
Herring bone or
double helical Zerol bevel Worm gears -
gears
- Spiral bevel - -
Parallel Axes Shaft
The shaft axes between driver and driven gear is parallel to each other. Example
of this type of gear is Spur Gear.

Figure 1: Spur Gear

Intersecting Axes Shaft
The shaft axes between driver and driven gear is perpendicular to each other.
Example of gear is bevel gears.

Figure 2: bevel gear

Figure 2: Bevel Gear

Non-Intersecting (Non-parallel) Axes Shaft
The shaft axes between the driver and driven gears are not intersecting but not
parallel at the same time. A very good example of a non-intersecting-non-parallel gear
system is a worm gear as in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Worm Gear

Perpendicular Axes Shaft / Rotary to Translation
The shaft axes between driver and driven gear are perpendicular to each other and
do not intersect to each other. Example of gear is Rack and Pinion Gear.

Figure 4: Rack and Pinion Gear

3. Relationship between Pitch
Diameter and Pitch Circle

Figure 5: Gear terminology

 Pitch circle:
A right section of the pitch surface.

 Addendum circle:
A circle bounding the ends of the teeth, in a right section of the gear.

 Root (or dedendum) circle:

The circle bounding the spaces between the teeth, in a right section of the
gear.

 Addendum:
The radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum circle.

 Dedendum:
The radial distance between the pitch circle and the root circle.

 Clearance:
The difference between the dedendum of one gear and the addendum of
the mating gear.
 Circular thickness :
The thickness of the tooth measured on the pitch circle. It is the
length of an arc and not the length of a straight line.

 Tooth space:
The distance between adjacent teeth measured on the pitch circle.

 Backlash:
The difference between the circle thickness of one gear and the
tooth space of the mating gear.

 Circular pitch p:
The width of a tooth and a space, measured on the pitch circle.

 Diametral pitch P:
The number of teeth of a gear per inch of its pitch diameter. A
toothed gear must have an integral number of teeth.
 The circular pitch, therefore, equals the pitch circumference divided by the
number of teeth. The diametral pitch is, by definition, the number of teeth divided
by the pitch diameter. That is,

D N
p and P Hence pP  
N D

Where;

p = circular pitch N = number of teeth

P = diametral pitch D = pitch diameter

s, the product of the diametral pitch and the circular pitch equals .
 4. Gear Ratio
Consider a gear set below;

Driven gear
Driver gear

When two gear mate efficiently at point A, the velocity, v of both gear are the same. Thus;

v  v1  v2 with v  wD
2
w1  D2
Then from w1 D1  w2 D2 will produce
2 2 w2 D1

Where w1 = speed of driver gear

w2 =speed of driven gear
Gear ratio n is defined as ratio of speed of driven gear with the speed of driver gear.
w2 D1 N1  2
n   
w1 D2 NGear 2 ratio
1 n is defined as ratio of speed of driven gear with the spe
Where  1 = angular acceleration
w2 D1 ofNdriver gear
Gear ratio, n    1
 2
 2 =angular acceleration
w1 D2 of Ndriven
2 gear
1

Where  1 = angular acceleration of driver gear

n
 2 =angular acceleration of driven gear
 5. Gear Train
 Gear trains consist of
two or more gears for the
purpose of transmitting
motion from one axis to
another.
 A gear train may have several drivers and several
driven gears.
 When gear A turns once clockwise, gear B turns 4
times counter-clockwise and gear C turns once
clockwise.

 Hence gear B does not change the speed of C from

what it would have been if geared directly to gear
A, but it changes its direction from
counterclockwise to clockwise.
 “For an ODD number
of mating gears, the
rotation of Driven
gear is the SAME as
Driver Gear.”

 “For an EVEN
number of mating
gears, the rotation of
Driven gear is
REVERSE of Driver
Gear.”
 1.6 Gear Efficiency
 Gear efficiency is defined as the ratio of Output
Power from Driven Gear to the Input Power from
Driver Gear.

 Gear efficiency measures how efficient a gear

system is to transmit power.

 High value of gear efficiency reflects a more

efficient gear system.

 Power loss in a gear system may come from sources

like friction, slip, backlash and so on.
From Power, P  T , then

P2 T2 2 T2
Gear Efficiency,  G ,12    n
P1 T11 T1

Where P1 = Input power from driver gear

P2 = Output power from driven gear
n = Gear ratio
nT2
If the  G  1.0 , thus the torque at driver gear T1 is; T1 
 G ,12
 1.7 Power Transmission in a Gear Train
System

Consider a gear train consists of two sets of gear reducing arrangement. A motor
is attached to the system with I m is the moment of inertia of motor shaft, I T is moment of
inertia of middle shaft and I G is the moment of inertia of hoist which acts as the load of
the system. Gear ratio and gear efficiency of gear set 1-2 is n1 / 2 and G1 / 2 , between gear
set 3-4 is n3 / 4 and  G 3 / 4 respectively. Let;

Tm = Torque of motor
TG = Torque of hoist
T X = Friction torque at bearing X
Draw the free body diagram and using Newton Second Law, T  I
 Tm  T1  I m m …………………………………………
Assume clockwise direction as po
or (B) For (A) Assume clockwise directi
 1  I m m
T2  T3  I T  T T ForT (A)
…………………………………….…… ……
Tm  T1  I m m
m
ince there is gear mating between gear 1 and 2, thus, must include
tio and gear efficiency, and relate
For (B) it to the inertia of middle shaft, I T
For (B)
T2 T2 
reviously,  G1 / 2  n1 / 2 , thus it follows T3  I T  T ……
that T2  T3  I T  T
T1 Since there is gear mating betwee
 G1 / 2T1 Since there is gear mating
T2  ratio and gear
………………………………..…………………ratio efficiency, and relata
and gear efficiency,
n1 / 2
T2
Previously, 
Previously,
G1 / 2  , T2 it
 G11/ /22  n1 / 2
n thus
or (C) T1 T1
T4  TX  TG  I G G ……………………….………………..…
 G1 / 2T1  G1 / 2T1
T3 G 3 / 4
T2  T2  …………… ……
so T4  ………………………………………………… n1 / 2 n1 / 2
n3 / 4
Assume clockwise direction as positive value.
For (A)
Tm  T1  I m m ……………………………………………….…………… (1)

For (B)
T2  T3  I T  T …………………………………….………………………. (2)
Since there is gear mating between gear 1 and 2, thus, must include in the analysis its own gear
ratio and gear efficiency, and relate it to the inertia of middle shaft, I T .
T
Previously,  G1 / 2  2 n1 / 2 , thus it follows that
T1
 T
T2  G1 / 2 1 ………………………………..……………………………….………. (3)
n1 / 2

For (C)
T4  TX  TG  I G G ……………………….………………..……………………….. (4)
T3 G 3 / 4
T
also 4  …………………………………………………………………………..(5)
n3 / 4
Using power, P  T, power transfer to each gear component is;
a) Power transfer by the motor
Pm  Tm m
b) Power at gear 1
P1  T1m  Tm  I m m m
c) Power at gear 2
P2  P1 G1 / 2
d) Power at gear 3
P3  T3T  T2  I T  T T
e) Power at gear 4
P4  P3 G 3 / 4
f) Power at hoist
PG  TGG  T4  TX  I G G G
g) Overall power transfer efficiency,  O
P
O  G
Pm
 1.8 Equivalent Moment of Inertia, I equiv
Consider a simple gear system as below Figure. In order for the driver gear A to start rotate, it
must have enough torque to overcome its own inertia, I A first, and then another additional
torque to start accelerate the driver gear B.

For a simple gear system, the solution is straightforward, but when it comes to complex gear
train design, it is useful to simplify / group together all inertia term in the system into a single
compact inertia expression.
1. Torque at B to overcome I B
TB  I B B
Refer  B to gear A side. Use gear ratio, n 
B  B
A A
Thus, TB  I B n A

2. Gear efficiency is related to power and thus torque of the mating gears, thus
P T n
G  B  B
PA TA

3. Therefore, torque at A, to accelerate I B

TA 
TB n

 I B B 
n
 I B n A n I B n 2 A

G G G G
4. Therefore total torque at A to accelerate I A and I B is
TTOTAL  I A A  TA
 I Bn2 
TTOTAL   I A   A , Or in general form, TTOTAL  I equiv A (referred to motor side)
 G 
 I Bn2 
Thus I equiv   I A  
 G 

The derivation of I equiv of this simple gear system can be extended to a double set of gear
reducing problem as in section 1.7. By neglecting the friction torque effect, T X , thus,
I T (n1 / 2 ) 2 I G (n1 / 2 ) 2 (n3 / 4 ) 2
I equiv  I m  
 G ,1 / 2 ( G ,1 / 2 )( G ,3 / 4 )
 1.9 Gear Train Applications (Solved Problem )
 Example 1(Taken from Roslan, Che’ Abas, Yunus (2001),
UTM)

A motor is accelerating a 250 kg load with acceleration of

1.2 m/s2 through a gear system as shown below. The rope that
carries the load are encircled on a hoist with diameter 1.2m.Gear
for the hoist’s shaft has 200 teeth, gear for motor shaft has 20
teeth. Gear efficiency is 90%. Mass and radius of gyration of each
shaft is as below;
Mass (kg) Radius of gyration
(mm)
Motor shaft 250 100
Hoist shaft 1100 500

Calculate the torque of the motor needed to bring up the load with
acceleration 1.2 m/s2. Neglect friction effect.
 Dia = 1.2 m

Hoist

Total torque at motor to bring up load

Ttotal  TM 1  TM 2
Where TM 1 = Torque to overcome equivalent inertia (refer to motor side).
TM 2 =Torque to accelerate the load through gear system
a) Consider for TM 1
IG n2
From I equiv  I M 
G
Thus I M = Motor shaft inertia
I M  mr 2  2500.1  2.5 kgm2
2

I G = Hoist shaft inertia

I G  11000.5  275 kgm2
2

N 20
Gear ratio, n  1   0.1
N2 200
 2750.12 
Put into I equiv  2.5     5.55 kgm
2

 0.9 
Acceleration of hoist, aG   G rG
1.2
Thus  G   2 rad/s
0.6
G 2
From the gear ratio, angular acceleration of motor,  m    20 rad/s
n 0.1
Now torque due to equivalent inertia, TM 1  I equiv m
TM 1  5.55(20)  111.1 Nm.
b) Consider for TM 2

From Newton 2nd Law,  F  ma

F  250 g  250a
F  250g  a   2509.81  1.2
F  2752.5 N

Then, torque at hoist

TG  Fr  2752.50.6  1651.5 Nm
But due to gear efficiency (since the hoist shaft is connected to the gear system), torque to
TG
accelerate the load,
Hoist
TG n1 / 2 1651.50.1
TM 2    183.5 Nm r
 G ,1 / 2 0.9
a F

Then total torque referred to motor side is;

Ttotal  TM 1  TM 2 250 kg
Ttotal  111.1  183.5
Ttotal  294.6 Nm
250g
Example 2(Taken from Roslan, Che’ Abas, Yunus, (2001), UTM)

Figure 12 below shows a motor used to accelerate a hoist through two sets of gear reducing
system. Moment of inertia for the motor shaft is 5 kgm2, middle shaft is 40 kgm2 and hoist shaft
is 500 kgm2. Gear ratio for gear set 1 and 2 is 1/3.5 while for gear set 3 and 4 is 1/ 4.5. Gear
efficiency for both gear set is 90%. By neglecting the friction effect, find the total torque
required by the motor to accelerate the load of 6 tones at acceleration of 0.4 m/s2.

Hoist

Diameter = 1.2 m
m
Solution
Given that I M =5 kgm2, I T  40 kgm2, I G =500 kgm2, n1 / 2  1 , n3 / 4  1 ,  G  0.9
3.5 4.5
Neglect friction effect.

Total torque required for the motor is

Ttotal  TM 1  TM 2
Where TM 1 = Torque to overcome equivalent inertia (refer to motor side).
TM 2 =Torque to accelerate the load through gear system
a) Consider for TM 1
Recall that TM 1  I equiv m , but for two set of gear system with friction effect is neglected,
I T (n1 / 2 ) 2 I G (n1 / 2 ) 2 (n3 / 4 ) 2
I equiv  I m  
 G ,1 / 2 ( G ,1 / 2 )( G ,3 / 4 )
40( 1 ) 2 500( 1 ) 2 ( 1 ) 2
I equiv  5 3.5  3.5 4.5  11.116 Nm
0.9 (0.9)(0.9)

From question, given that, aG  0.4 m/s2, thus;

aG 0.4
G  
rG 0.6
 G  0.6667 rad/s2
 G  G T 1 1 1
From gear ratio,     
 m  T  m 4.5 3.5 15.75
Thus,  m  15.75 G
 m  15.750.6667  10.5 rad/s2
Thus, Tm1  I equiv m  11.11610.5
TM 1  116.72 Nm.
b) Consider for TM 2 in Figure 13;
Hoist
From Newton 2nd Law,  F  ma
4500  F1  4500a a
F1  4500g  a   45009.41  42345 N
a F1 F2
F2  6000 g  6000a
F2  6000a  g   61260 N 6000 kg
4500 kg
Resultant torque at hoist
FR  F2  F1  18.915 kN
Thus torque at hoist 6000g
4500g
TG  FR rG  18.9150.6  11.349 kN
It is known that TG referred to motor side will be denoted as TM 2 andFigure 13:by
is related Loading FBD
T n n
TM 2  G 1 / 2 3 / 4
 G ,1 / 2 G ,3 / 4

TM 2 
11.349 1
3.5
 1  
4.5  889.6 Nm
0.90.9 
Thus total torque at motor required is
Ttotal  TM 1  TM 2
Ttotal  116.72  889.6
Ttotal  1006.32 Nm.
Example 3(Taken from Roslan, Che’ Abas, Yunus, (2001), UTM)

Hoist
Dia = 0.9 m

Figure 14: Gear with inclined loading

Figure 14 above shows a motor accelerating a hoist with diameter 0.9m, through two sets
of gear reducing system. Gear ratio for gear 1 and 2 is 1/3.5 while for gear 3 and 4 is 1/ 4.5.
Moment of inertia for the motor shaft is 5 kgm2, middle shaft is 20 kgm2 and hoist shaft is 100
kgm2. The rope that is encircled on the hoist must be capable to lift up a load of 5 tones that is
sliding on a 1 in 50 slope. Friction on the slope is 1000N and the total torque at motor required to
raise the load is 1500N. Use gear efficiency of 90% for both gear set. If there is friction torque
effect on the middle shaft, TX  150 Nm and at hoist shaft is Ty  800 Nm. Calculate the
acceleration of the load at the above condition.
Solution
For the overall gear ratio,
1 1 1
n0  n1 / 2 n3 / 4   
3.5 4.5 15.75
Total torque required by motor to raise load
Ttotal  TM 1  TM 2  TM 3
Where TM 1 = Torque to overcome equivalent inertia (refer to motor side).
TM 2 =Torque to accelerate the load through gear system
TM 3  Total torque to overcome friction effect.
a) Consider for TM 1
Previously, TM 1  I equiv m
For double set of gear reducing system,
I T (n1 / 2 ) 2 I G (n1 / 2 ) 2 (n3 / 4 ) 2
I equiv  I m  
 G ,1 / 2 ( G ,1 / 2 )( G ,3 / 4 )
20( 1 ) 2 100( 1 ) 2 ( 1 ) 2
I equiv  5  3.5  3.5 4.5  7.312 kgm2
0.9 (0.9)(0.9)
From a  r , thus
a a
G  
rG 0.45
G 1
Also from gear ratio,  , thus
 m 15.75
 a 
 m  15.75 G  15.75   35a
 0.45 
Thus TM 1  7.31235a 
TM 1  255.92a Nm
b) Consider for TM 2 as in Figure 15;

From  F  ma,
F1 F1  FR  mg sin   ma
F1  5000a  1000  50009.81 1  50
Mg sinθ
FR F1  5000a  9.81 N
5000g Thus, torque to accelerate hoist
θ
TG  F1r  5000a  9.810.45

TG  2250a  891.45 Nm
F1
Use gear efficiency to relate TG with TM 2
r TG n1 / 2 n3 / 4
TM 2 
 G ,1 / 2 G ,3 / 4
hoist
TM 2  176.4a  69.876 Nm
Figure 15: inclined loading
c) Consider for TM 3
Friction effect can be grouped together to form TM 3 where;
TX n1 / 2 TY n1 / 2 n3 / 4
TM 3  
 G ,1 / 2  G ,1 / 2 G ,3 / 4
 1   1  1 
150  800  
TM 3   3.5   3.5  4.5   110.33 Nm
0.9 0.9 2

From Ttotal  TM 1  TM 2  TM 3
1500  255.92a   176.4a  69.876  110.33
Thus a  3.1 m/s2
1.10 Vehicle Dynamics
1.10 Vehicle Dynamics
Wheel
v
wr
R
D/2
FT

Surface
Figure 16: Vehicle dynamics

For a moving vehicle as in Figure 16, some of the forces acting on it are;
 Friction due to the vehicle’s body (aerodynamic friction), R
 Forces due to friction from the engine to the wheel such as friction in bearing, shaft,
clutch and gears, RINT .
 Forces due the acceleration of the vehicle, which is called tractive force, FT considering
no slip between the wheel and the road surface.
We can estimate the speed of the moving vehicle by considering the speed of the wheel itself.
D
Vehicle speed, v  wr  
2
Example 1 (Solved Problem)

Total mass for a two wheeled motorcycle including passenger is 190 kg. The engine produce
torque of 25 Nm at speed of 1800 RPM. Moment of inertia for each wheel is 1.4 kgm2 while for
other rotating parts in the engine is considered as 0.15 kgm2. The wheel’s effective diameter is
610 mm. If the motorcycle is moving on a road with a speed 23 km/hr at second gear, find
(i) Gear ratio for the second gear
(ii) Acceleration at speed 23 km/hr
Assume wind friction is 200 N and gear efficiency is 90%.
Solution
Given that m =190 kg, Ttotal =25 Nm at N =1800 PM, I R =1.4 kgm2, I int =0.15 kgm2, D =610
mm,
If v =23 km/hr at 2nd gear, with R =200 N,  G =90%.
1st Step – Draw Free Body Diagram

Iint IR
Engine

Wheel
Gear system
Figure 17: Free body diagram

2nd Step
Total torque at engine, Ttotal
Ttotal  TM 1  TM 2
Where TM 1 = Torque due to equivalent inertia of rotating parts in the engine.(referred to engine
side).
TM 2 = Torque to accelerate the wheel.

3rd Step
Convert all measurement to SI standard.

2N 2 1800
Engine speed, wint    188.5 rad/s
60 60
231000
Wheel speed, v  23km / hr   6.3889 m/s
3600
4th Step– Determine TM 1
In order to find gear ratio for second gear,

n
wR


6.3889 
0.305  1 (Where w  v
wint 188.5 9
R  D 2  )

Thus gear ratio for second gear is n  1  9

Equivalent moment of inertia is
I Rn2
I equiv  I int 
G
2  1.419 
2

I equiv  0.15   0.1884 kgm2

0.9

In order to find  int , use  R and gear ratio

 R  a D 2 

 int 
R a 
 0.305  29.508a rad/s2
n  
1
9

Thus, TM 1  I equiv int  0.188429.508a 

TM 1  5.559a Nm.
5th Step – Determine TM 2 as in Figure 18;

a
R
m=190 kg

FT

Figure 18: dynamic force on the motorcycle

From  F  ma,
FT  R  ma
FT  200  190a
Total torque at wheel,
TR  FT r  200  190a 0.305
TR  61 57.95a

Refer TR to motor side using gear efficiency

TM 2 
TR n 61  57.95a  9

1  
G 0.9
TM 2  (7.35  7.154a) Nm

Thus, total torque at engine

Ttotal  5.559a   7.35  7.154a 

The acceleration at that speed is;

By solving the equation for the total torque above, thus

a  1.374 m/s2