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LECTURE NOTES

ON

MANAGEMENT SCIENCE

III B. Tech I semester (JNTUH-R13)

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UNIT-1

INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT

When human being started group activities for the attainment of same
common objectives whenever a group is formed and a group activity is
organized to achieve certain common objectives management is needed to
direct, co-ordinate and integrate the individual activities of a group and secure
teams work to accomplish organizational objectives. The objectives of all
business are attained by utilizing the scare resources like men, materials,
machines, money etc.

In process of management, a manage uses human skills, material resources and

scientific methods to perform all the activities leading to the achievement of
goods.

Definition: Management is knowing exactly what you want men to do and then
seeing that they do it the best and cheapest ways.

F.W.Taylor

OR

Management is defined as the creation and maintenance of an internal

environment in an enterprise where individuals working together in groups, can
perform efficiently and effectively towards the attainment of group goals.

Koontz and O ‘Donell

Nature of Management: The study and application of management techniques in

managing the affairs of the organization have changed its nature over the period
of time.

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Multidisciplinary: Management is basically multidisciplinary. This implies that,

although management has been developed as a separate discipline, it raws
knowledge and concepts from various disciplines. It draws freely ideas and
concepts from such disciplines as psychology, sociology, anthropology,
economics, ecology, statistics, operations research, etc. Management integrates
the ideas and concepts taken from these disciplines and present newer concepts
which can be put into practice for managing the organization.

Dynamic nature of principle: Based on integration and supported by practical

evidences, management has formed certain principles. However, these
principles are flexible in nature and change with the changes in the environment
in which an organization exists.

Relative, not absolute principles: Management principle are relative, not

absolute, and they should be applied according to the need of the organization.
Each organization may be different from others. The difference may exist
because of time, place, socio-cultural factors, etc.

Management Science or Art: There is a controversy whether management is

science or art. However, management is both a science and art.

Management as profession: Management has been regarded as profession by

many while many have suggested that it has not achieved the status of a
profession.

Characteristics of Management:

 Setting goals for organizations: Goals differ from organization to

organization in business, the basic economic goal is to earn maximum
profit, while in service organization like hospital and educational
institution for the basic goal is to provide better service and better
education. 

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 Awareness of opportunities and resources: Management have awareness

of opportunities and resources like men, materials, money which
assembles and integrates by management. 

 Management is transformation process: Management is a transformation
process consisting of planning, organizing, staffing, directing and
controlling. 

 Management is universal: The principles and techniques of management
are universally applicable to all group activities performed at any level of
organization. 

 System of authority: System of authority means a hierarchy of command
and control. Managers at different levels possess varying degrees of
authority. 

 Co – Ordination: Various human beings organized in formal groups are
endeavoring to achieve the common organizational objectives, so various
departments in the organization must work in harmony with one another. 

 Management is Dynamic: The ever changing social environment directly
and indirectly effect the group activity thus changing environments
provide a challenge to management. Efficient management cannot remain
static it must adopt itself to changing conditions. 

 Management is decision making: The managers are decision makers the
marketing managers decides about how to market, when to market, where
to market how to collect funds for organization. 

 Management is a profession: Management is not only a science but also
an art. Art means managers has to handle the person and things tactfully.
Science means achieving objectives through procedures. 

Importance of Management: No ideology, no ism, or political theory can win

greater output with less efforts from a given complex of human and materials
resource only sound management And it is on such greater output that a higher
standard of life, more leisure, more amenities for all must necessarily be found.

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 Effective utilization of resources: Management tries to make effective

utilization of various resources. The resources are scarce in nature and to
meet the demand of the society, their contribution should be maximum
for the general interests of the society. Management not only decides in
which particular alternative a particular resource be used but also takes
actions to utilize it in that particular alternative in the best way. 

 Development of resources: Management develops various resources. This
is true with human as well as non-human factors. Most of the researches
for resource development are carried on in an organization way and
management is involved in those activities. 

 To incorporate innovations: Today changes are occurring at a very fast
rate in both technology and social process and structure these changes
need to be incorporated to keep the organizations alive and efficient. 




 Therefore, they require high degree of specialization, high level of
competence, and complex technology. All these require efficient
management so that organizations work in the most efficient way. 

 Integrating various interest groups: In the organized efforts, there are
various interest groups and they put pressure over other groups for
maximum share in the combined output. For example, in the case of
business organization, there are various pressure groups such as
shareholders, employees, government etc. These interest groups have
pressure on an organization. 

 Stability in the society: Management provides stability in the society by
changing and modifying the resources in accordance with the changing
environment of the society. In the modern age, more emphasis is on new
inventions for the betterment of human beings. These inventions make 
old systems and factors mostly obsolete and inefficient. Management
provides Integrated between traditions and new inventions and
safeguards, society from the unfavorable impact of these inventions so
that continuity in social process is maintained.

Levels of Management:

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1. Top Management

2. Upper Middle management

3. Middle Management

4. Lower Management

5. Operating Force or Rank and file workmen

Top Management includes:

a) Board of directors b) Managing directors c) Chief executives d)General

Manager e) Owners

Functions:

 Setting basic goals and objectives 


 Expanding or contracting activities 

 Establishing policies 

 Monitoring performance 

 Designing/Redesigning organization system 

 Shouldering financial responsibilities etc.
Upper Middle Management includes: 

 Sales executives 

 Production executives 

 Finance executives 

 Accounts
executives Functions: 

a) establishment of the organization

b) Selection of staff for lower levels of management

c) Installing different departments

d) Designing operating policies and routines

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e) Assigning duties to their subordinates

Middle Management includes

Superintendent

Branch Managers

General forcemeat etc.

Functions:

 To cooperate to run organization smoothly 


 To understand inter locking of department in major policies 

 To achieve coordination between different parts of the organization 

 To conduct training for employee development 

 To build an efficient company team spirit 

Lower Management includes:

 Foremen 

 Supervisors or charge-hands 

 Office Superintendent 

 Inspectors etc. 

Functions:

1. Direct supervision of workers and their work

2. Developing and improving work methods operations

3. Inspection function

4. Imparting instruction to workers

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5. To give finishing touch to the plans and policies of top management

6. To act as link between top management and operating force

7. To communicate the feelings of workers to the top management.

Operating force includes:

Workers

Rank and file workman

Skilled and Semi-skilled workers

Unskilled workers

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Function:

To do work on machines or manually, using tools etc.

To work independently (incase of skilled workers) or under the guidance of

supervisor.

Functions of Management:

1. Planning: Involves selecting the objectives and actions to achieves them

planning stage involves decision making and choosing future courses of
action from the various alternatives.

2. Organizing: Role of each person in any organization is fixed. The concept

of role is who will be doing what should be known, to achieve
organizational targets efficiently. It is intended that all the tasks necessary
to achieve targets are assigned to people who can do the best.

3. Staffing: Staffing function includes keeping the various organizational

position fixed. This activity is done by identifying work force
requirements, keeping the records of the performance of people working
with the organization. So that suitable people can be prompted and at the
same time people performing not up to the mark could be send for
training. If all the above activities are taking place in nice way in any
organization, it will give rise minimum work force turnover.

4. Directing: Directing means influencing people, so that they will

contribute to the organization targets directing involves motivation,
leadership styles and proper communication.

5. Controlling: It is the process of comparing the plans with the results. If

there is deviation attain taken to be bridge the gap between plan and
actual results.

6. Coordinating: The essence of management is the achievement of

coordination among people coordination is a complex process following
the principles by which organization activity can be accomplished.
Coordinative is possible oniy if all the personnel working in the
organization accept the target of the organization. This target must be
clearly defined and sold to every one concerned.

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Evolution of Management Theory: Good management intends to achieve an

objective with the least use of man, machine, money and material and at the
same time maximum satisfaction of the participants.

Taylor’s Scientific Management: The utility of scientific methods to problems

of management was first introduced by F.W.Taylor.

Definition: Scientific management may be defined as the Art of knowing

exactly what is to be done and the best way of doing it.Scientific management is
the result of applying scientific knowledge and scientific methods to the various
aspects of management and the problems that arise form them.

Principles of Scientific Management: Taylor through his principles of

scientific management initiated a system in which there would be an effective
and fruitful coordination and cooperation between the management and the
workers. Development of Science for each element of work: Analyze the work
scientifically, rather than using thumb rule. It means that an attempt is made to
find out what is to be done by a particular worker, how he is to do it, what
equipment will be necessary to do it. This information is provided to the worker,
so as to reduce wastage of tie, material etc. and improve the quality work.

Scientific selection, placement and training of workers: This principle states that
select the workers best suited to perform the specific task, and then train them
within the industry in order to attain the objectives of the enterprise workers
should also be trained from time to time to keep them informed of latest
development in the techniques of production.

Division of Labour: division of work in smaller tasks and separation of thinking

element of job from doing element of the job, this is the principle of
specialization. It is essential for efficiency in all sphere of activities as well as in
supervision work Standardization of methods, procedures, tools and equipment:
Standardization helps in reducing time, labour and cost of production. The
success of scientific management largely depends upon standardization of
system, depends upon standardization of system, tools, equipments and
techniques of production.

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Use of time and motion study: Taylor‘s introduced time and motion study to
determine standard work. Taylor‘s undertook studies on fatigue, incurred by the
workers and the time necessary to complete task.

Differential wage system: Taylor‘s differential piece rate scheme provides an

incentive for a worker to achieve high level of optimum output. It distinguishes
the more productive workers from less productive workers and motivates them
to produce more.

Cooperation between labour and management: Mutual respect and cooperation

between the workers and management helps in providing proper and effective
leadership. The labour starts thinking that it is their work and they must put their
heart in the work assigned to him.

Principle of Management by Exception: Taylor suggested that only major or

significant deviations between the actual performance and standard performance
should be brought to the notice of top management. Top management should
pay more attention to those areas of work where standards and procedures could
not be established and where there is a significant variation between standard
performance and actual performance.

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Administrative Management Theory (Henri Fayol and Others):

Henri Fayol is called as father of Modern Management

He established the pattern of management and the pyramidal form of

organization. He pointed out that technical ability is more dominating on the
lower level of management managerial ability is more important on the higher
level of management.

Henri Fayol analyzed the process of management and divided the activities of
an industrial undertaking into six groups

1. Technical activities

2. Commercial activities

3. Financial activities

4. Security activities

5. Accounting activities

6. Managerial activities

Elton Mayo: Elton Mayo generally recognized as father of human relations

approach Mayo led the team which conducted the study psychological reaction
of workers in on-the job situations Mayo concluded that work arrangements in
addition to meeting the objective requirements of production must at the same
time satisfy the employees subjective requirement of social satisfaction at his
work place.

Maslow’s Theory:

Maslow‘s level of hierarchy about human relations and behavioral science

approach, his assumptions are based mainly on theory of Human Needs, he has
defined five level of hierarchy of needs starting from the biological need and
then coming to more intangible ones .

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 Physical needs like food, clothes and shelter 


 Safety needs freedom from fear of insecurity 

 Social needs include a sense of being accepted in the society or
environment one finds himself in. 

 Ego needs include feeling of important and recognition Self actualization
needs include need or desire for personal fulfillment of individual
potential and activity. 

Douglas McGregor Theory: He divides leadership is two styles labeled theory

―X and theory ―Y. The traditional styles of leadership and controls stated
in theory ‗X‘ by McGregor, is exercised to managers on the basis of his
assumptions about human beings. These assumptions as laid down or observed
by McGregor for theory X‘ are
Theory ―X:

An average human being does not like to work and he tries to avoid it as far as
possible.

He avoids accepting responsible and challenging tasks, has no ambition but

wants security above all.

Because of this, the employees are to be forced, concerned and threatened with
punishments to make them put their best effort These people would not

work sincerely and honestly under democratic conditions.

However the above assumptions re not based on research finding. The autocratic
style basically presumes that workers are generally lazy, avoid work and shrink
responsibilities. It is believed that workers are more interested in money and
security based on these assumptions the leadership styles developed, insists on
tighter control and supervision.

Theory of ―Y:

It focuses a totally different set of assumptions about the employees

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Some employees consider work as natural as play or rest.

These employees are capable of directing and controlling performance on their

own.

They are much committed to the objectives of the organization

Higher rewards make these employees more committed to organization.

Given an opportunity they not only accept responsibility but also look for
opportunities to out perform others.

Most of them highly imaginative, creative and display ingenuity in handling

organizational issues.

System approach management:

Modern approaches to understand management is the systems approach.

Here the organization is viewed as a system. Every department is considered as
a sub-system, it is also possible that every department can be viewed as a
system and every section in the department can be viewed as a sub-system,
system approach helps to study the basic feature and functions of the
organization its minutest details.

The collection of interrelated parts called as sub-system which constitutes

one whole unit. System approach facilitates the study of each of these parts in
detail to have a close understanding of the whole system.

Ex: Every part of the study such as the eyes, brain, and heart can also be viewed
as a sub-system, a study of each of the parts of the body in necessary to
understand the whole body.

Herzberg’s Two-factors Theory: Maslow‘s theory has been modified by

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Herzberg and he called in two-factors theory of motivation. According to him

the first group of needs are such things are such things as company policy and
administration, supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relations, salary,
status, job security and personal life.

Herzberg called these factors as dissatisfiers and not motivators, by this he

means their presence or existence does not motivate in the sense of yielding
satisfaction, but their absence would result in dissatisfaction. Theseare also
referred to as hygiene‘ factors.
In the second group are the satisfiers‘ in the sense that they are motivators,
which are related to Job content‘. He included the factors of achievement,
recognition, challenge work, advancement and growth in the job. He says that
their presence will yield feelings of satisfactory or no satisfaction but not
dissatisfaction.

 Quality of supervisionRecognition

 Relations with supervision Advancement

 Relations with subordinates Possibility of growth

 Pay Responsibility.

Leadership and Leadership Styles:

Leader:

One who leads a given group or team of people is called leader. If you can
influence people to perform better in a given organizational setting, that means
you are a leader.

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Leadership is ability to influence people to achieve the given goals in an

organization.

A true leader is one who shares success with followers and absorbs all failures.

A manager has to be a mini-leader 9he has to inspire his subordinates and get
work done) and leader to be a mega-leader (otherwise he does not understand
the ground realities of functioning)

Leadership Styles: Leader has to ensure that people under his guidance are
comfortable and their good work is recognized.

A good leader has to adopt such a style of working that takes care of people
around him. There are also some leader who do not care for people and who
care more for the task completion.

Types:

Autocratic leadership: Here, leader command the followers and expects

compliance from them for all the instructions given, leaders are more dogmatic
and positive. They lead by his ability to withhold or give rewards or
punishments. Here, no suggestions from the followers are entertained and
almost to-down approach is seen. They direct others. They do not allow any
participation.

Democratic leadership: Here leaders consult subordinates and involve them in

decision making. They encourage discussion with the group leaders believes in
two-way communication. They listen to followers try to facilitate the decision
making.
Free – Rein leadership: Free – Rein leaders exercises little authority and give
maximum freedom to subordinates while making decisions. It is a bottom-up

approach. Suggestions from the followers are encourage and rewarded. They
give high degree of independence subordinates in their operations.

Social Responsibility: Social responsibility refers to the process with includes

several activities from providing safe products and services to giving apportion
of the company‘s profits to welfare organizations.

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Responsibility towards shareholders: The business enterprise has the

responsibility to provide fair return on capital to the shareholders. The firm must
provide them regular, accurate, and full information about the working of
enterprise in order to fulfill and encourage their interest in the affairs of the
company.

Responsibility towards consumers: The management has to provide quality

products and services to the customers at reasonable prices. It should consider
customer suggestions and also plan it services more effectively

through consumer satisfaction survey.

Responsibility towards employees: Good working conditions motivate workers

to contribute their best it is the responsibility of the management recognize their
unions and respect their right to associate with a union of their choices.

Responsibility towards creditors: The business has to repay the loans it has
taken from the financial institutions as per the repayment schedule also it should
inform the creditors about the developments in the company form time-to-time.

Responsibility towards Government: The business firm has to pay its taxes and
be fair in its endeavours. It should also support the government in community
development projects.

Responsibility towards competitors: The business firm should always maintain

the highest ethical standards and maintain cordial relations with each of the
competitors, which is a critical and sensitive segment.

Responsibility towards public: Business units have tremendous responsibility

towards the general public to support the cause of community development.
Most of the companies maintain public relations departments exclusively to
maintain good relations with the community.

DESIGNING ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURES

Organization:

Organization is form of organizing which is a part of management process

Organization defied as collectivity of people for achieving common

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objectives

Organization means the determination and assignment of duties to people, and

also the establishment and the maintenance of authority relationships among
these grouped activities it is the structural frame work with in which the various
efforts are coordinated and related to each other.

Definitions: Organization are collectivities of people that have been established

for the pursuit of relatively specific objectives on a more or less continuous
basis.

_William Scott

Organization is the form of every human association for the attainment of

a common purpose.

Mooney and Reilly:Organization involves the grouping of activities necessary

to accomplish goals and plans assignment and these activities to appropriate
departments and positions to appropriate departments and positions for authority
delegation and coordination‖.
Koontz and O‘Donnell Organization is used in the following ways with or
without prefix or suffix

 as entity 

 as group of people 

 as structure 

 as process 

Process of Organization:

Determination of objectives, strategies, plans and policies: Objectives should be

clear and precise, because the entire organization is to be built around the
objectives of the enterprises.

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Determination of activities: Determine activities needed to execute these plans

and policies and accomplish the objectives. The work load is broken into
component activities that are to be performed by all the employees. The
activities are so split to determine the job which can be performed by an
individual.

Separation and grouping of activities: To attain the benefits of specialization

and division of labour, every company, will separate its activities on the basis of
primary functions like finance, engineering, purchasing, production, sales and
industrial relations. All the similar or directly related activities are grouped
together in the form of departments.

Delegation of authority: Authority is necessary for the performance of the job

and therefore authority is delegated to the subordinates for enabling them to
carry out their work smoothly and efficiently.

Delegation of responsibility: Responsibility may be described as the obligation

and accountability for the performance of delegated duties. A superior is always
accountable for the acts of his subordinate. Therefore, responsibility always
flows from subordinates to superiors.

Establish inter-relationships: The grouped activities are placed in the overall

organization structure at appropriate level. It is necessary to integrate or the
these groups of activities through.

Authority relationship horizontally, vertically and diagonally

Organized information or communication system i.e., with the help of

effective coordination and communication.

Providing physical facilities and proper environment: Physical facilities means

provide machinery, tools equipments, infrastructure etc, environment means
provide proper lighting, ventilation, heating, cooling arrangement at the work
place, reasonable hors of work, safety devices, job security etc.

Principles of Organization:

 Principle of unity of objectives: An organization structure is effective if is

enables individuals to contribute to entire objectives. 

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 Principle of co-ordination: The aim of the objective can be achieved it

proper co-ordination exists for efferent activities 

 Principles of organizational efficiency: An organization is efficient it is
structured to aid the accomplishment of enterprise objective with a
minimum of unsought consequences or costs. 

 Span of management principle: In each managerial position, there is a
limit to the number of persons an individual can effectively manage but
the exact number will depend on the impact of underlying variables. 

 Scalar principle: The clearer the line of authority from the ultimate
management position in an enterprise to every subordinate position, the
clearer will be the responsibility for decision making the more effective
will be organization communication. 

 Principle of delegation by results expected: Authority delegated to all
individual managers should be adequate enough to ensure their ability to
accomplish the results expected. 

 Principle of responsibility: The responsibility of subordinates to their
superiors for performance is absolute, and superiors can not escape
responsibility for the organization activity of their subordinates. 

 Principle of parity of authority and responsibility: The responsibility for
actions can not be greater than that implied by the authority delegated, not
should it be less. 

 Principle of unity command: The more complete an individual‘s
reporting relationships to a single superior, the smaller the problem of
conflicting instructions and the greater the feeling of personal
responsibility for results. 

 Authority level principle: Maintenance of intended delegation requires
that decisions with in the authority of individual managers should be
made by them and not be referred upward in the organization structure. 

 Principle of balance: The application of principles or technique must be
balanced to ensure the over all effectiveness of the structure in meeting
enterprise objectives. 

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 Principle of flexibility: the more that provisions are made for building
flexibility in to an organization structure can fulfill its purpose. 

 Principle of leadership facilitation: The more an organization structure
and its delegations of authority enable managers to design and maintain
an environment for performance, the more they will help the leadership
abilities of those managers. 

Design of Organization structure: The main objective of an organization

structure is to ensure that efforts of all the people working in various sections
are co-ordinate and integrated for achieving the task in the most efficient
effective way with minimum consumption of resources i.e. economical ways

1) Formal organization structure 2) Informal organization structure

Formal organization structure: According to classical theorists the formal

organization is built an four pillars

Division of labour

Scalar functional processes

Structure

Span of control

Definition:

An organization is formal when the activities of two or more persons are

consciously coordinated towards common objectives.

Informal organization:

Informal organization arises spontaneously based on friendship or some

common interest and not based on rules, regulation and procedures. It is
developed by the employees themselves and not by the formal authority.

Definition:

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Informal organization brings cohesiveness to a formal organization, it brings to

the members of formal organization a feeling of belonging of status, of self-
respect and of gregarious satisfaction.

Comparison between formal and informal organization:

Basis of comparison Formal Informal

Formation Planned & deliberated Spontaneous

Purpose Well-set goals Social interaction

Structure Well structured Un structured

Focus Positions Persons

Nature Official Unofficial

Leadership Superior Any one

Source of power Delegated Given by group

Guidelines for behaviour Rules procedures Group norms

Source of control Rewards/Punishment Sanctions

Type of organization: On the basis of authority relationships organization

classified as follows

 Line organization or Military organization or Scalar organization 


 Functional organization 

 Line and Staff organization 

 Project organization 

 Committee organization 

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Matrix organization

Where efforts of large number of people have to be controlled and discipline is

of prime importance line type organization structure will serve the purpose. This
is also one of the oldest structures. However, in present conditions this type of
structure has lost the applicability. In line structure ten lines of instruction,
directing is vertical. This means in this type boss is always right and his orders
are to be obeyed at any cost.

Merits:

 Simplicity: Line organization is very simple to establish and can be easily

understand by the employees 

 Discipline: Since each position is subject to control by its immediate
superior position, often the maintenance of discipline is easy unity of
command and unity of direction foster discipline among the people in the
organization. 

 Co-ordination: The hierarchy in management helps in achieving effective
coordination 

 Effective communication: There will be a direct link between superior
and his subordinate; both can communicate properly among himself or
herself. Economical: Line organization is easy to operate and less
expensive 

 Unity of command: In line organization every person is under the
command of one boss only. 







 Prompt decision: Only one person is in charge of one division or
department. This enables manager to take quick decisions. 

 Over all development of the managers: The departmental head has to look
after all the activities of his department; therefore, it encourages the
development of all round managers at the higher level of authority. 

 Demerits: 

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 Undue reliance: The success of the enterprise depends upon the caliber
and ability of few departmental heads, loss of one or two capable men
may put the organization in difficulties. 

 Personnel limitations: In this type of organization an individual executive
is suppose to discharge different types of duties. He cannot do justice to
all different activities because he cannot be specialized in all the trades. 

 Overload of work: Departmental heads are overloaded with various
routine jobs hence they can not spare time for important managerial
functions like planning, development budgeting etc. 

 Dictatorial way: In line organization, too much authorities centre on line
executive. Hence it encourages dictatorial way of working. 

 Duplication of work: Conflicting policies of different departments result
in duplication of work. 

 Unsuitable for large concerns: It is limited to small concerns. 

 General interest of enterprise may be over looked: Departments may work
for their self-interest and may sacrifice the general interest of the
enterprise. 

 Scope of favourism: As the departmental heads has the supreme
authority, there is chance of favourism. 

Functional organization: This structure most widely used, in the medium and
large organizations having limited number of products.

This was introduced by F.W.Taylor and is logical extension of the division of

labour cover departments as well as men.

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In this authority is delegated to an individual or department to control specified

processes, policies or other matter relating to activities under taken by persons
in other departments.

Head quarters

Production Marketing Finance Personal

Plant 1 Plant 2 Plant 3

In this system planning is separated from performance since the direction of

work is divided by various function in the factory. It has been found that this
type of structure becomes ineffective when the work of departments and
individuals increases in variety and complexity.

Merits:

Separation of work: In functional organization, work has been separated

from routine work. The specialist has been given the authority and responsibility
for supervision and administration pertaining to their field of specialization
unnecessary over loading of responsibilities is thus avoided.

Specialization:

Specialization and skilled supervisory attention is given to workers

the result is increase in rate of production and improved quality of work.
Narrow range with high depth: The narrow range of activities enable the
functional expert to developing in depth understanding in his particular
area of activity.

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Ease in selection and training: Functional organization is based upon expert

knowledge. The availability of guidance through experts makes it possible to
train the workers properly in comparatively short span of time.

Reduction in prime cost: Since for every operation expert guidance is there,
wastage of material is reduced and thus helps to reduce prime cost.

Scope of growth and development of business: This type of organization

presents ample scope for the growth and development of business.

Demerits:

 Indispline: Since the workers receive instructions from number of

specialist it leads to confusion to whom they should follow. Therefore, it
is difficult to maintain discipline. 

 Shifting of responsibility: It is difficult for the top management to locate
responsibility for the unsatisfactory work every ody tries to shift
responsibility on others for the faults and failure. 

 Kills the initiative of workers: As the specialized guidance is available to
the workers the workers will not be using their talents and skills therefore
their initiative cannot be utilized. 

 Overlapping of authority: The sphere of authority tends to overlap and
gives rise to friction between the persons of equal rank. 

 Lack of co-ordination between functions: except the function in which he
is specialized he is absolutely indifferent to other functions. Therefore,
there is a lack of coordination of function and efforts. 

Line and Staff Organization: Line and Staff organization is the in which the line
heads are assisted by specialist staff.

If the firm is of large size, manager cannot give careful attention to every
aspect of management. They are busy with ordinary task of production and
selling. Hence staff is deputed to do the work of investigation, research,
recording, and advising to managers. Thus the staff brings advising to managers.
Thus the staff brings specialization by assisting the line officers.

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1. Planned specialization: The line and staff structure is based upon the
principle of specialization. The line managers are responsible for
operations contributing directly to the achievement of organizational
objectives where as staff people are there to provide expert advice on the
matters of their concerns.

2. Quality decisions: Decisions come after careful consideration and thought

each expert gives his advise in the area of his specialization which is
reflected in the decisions.

3. Prospect for personal growth: Prospect for efficient personal to grow in

the organization not only that, it also offers opportunity for concentrating
in a particular area, there by increasing personal efficiency

4. Less wastage: There will be less wastage of material.

5. Training ground for personnel: It provides training ground to the

personnel in two ways. First, since everybody is expected to concentrate
on one field, one‘s training needs can easily be identified. Second, the
staff with expert knowledge provides opportunities to the line managers
for adopting rational multi-dimensional approach towards a problem.

Demerits:

1. Chances of Misinterpretation: Although the expert advice is available, yet

it reaches the workers through line supervisors. The line officers may fail
to understand the meaning of advice and there is always a risk of
misunderstanding and misinterpretation.

2. Chances of friction: There are bound to be occasions when the line and
staff may differ in opinion may resent in conflict of interests and prevents
harmonious relations between the two.

3. Ineffective Staff in the absence of authority: The staff has no authority to

execute their own advice. Their advice is not a binding on the line
officers. Therefore the advice given by specialist may be ignored by line
heads.

4. Expensive: The overhead cost of the product increases because of

high salaried specialized staff.

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5. Loss of initiative by line executives: If is they start depending too much

on staff may loose their initiative drive and ingenuity.

Project Organization: A project organization is a special case where common

service like finance, purchase etc. are organized at the functional level. But
project resources are allocated to the project manager. Since the business
responsibility rests with the project manager, necessary authority is given to him
with the requisite resources. This type of organization structure helps in making
decisions for project control in terms of cost, resource and time. In a project
organization some of the functions are corporate responsibility and some of
them are project manager‘s responsibility.
Merits:

This calls for quick divisions

Organizing all functional

Proper coordination of work of different departments

Demerits:

1. It tends to increase the problems of control for top management

2. It is special case of product organization

3.The organization may get disintegrated with increasing focus on departments.

Committee Organization: A committee is formed when two or more persons are

appointed to work as a team to arrive at a decision on the matters referred to it.
It is intended to utilize the knowledge, skills, and experiences of all the
concerned parties. Particularly, in large organizations, problems are too big to
be handled by one single expert.

organizational resources in terms of knowledge skills and experiences.

It represents all interested groups and thus, facilitates group decision.

It yields good results if the committee are headed by taskmaster like chairman
and time bound in terms of decision-making.
It minimizes the fear of too much authority vested in one person

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Merits:

  It offers operational freedom and flexibility 

  It seeks to optimize the utilization of resources 
  It focuses on results 
  It maintains professional identity 
 It holds employees responsible for management of resources 

Demerits:

  It calls for greater degree of coordination 

  It violates unity of command principle 
  It may be difficult to define authority and responsibility precisely 
 Employees may find it frustrating to work with two bosses. 

MODERN TRENDS IN ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE DESIGNS:

Organizations in the recent times have been gearing themselves to suit to the
growing demands from their stakeholders in terms of responsiveness, flexibility,
agility, adaptability etc. In this process, they are following organic structure,
which are more agile, flexible and adaptable to the changing circumstances.
Virtual organizations, cellular organizations, team structure, boundaryless
organization and inverted pyramid and different forms of organic structure that
are widely seen among most of the sun-rise sectors such as financial services,
Information Technology (IT) and IT enabled services. These structures have
been contributing to the organic growth of the organization.The focus of organic
structures is to do away with those activities which do not directly contribute to
the growth of the organization and focus only on those activities which directly
lead the organization for the achievement of the given goals.

Virtual Organisation: Virtual organizations facilitate competitiveness

particularly when these organizations are part of the global economy. Here,
there can be alliances and partnerships with other organizations almost all

over world. It is a flexible organization structure that removes the traditional

boundaries.It allows easy reassignment and reallocation of resources to take
quick advantage of shifting opportunities in global markets. To avoid

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disintegration and to attain the effective needed focus, the lead virtual
organizations must have a shared vision,, strong brand and high trust culture.

The virtual organization is a temporary network of companies that come

together quickly to exploit fast changing opportunities. Virtual organizations
appear to be bigger than traditional organizations. As virtual organizing required
a strong information technology (IT) platform, The boundaries that traditionally
separate a firm form its suppliers, customers and even competitors are largely
eliminated, temporarily and in respect to a given transaction or business
purpose. Virtual organizations.

come into being as needed when alliances are called into action to meet
specific operating needs and objectives. When the task is complete, the alliances
rests until next called into action. Each partner in the alliance contributes to the
virtual organization what it is best as-its core competence.

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UNIT – 3

INTRODUCTION TO OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Plant location: Plant location is a strategic decision several factors

influence this decision. The main objective of any business is to optimize its
cost and revenue that is, minimize its costs and maximize its returns.

The degree of significance for the selection of location for any

enterprise mainly depends on its size and nature large scale industries
requiring huge amount of investment there are many considerations other
than the local demand in the selection proper plant location these plants
cannot be easily shifted to other place and an error of judgment in the
selection of site can be vary expensive to the organization. However, small-
scale industry mainly selects the site where in accordance with its capacity;
the local market is available for its products. It can easily shift to other
place when there is any change in the market.

Factors affecting plant location:

Nearness to Market: If the plant is located close to the market the cost of
transportation can be minimized. This also helps the producers to have
direct knowledge of the requirements of the customers.
Nearness to supply of raw materials: As far as possible the site selected
should be near the source of raw materials, so that the cost of
transportation can be minimized and storing cost can be reduced due to
shorter lead time.
Availability of labour: Availability of right kind of labour force in required
number at reasonable rates is also a deciding factor in selection of site
Transport and communication facilities: Generally, industries have a
tendency to locate the industrial units near the railway station, highway or
port areas. Availability of power and fuel: Coal, electricity, oil and natural

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gas are the important sources of power in the industries.

Ex: Tata iron and steel industry is established near the coalmines of
Bihar. Climatic conditions: Climatic conditions largely affect certain
production processes and also the efficiency of the employees.

Ex: Textile mills require moist climate that why these plant located at
Mumbai
and Ahmedabad.

Availability of water: Water is used in industries for processing as in

paper in chemical industries, for generation of power in hydroelectric
power, plants and also required for drinking sanitary purpose also.

Ancillary industries: Many industries such as processing and

assembly industries are not producing al the parts of their product
but purchase some of the parts from ancillary industries producing it.
Financial and other aids: For the development of backward regions
central as well as state government provide certain incentives and
facilities such as cash-subsides, concession financial assistance, land,
power and other facilities at cheaper rates, tax concession etc.

Plant Layout: A technique of locating machines, processes and plant

services within the factory in order to secure the greatest possible
output of high quality at the lowest possible total cost of production
Type of plant layout:

Product or line layout: This type of layout is developed for product-

focused systems. In this type of layout only one product, or one type
of product, is produced in a given area. In case of product being
assembled, this type of layout is popularly known as an assembly line
layout.

The work centers are organized in the sequence of appearance.

The raw material centre at one end of the line and goes from one
operation to another rapidly with minimum of work-in-process

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storage and material handling

Raw Finished
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Materia
l Cutting Turning Milling GrindingPaintingInspect packing Goods

Factors influencing plant layout:

Management policy: Management has to decide on many matters e.g.

nature and quality of products, size of the plant, integration of production
process, plans for expansion, amount of inventory in stock, employee
facilities

Manufacturing process: The type of manufacturing process e.g.

synthetic/analytical, continuous/intermittent and repetitive/non-
repetitive, will govern the type of plant layout.

Nature of product: Small and light products can be moved easily to the
machines, whereas for heavy and bulky products the machines may have to
be moved. Type of equipment: The use of single purpose and multi-purpose
machine substantially affects the plant layout. Similarly, noisy and vibrating
machines require special attention in the plant layout decision.

Types of buildings: The plant layout in a single storey building will be numberdifferntofromstoreythats,

elevatorsinmultiandstoreystairs, buildiparkingg.andThestoragecoveredareareas,allaffectthe

the layout.

Availability of total floor area: The allocation of space for machines, work-
benches, sub-store aisles etc., is made on the basis of the available floor
area use of overhead space is made in case of shortage of space.

Arrangement of materials handing equipment: Provide sufficient aisles for

free movement of material handling equipment such as hand truck, fork
truck etc. Service facilities: The layout of factory must include proper

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service facilities required for the comfort and welfare of workers. These
include canteen, lockers, drinking water, first aid etc.

Possibility of future expansion: Plant layout is made in the light of future

requirement and installations of additional activities.

PRINCIPLES OF PLANT LAYOUT:

Principle of Integration
Principle of continuous flow
Principle of smooth flow:It states that bottlenecks, congestion points and
bulk tracking should be removed by proper line balancing techniques.
Principle of cubic space: Space of a room, it the ceiling height is also
utilized, more materials can be accommodated in the same space.

Principle of satisfaction of safety: Working places-safe, well-ventilated and

free from dust, noise fumes, odors and other hazardous conditions, help to
increase the efficiency of the workers and improve their morale.

Principle of flexibility: It means the best layout in one which can be adopted
and re-arranged at a minimum cost with least inconvenience.
Productivity:

Definition: Productivity is defined as the rate at which the goods and

services are produced.

It refers to the relationship between the inputs and the output. It is

calculated as a ratio between the amount produced and the amount of
resources (land, labour, capital, technology etc.) used in the course of
production in other words
Method of Production:

Job production: In this system, goods are produced according to the

orders with this method, individual requirements of the consumers can be
met. Each job order stands alone and is not likely to be repeated. This type
of production has a lot of flexibility of operation and hence general purpose

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machines are required. Factories adopting this type of production, are

generally small in size.
Advantages:
1. It is the only method, which can meet the individual requirement.

2. There is no managerial problem, because of very less number of workers,

and small size of concern.
Such type of production requires less money and is easy to start.
Disadvantages:
1. There is no scope for continuous production and demand

2. As the purchase of raw materials is less, hence cost of raw materials per
unit will be slightly more.
3. For handling different type of jobs, only skilled and intelligent workers are
needed, thus labour cost increases.

Batch production: This type of production is generally adopted in medium

size enterprise. Batch production is in between job production and mass
production. Batch production is bigger in scale than the job production.
While it is smaller than that of mass production, batch production requires
more machines than job production and fewer machines that the of mass
production.
Advantages:
1. While comparing with mass production it requires less capital
2. Comparing with job production, it is more advantageous commercially.
3. If demand for one product decrease then production, for another product
may be increased, thus the risk of loss is very less.
Disadvantages:

1. Comparing with mass production cost of scales and advertisement per unit
is more
2. Raw materials to be purchased are in less quantity than that in mass
production; therefore it is slightly costlier than that of mass production

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because less quantity discount is available.

Mass production: This method of production is used by concerns where

manufacturing is carried on continuously in anticipation of demand though
demand of the product may not be uniform through the year.

In mass production, simplification and standardization of products

are made with the help of specialized (one purpose) machine, articles of
standardized nature can easily and economically be produced on a large
scale.

There is a small difference between mass production and continuous

production. This is mainly in the kind of product and its relation to the
plant. In mass production plant and equipment are flexible enough to deal
with other products, involving same production process. Where as in
continuous or process production only standardized product in a sequence
produced. In this method layout and requirement of additional tools and
equipment.
Advantages:

 A smooth flow of materials from one work station to the next in

logical order. 

 Since the work from one process is fed directly into the next, small in
process inventories result 

 Total production time per unit short 

 Simple production planning control system are possible 

 Little skill is usually required by operations at the production line,
hence training is simple, short and inexpensive. 

Disadvantages:

1. A breakdown of one machine may lead to a complete stoppage of the line

that follows the machine. Hence maintenance and repair is challenging job.

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Since the product dictates the layout, changes in product design may
require major changes in the layout.

Work Study: Work study is one of the most important management

techniques which is employed to improve the activities in the production.
The main objective of work study is to assist the management in the
optimum use of the human and material resources.

Definition: Work study refers to the method study and work

measurement, which are used to examine human work in all its contexts by
systematically investigating into all factors affecting its efficiency and
economy to bring forth the desired improvement.

Method Study:
Definition: The systematic recording and critical examination of existing
and proposed ways of doing work, as a means of developing and applying
easier and more effective methods and reducing cost it is also called
motion study.
Work Measurement:
Definition: Work measurement is the application of techniques designed to
establish time for a qualified worker to carry out a specified job at a
defined level of performance.

Work study has two parts, Method Study and Work Measurement.
Method study deals with the techniques of analyzing the way to do a given
job better, Work Measurement seeks to measure the time required to
perform the job.

Basic procedure for Method Study:

Select: The work to be studied
Record: All the relevant facts of the present or proposed method study by
observation

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Examine: The recorded facts critically every thing that is done, considering
in turn, the purpose of the activity, the place where it is performed, the
sequence in which it is done, the person who is doing it and the means by
which it is done.

Develop: The most practical, economical and effective method considering

all the circumstances.

Define: The new method so that it can always be

identified.
Install: The method as standard practice
Maintain: That standard practice by regular routine checks.

Recording: The current process of doing the job has to be recorded, while
doing so every detail however small it may be, has to be identified.

Where the process is too long, involving many stages of production,

inspection or transportation, the present process of doing the job is
recorded sufficiently together with all the relevant information, using the
process chart symbols.
Recording Techniques: The recording techniques are of three types
a) Process chart b) Diagrams c) Motion and film analysis d) Models
A) Process Charts:

1) Out line process chart: This chart outlines the main events
sequence wise considering only operations and inspections in the
given job
Ex: TASK
Changing refill of a Ball Point pen
Chart begins : Unscrew the cap
Chart ends : Screw the cap
Chart by : --------------
Chart Ends : --------------

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1 Unscrew cap

2 Unscrew neck

3 Remove the old refill

Place the refill in the barrel

5

6 No. of operations 7
Screw the neck No. of inspections 1
Total No. of activities 8

7 Check if the ball pen writes

Screw the cap

Assemble the spring on new refill

2) Flow process chart: These are scale drawings of the work place, which
indicate where each activity takes place. This chart is capable of reflecting
undue delays in transferring work between workstations duplication of
work, and unfair work assignment, which may delay the completion
process. It classified into three types

Man Type : It records what the worker does

Materials Type : It records what happens to the
materials
Equipment Type : It records how the equipment used.

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a) Man Type
Ex:
Job: Writing a letter using short hand typist
Chart begins: Typist in own office-awaiting dictation
TypistChartends:office: Typistmetersputsmanagerletterandsofficecopy in out tray

3) Two handed process chart: The two hand process chart is a chart is
which theactivities of a workers hand are recorded, in their relationship to
one another. Itis commonly used for repetitive and short operations.
Ex:
Job : Assemble to washers and nut to bolt
Chart begins : Hand empty material in boxes
Part No. : -------------
Chart ends : Completed assembly aside to box
Operation No. : -------------
Method : Present/proposed

4) Multiple activity chart: A multiple activity chart is a chart in which the

activities of more than one item (worker, machine or equipment) are
recorded on a common time scale to show their inter relationship.

By using separate vertical columns to represent the activities of different

operators or machines on a common time scale, the chart shows very
clearly the period of idleness on the part of any items during the process.

Ex:
Chart No.----- Sheet No. ------------------- Department ------------------
Material : B201 casting Job : Making a slot on the casing
Machine : Slotted Operation : XYZ
Charted
by : ------------ Date : ------------

Time Time
Man Machine
(min.) (min.)
Removes finished

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0.2 casting cleans with Idle 0.2

compressed air
Gauges depth of slot
0.4 Idle 0.4
on surface plate
Breaks sharp edges
0.6 with file cleans with Idle 0.6
compressed air
Place in a box
0.8 obtains new casting Idle 0.8

Cleans machine
with
1.0 Idle 1.0
compressed air
Locates casting in
fixture, starts
1.2 Idle 1.2
machine and
automatic fee

1.4 Idle Cutting slot 1.4

1.6 Idle Cutting slot 1.6

1.8 Idle Cutting slot 1.8

2.0 Idle Cutting slot 2.0

Summary:
Cycle time : 2 min.
Working Utilization
Time: :
a) Man : 1.2 min. a) Man : 60%
b)
b) Machine : 0.8 min. Machine : 40%
Idle time:
a) Man : 0.8 min.
b) Machine : 1.2 min.

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B) Diagrams:
1) Flow diagrams: Flow process chart only shows the
sequence of various activities necessary for performing the specified work.
It does not show clearly the path of movement of men and materials from
one location to another.

Definition: It is a diagrams, drawn to scale, intended to show the relative

position of the production machinery and marks the route followed by the
machines, materials and men.
2) String diagrams: The workers are moving at irregular
intervals between a number of points in a working area with or without
materials in many industrial activities.

Definition: The string diagram is a scale plan or model on which a tread its
used to trace and measure the path of workers, materials or equipment
during a specified sequence of events.
3) Cycle graph: In this method a small electric bulb is
attached to each part of the body, which makes the movement for carrying
out an operation. The path of movement is photographed by high-speed
camera.
4) Chronocycle graph: This is a photographic record, which
traces the path of movement onto a photographic place. In principle, it is
similar to the string diagram, and is most effective when recording short,
rapid movements.

C) Micro motion Study and film analysis: Micro motion study is a set of
techniques intended to divide human activity into groups of movements or
micro motions (therbiligs) and the study of such movements help to find
for an operator one best pattern of movements that consumes less time and

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requires less effort to accomplish the task.

Film analysis: Once the activity has been filmed and the film processed, a
projector runs the film very slowly and the film can be stopped or reversed
whenever required.

1) SIMO Chart (simultaneous motion cycle chart): A SIMO chart is based on

film analysis, it is a graphic representation of the coordinated activities of
an operators body embers. The activities are described in terms of basic or
fundamental motions. The time required for completion of these motions is
also recorded on the chart.
D) Models: Sometimes the picture of the existing conditions is not clear by
the use of flow process chart or flow diagram. In such cases instead of the
scales plans of the shop facilities models are used to provide visual
representation of the proposed layout before proceeding with actual
rearrangement of the work place.

Work Measurement: Work measurement is the application of technique

to establish the time for a qualified worker to carry out a specified job at a
defined level of performance.
Procedure for Work Measurement:
1) Sect: The work to be studied and determine the objectives of the study
2) Record: All the relevant data relating to circumstances in
which the work is being done, the methods to be used breakdown the job
into its elements
3) Examine: The recorded data and the detailed breakdown
critically to ensure the most effective method and motions are being used
and that unproductive elements are separated from productive elements.
4) Measure: The time required to complete each element
using the appropriate work measurement techniques and calculate the
time required to compete the work cycle which is known as basic time.
5) Compile: The standard time for the operation or work

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place, in case of stop watch time study the various allowances to cover
relation, personal needs etc. are added to the basic time to estimate the
standard time.
Techniques of work measurement:
1. Time study
2. Synthesis from standard data
3. Predetermined Motion Time System (PMTS)
4. Analytical estimating
5. Work Sampling

1) Time study: It is defined as the art of observing and recording the time
required to do each detailed element of all industrial operation.

Time study equipment: Time study equipment can be broadly grouped

two categories
A) Time measuring device B) Time study boards and time study
chart

A) Time measuring devices:

a) Stop Watch b) Motion picture camera c) Time recording machine
d) Electronic timer.
a) Stop Watch:

Decimal minute stop watch: In this type of watch the movements is started
and stopped by moving the slide A , forward and backward respectively are
complete revolution of large hand represents 1 minute and since the dial is
divided into 100 parts reading to with in 0.01 minutes can be obtained.
Every time the large hand make one revolution the small hand will register
1 minute and is able to register up to 30 minutes.

Decimal hour stop watch: The dial in this watch is divided into 100 parts.
The needle completes 10 revolutions in one hour. The least count in this
watch is 0.001 hours. The small dial of this watch is divided into 30 equl
spaces (representing 0.01 hour) and the small needle makes 31/3

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revolutions in one hour.

b)Motion picture camera: Every element of the operation involving motion

of the workers is made into film through motion picture camera when this
film is run at a slow speed through a projector; the time of each element is
recorded using a stopwatch.

c)Time recording machine: A moving tape is run is this machine at a

uniform velocity of 10 inches/minutes with the help of electric motor. The
machine has two keys: one key, when pressed, indicates starting of an
operation, and the other key used to take a print on the scaled tape at the
end of elements.
d)Electronic timer: The timing of starting and ending of an operation of an
element is automatically recorded through electronic timers.
B) Time study boards and time study charts:

Time study board: These are simple and handy hard wood boards equipped
with stopwatch holders and clamps for holding the observation sheets and
time study forms. These boards help to see and record the observation and
time at the same instant.

Observations forms: Printed or cyclostyled forms are used for recording the
observation during that time study. It ensures that time study are made

standard manner and that no essential data are omitted. These forms are
attached to the study board by means of clip provided

2)Synthesis from standard data: This one technique of work

measurement to obtained synthetic times that are synthesis from element
times previously obtained from direct time studies. The analysis and
measurement stage are thus conducted prior to the actual study.

3)Predetermine motion time system (PMTS): Every element of work is

composed of some combination of basic human motions. Apart from mental
activity all works can broken down into elements that usually a
fundamental movement of the body or body members. After this analysis

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stage the basic motions that have been isolated have a time allotted to them
on the basis of predetermine motion times.

4)Analytical estimation: Analytical estimating serves as best for

measuring work. In the analysis stage we find the usually these basic
elements or much larger as compared to the elements in PMTS or time
study. For measuring stages the time, which will be occupied by the
element at a specific speed of working is estimated.

5)Work Sampling: It is work measurement technique which large number

of instantaneous observation are made random interval over a specified
period of time of a group of workers, machine and processes. Each
observation records what is happening at that instantant and the present
observations recorded for a particular activity or delay is a measure of the
percentage of time during which that activity or delay occurs.

It can also defined as a method of finding the percentage occurrence of a

certain activity by statistical sampling and random observations.

Procedure for conducting time study: For conducting time study average
workers and average machines are selected. This study id conducted by the
time study expert, who should be familiar with all the information related
to the job and the conditions in which it is being done.
Time study is performed in the following stages.

A) Analysis of work B) Standardization of methods C) Making time study

a)Analysis of work: It includes all the tasks performed by the workers, not
just the effective work. In the end, time required for job preparation,
cleaning of machine, etc. should also be included.

b)Standardization of methods: Related to materials, equipment, tools,

working conditions to ensure an acceptable method which is easy, safe and
the fastest.
c)Making time study: Time study is done on a printed time study record

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sheet, which is fixed on a board known as time study board. On one corner,
a stopwatch is placed.

Different time readings of element are recorded in the corresponding

column of the record sheet. Several sets of reading are taken to arrive at an
accurate result after noting all these readings, average tome is calculated,
neglecting abnormal values, if any.

Standard time: it is the time, which is taken by a normal worker for a

specific task or job, working under moderate conditions and including
other allowances. Such as fatigue setting of tool and job, repairing of tool
and checking of job etc
Standard time is the basis for the calculation of wages and
incentives.
Standard time= Average time* Rating factor+ other allowances

Rating factor: the study engineer multiplies actual time with a factor known
as Rating factor or leveling factor to set the average time which a normal
worker would take. This is expressed as a percentage of the effacing of
representative operator, which is in comparison to some of his average
fellow workers.
Performance rating: performance rating is that process, during which the time study
engineer compares the performance of the operator of
normal performance.
OBSERVED PERSORMANCE 100
Performance rating= NORMAL PERFORMANCE

The rating can be

a)Standard rating: A qualified worker will naturally work if he is motivated

to apply himself to his work at the average rate of pace.

b)Normal rating: It is the average rate or pace at which a qualified worker

will naturally work even if he has no specific motivation to apply himself to
this work

Rating techniques:

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operator1)Speed sratingmovements:Speedin relationatingconsiststoanormalofdeterminingpaceasafactorthe speedandapplyingofthe

it to each element so as to get the normal time for the element.

Normal or basic time =

Rating= Worker s STANspee DARD

RATING d
Standard rating = Speed expected from the worker

2)Westing-house system of rating: It is based upon four factors- system

comprising skill, effort, conditions and consistency and arrives at
cumulative rating.

3)Synthetic rating: It is the ratio of the standard tome for the element to
that of observed time.

4)Objective rating; It is determined in two stages- first the speed rating and
second the adjustment for job difficulties.

5)Psychological evaluation of performance level: In this rating we consider

the amount of oxygen consumed, change of heart rate etc to determine
rating factor.
Types of allowances in time study:

1)Process allowances: Process allowances to compensate for enforced

idleness due to no work power failure, faulty material or tools and
equipment.

2)Personal allowances: It comprises personal needs and fatigue. Fatigue

allowance contains, in turn, a constant portion and a variable portion.
3)Interference allowances: When a worker is attending more than one
machine .

4)Contingency allowances: These allowances are to meet legitimate but

irregular or infrequent items of work or delays.

5)Special allowances: Special allowances decided as a policy matter,

covering activities that are essential for satisfactory performance of work
but may not be part of the job, like start up, shut down, change over,

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cleaning, set up, tool changing etc.

STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL

Introduction: Quality is the determining factor the success of any product

or service large resource are committed in every organization to ensure
quality.

Definition: It is defined as customer satisfaction in general and fitness for

use in particular. Both the external consumer who buy the product and
services and the internal consumers that is, all divisions or departments of
the business organization are equally interested in the quality.

Statistical quality control: The process of applying statistical principles to

solve the problem of controlling the quality control of a product or service
is called statistical quality control.
Quality elements: a) Quality design b) Quality conformance

a)Quality design: Quality of design refers to product feature such as

performance, reliability durability, ease of use, serviceability

b)Quality conformance: Quality conformance means whether the product

meets the given quality specification or not .

Inspection: The process of measuring the out put and comparing it to

check whether it meets the given specified requirements or not, is called
inspection.
Inspection Methods: The following are the methods of inspection based
on merits
1)Incoming inspection: In this method, the quality of the goods and services
arriving into the organization is inspected. This ensures that the material cannotsuppliersenteradhereinto

tothetheproductiongivenspecificationsprocess.Thiswithfocusesthisdefectiveonthe vendormaterials

quality and ability to supply acceptable raw materials.

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2)Critical point inspection: Inspecting at the critical points of a product

manufacture gives valuable insight into the completely functional process.
At the points of manufacture that involve high costs or which offer no
possibility for repair or rework, inspection is crucial further operation
depend on these results critical point inspection helps to drop the defective
production, and thereby, facilitate avoiding unnecessary further
expenditure on them.

3)Process inspection: This is also called patrolling inspection or floor

inspection or roving inspection. Here the inspector goes around the
manufacturing points in the shop floor to inspect the goods produced on
random sample basis from time to time.

4)Fixed inspection: It provides for a centralized and independent where

work is brought for inspection from time to time. This method is followed
where the inspection equipment cannot be moved to the points of
productions.

5)Final inspection: This is centralized inspection making use of special

equipment. This certifies the quality of the goods before they are shipped.

Elements of statistical Quality Control: The technique under SQC can be

divided in to two parts a) Process control b) Acceptance sampling

a) Process control: Process control is a technique of ensuring the quality

of the products during the manufacturing process itself. If a process
consistently produces items with acceptable or tolerable range of
specification. It is said to be statically under control. Process control is
achieved through control charts. Process control aims to control and
maintain the quality of the products in the manufacturing process.

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Statistical control charts: A control chart compares graphically the process

performance data to computed statistical control limits. These control
limits act as limit lines on the chart control chats are the tools to determine
whether the process is under control or not.

The quality of the production process may be affected by chance cause

or assignable cause.

Chance cause: such causes, which may or may not affect the manufacturing
process are called chance cause, chance cause cannot even be identified. It
is not possible to always maintain the given specification.

Assignable Cause: Assignable causes affect the quality of the production

process. These causes can be identified and specified. Causes such as
change in the labour shift, power fluctuations, or excessive tool wear are
said to be assignable causes as they affect the quality of manufacturing
process in different ways.

Process capability: Process capability refers to the ability to achieve

measurable results from a combination of machines, tools, methods,
materials and people engaged in production.

Confidence limits and control limit:

Confidence limit: It indicate the range of confidence level. A confidence

level refers to the probability that the value of measurement or parameter,
such as length of screw, is correct.

Acceptance Sampling: Acceptance sampling is a technique of deciding

whether to accept the whole lot or not based on the number of defectives
from a random drawn sample.

It is widely use in buying food products, such as rice, wheat etc.

Before buying the random samples drawn from the bags of say rice are
tested. If the quality of sample drawn looks good or free from defects then
according to the requirement the entire bag or part of it can be brought.

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The process of acceptance sampling through operating characteristic

curve (OCC)

Operating characteristic curve (OCC): The graphical relationship

between percentage defective in the lots being submitted for inspection
and the probability acceptance is termed as operating characteristic of a
particular sampling plan

C = 1 (Acceptance
number)
100
80 n = 50 (sample size)
Probability of acceptance
percentage

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Actual percentage of defectives

It gives a clear picture about the probability of acceptance of lot for

various values of percent defectives in the lot. The probability of acceptance
of a lot is high for low values of actual percentage decrease and it is low for
high values of actual percentage defectives.

Construction of OC curve: To develop a sampling plan for acceptance

sampling, an appropriate O.C curve must be selected to construct an OC
curve an agreement has to be reached between the producer and the
consumer on the following four point.
1)Acceptable quality level (AQL): This is the maximum proportion of

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defectives that will make the lot definitely acceptable.

2)Lot tolerance percentage defective (LTPD): This is the maximum prop

rtion of defectives that will make the lot definitely unacceptable.
3) : This is the risk, the producer is willing to take that
lots of the qua ity level AQL will be rejected, even though, they are
Producers risk
4) Cons : This is the risk, the consumer is willing to take that

acceptable usually = %
lots of the quality lev LTPD will be accepted, event though, they are
umer risk

actually unacceptableusually = %.

UNIT – 4

MATERIALS MANAGEMENT

Definition of Materials: Materials refer to inputs into the production

process, most of which are embodied in the finished goods being
manufactured. It may be raw materials, work-in-progress, finished goods,
spare parts and components, operating supplies such as lubricating oil,
cleaning materials, and others, required for maintenance and repairs.

Definition on Material Management: Material management deals with

controlling and regulating the flow of materials in relation to changes in
variables like demand, prices, availability, quality, delivery schedules etc.
Objects of materials management:
 Minimization of materials costs 

 To reduce inventory for use in production process and to develop
high inventory turnover ratios. 

 To procure materials of desired quality when required, at
lowest possible overall cost of the country. 

 To reduce paper work procedure in order to minimize delays

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in procuring materials. 

 To note changes in market conditions and other factors 

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affecting the concern.

 The purchase, receive, transport, store materials efficiently 

 To reduce cost, through simplification, standardization, value
analysis etc. 

 To conduct studies in new areas e.g., equality consumption and cost
of materials so as to minimize cost of production. 

Function of Materials Management:

 Materials planning and programming 


 Purchasing materials inspection of materials 

 Inspection of Materials 

 Classification, codification and standardization in stores 

 Storage of materials 

 Issuing of materials 

 Maintence of proper inventory records 

 Materials receiving 

Inventory: It defined as a comprehensive list of movable items which are

required for manufacturing the products and to maintain the plant facilities
in working conditions.

Inventory Control: The systematic location, storage and recording of

goods in such a way the desired degree of service can be made to the
operating shops at minimum ultimate cost.
Objectives of Inventory Control:

1. To support the production departments with materials of the right

quality in the right quantity, at the right time and the right price, and
from the right supplier

2. To minimize investments in the materials by ensuring economies of

storage and ordering costs

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3. To avoid accumulation of work in process

4. To ensure economy of costs by processing economic order quantities

5. To maintain adequate inventories at the required sales outlets to

meet the market needs promptly, thus avoiding both excessive stocks
or shortages at any given time
6. To contribute directly to the overall profitability of the enterprise

Functions of inventory control:

To develop policies, plans and standards essential to achieve the objectives

 To build up a logical and workable plan of organization for doing the

job satisfactory 

 To develop procedure and methods that will produce the desired
results economically 

 To provide the necessary physical facilities 

 To maintain overall control by checking results and taking corrective
actions. 

Inventory Management System or Level:

whichThewillobjectsserve ofto inventoryminimize controlthecompanyistoestablishcosts andlevel maximizeofinventoryits

revenue.
It is determined by five basic variables

a) Minimum inventory b) Reorder point c) Recorder quantity d)

Procurement lead time e) Maximum inventory.
Minimum inventory: Minimum inventory or buffer stock is needed to take
care of any temporary unpredictable increase in the part usage or in the
procurement lead time.
Reorder point: It is sufficiently above the minimum inventory to allow for

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issuing the purchase order and for delivery by a vendor. Reorder point
stock level is equal to the minimum stock plus the expected consumption
during the procurement lead time.

Reorder Quantity: This is the fixed quantity of item for which order is
placed every time the stock drops to the reorder point. This quantity is
fixed either on the basis of experience or calculated.

Procurement lead time: This comprises the time required for preparing the
purchase order, the time gap between placing an order and receiving
supplies and time required for inspection etc.

Maximum inventory: It is approximately the sum of the order quantity and

minimum inventory. It will exactly equal the sum of these two quantities if
the ordered material is received just when the minimum stock is reached.

First in First Out (FIFO) : In this system, the materials first received are
issued first materials from the second lot are issued only, when first lot is
exhausted and so on. The prices of the materials are charged at the cost at
which that lot was purchased.

Last in First out (LIFO): In this system, the materials first received are
issued first materials from the second lot are issued only when first lot is
exhausted and so on. The prices of the materials are charged at the cost at
which that lot was purchased.

Simple average price method: In this method, the stock are issued at an
average price. The average price is determined by dividing the sum of the
prices (at which the goods are received) by the number of price available.

Weighted average price method: This method is an improvement over

simple average price. While calculating the average price, the quantities of
each of the receipts are considered. The weighted average price is
calculated as given below:
Weighted average price = 1 P1 )
(W 2 P2 )
(W 3 P3 )
(W

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W1 W2 W3

Where W1, W2, and W3 refer to the quantities of each of the three receipts
and P1, P2, and P3 are the prices of each of the receipts. Under this method,
the quantity of each of the receipts is called the weight. Hence, the average
price so computed is called the weighted average price. Weighted average
is calculated after each time a purchase is made.

Purchasing: It deals with investment, overheads dealing with other and

also result in server losses mass production industries that requires large
purchasing for a continues flow of materials, demand for an efficient
purchase decision. It implies procurement of raw materials machinery,
service etc. needed for production and maintenance of the concern.

It has several benefits in terms of reduced costs, higher inventory turnover,

buying the materials at the best prices, turnover, buying the materials at
the best prices, continues supplies, reduced lead time and so on.

Objectives:
 To procure right material 

 To procure materials in desired quantities 

 To procure material of desired quality 

 Purchasing from reliable source 

 To pay less for materials purchased 

 To receive and deliver materials at right place and time. 
Purchasing process:
The following are the logical steps in the purchasing process:
 Requisitioning purchases 

 Exploring sources of supply 

 Issuing of tenders and obtaining quotations 

 Opening of tenders and quotations and preparation of comparative
statement 

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 Negotiating over the purchase price and terms of supply 


 Placing purchase order 

 Receiving of materials along with the invoice 

 Checking inward invoice 

 Inspecting and testing materials 

 Forwarding the materials to stores 

 Checking invoice and passing of bills for payments 

Stores Management: It deals with planning, coordination and control of

various activities pertaining or effective efficient and economic storage and
store keeping.

Store: Generally, un worked material is known as store

Storage: The store room is the place where stores are housed

Storage: Storage is meant holding in custody all kinds of stores and

materials semi-processed and fully processed products.

Store Keeping: It may be defined as that aspect of materials

control concerned with physical storage of goods.

Functions of stores:

 To receive raw materials, semi-finished or purchased items from

vendors and to check them for identification. 

 To receive parts and components which has been processed in the
factory? 

 To make a record of material receipt and current status of material in
the store 

 To maintain positioning of materials in the store. 

 To maintain stock safety and in good condition to ensure that they do
not suffer from damage 

 Issuing the items/materials to operational personnel 

 Making a record of receipt and issue slips 

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 To avoid illegal attics in store areas. 


 To plan for optimum utilization of space. 

 Cooperating to full extent which purchasing, manufacturing and
production planning and control departments. 

Stores Records:

Material requisition note: Whenever the materials are required by a

department/section, this form has to be filled in. This note provides
information about the job number, description of the items required in
terms of number. The head of the department/section should authorize it.
Whenever the materials are issued, the receiving person should sign the
note.

This is to be entered in the materials issued record, which is to be

signed by the storekeeper.

Purchase order: The purchasing officer will release the purchase order. The
following is the format of a purchase order. Here, we find Vivek enterprises
placing a purchase order on Business Solutions Ltd., for the following
materials. The terms and conditions of the purchase order such as delivery,
payment, and other have to be mentioned clearly.

Invoice: Invoice is a statement sent by the seller to the buyer mentioning

the particulars of the goods supplied, net amount payable for the goods,
and the terms and conditions governing the sale. It is very important
document because it shows the net amount payable by the buyer after all
the discounts and the taxes, if any.

Goods received note: The goods received note furnishes the particulars of
the suppliers, purchase order number, purchase requisition number, and
the job for which the goods are received. These details are to be certified by

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a competent authority. On this basis, the accounts department initiates the

process of payment for the goods received.

Goods returned note: Sometimes, a part or whole of the goods received may

not be of acceptable quality, and hence, these have to be returned to the calledsupplierthe.Indebitths

notecntext,becausethegoodsthesuppliersreceivedornotecreditorsispepaccountred.Thishasistoalsobe

debited by the amount mentioned in this debit note for the goods returned.

Stores ledger account: This is maintained to provide the details of the

quantity, price and amount of the receipts, issues, and balance of stocks on
a day-to-day basis. At any given time, the physical quantity of stocks should
match with the balance as per the stores ledger account. A separate account
is maintained for each type of the material in the stores. It should
necessarily mention the method such as FIFO or LIFO, followed to value the
issues of stocks. It is a valuable tool for the costing department in exercising
stores control. It facilitates the valuation of

Selling Marketing

1. Product enjoys the supreme 1. Customer enjoys unique

importance importance

2. Emphasis on company (sellers) 2. Emphasis an market customers

needs needs

3. Company oriented selling effects3. Market oriented selling effects

4. Goods are already produced and 4. customers demand determines

then sold as profit production supply is adjusted to
demand

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5. Selling aims at short-term 5. Marketing aims as long-term

objectives objectives

6. Top priority is given to sales 6. To priority is given to profitable

volume rather than profitsvolume of sales and market share
increasing at
sales fair prices and reasonable risk

7. Production oriented 7. Customer oriented.

stock from time to time.

Bin card: Bin card is the slip or tag attached to the bin where the goods are
stocked. Whenever the materials are received or issued, an entry is made
on the bin card. The purpose of bin card is to reveal the particulars of the
quantities received, issued, and available as on a given date at a glance.
Where separate bins are maintained for each item of the store, each bin will
have a tag hung to it.

Marketing Management

Marketing: Marketing as a social process by which individuals and groups

obtain what they need and want through creating, offering exchanging
products and services of value with others.
Selling versus Marketing:

Selling refers to the act of transferring the ownership of the goods

and services from the seller to the buyer.

Marketing refers to the whole process encompassing the entire

range of activities starting from identifying the customers requirements to
satisfying these in a mutually beneficial manner.
Marketing Function:

Buying: Buying involves both the marketing and the customers. The
marketing manager must know about the type of customers, their

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consuming habits demands and buying pattern.

Selling: It creates a demand for a product selling function

involves.
 Product planning and development 

 Finding out or locating buyers 

 Demand creation through salesmanship, advertising and sales
promotion 

 Negotiation of terms of sales such as price, quantity and quality etc. 

Transporting: It involves the creation of place utility. In order to have value

goods must first be transported from the place they are produced to the
place where they are needed.

Storage: It concerned with storing finished products properly without any

damage, until they are dispatched to the customers it is also concerned to
the customers it is also concerned with maintaining stock of raw materials
with maintaining stock of raw materials, components etc. to meet
production schedules.

Standardization and grouping: These two functions are supplementary and

complementary to each other. A standard is a measure of fixed value. The
standard could be based on colour, weight, quality, and number of items,
price, or any other parameter. Both domestic and export markets rely
extensively on this function. Grading is the process of sorting the goods.
The price varies with the grade of the goods. This function enables the
marketer to fix a uniform price for a given grade of the goods. It further
promotes good understanding between the buyer and the seller.

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Finance: Finance is the life blood of business value of goods is expressed is

money and it donated by price to be paid by buyer to seller credit is
necessary in marketing it plays all important role in retail trade particularly
in the sales of costly consumer goods.

Marketing research: The marketing personnel must study the trends in

market demand, supply prices and related market information. The
knowledge about the latest market information may help the firm to reduce
risk loss in purchasing, in pricing, in forecasting market demand and in
facing competition in the market.

Marketing Mix: It refers to the combination of four basic elements, svizof.,

product, price, promotion and the place, known as the four P marketing.

Product Mix: It is used to describe the assortment of different product types

(product lines) and their varieties (product depth). In addition, different
tangible and intangible features of the product also form the product mix.

Price Mix: Price mix refers to the decisions relating to the price charged for
the product, service or idea.

Promotion Mix: Refers to the activities relating to promotion of the product,

service or idea.

Place Mix: Place or physical distribution mix refers to the activities that are
involved in transferring ownership to consumers at the right time and
price.

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Product life cycle:

 Products have limited life. 

 Products sales pass through distinct stages, each passing different
challenges, opportunities and problems to seller. 

 Profits rise and fall at different stages of product life cycle. 

Rapid growth: A new product enters the stage of rapid growth when it

satisfies the needs of the customers. The sales start picking up with repeat promotionurchases

andoutlaybyfromwordtheof manufacturermothpublicity,ssidecoupled.Asnewwithcustomerscontinuedget

attracted to the product for the first time, sales soar, sales revenues
increase faster than costs, and profits start accruing. This trend attracts the
attention of the competitors who release a similar product copying the best
features of thewhennewtheproductproduct. s sales growth s
Maturity: lows down, it is called maturity. Due to this slow down, the
industry as a whole suffers from overcapacity. At this stage, firms tend to
attract the customers away from their competitors through cheaper prices
and larger promotional efforts and outlay. Those who cannot afford such
large promotional outlay and woo customers of the competitors.

Saturation: When the sales growth slows down to zero, such a stage is
called saturation. This size of the market does not increase beyond this
stage. In other words, old customers who have stopped buying the product
replace any new customer entering the market. All sales are simply
replacement sales or repeat purchases by the same customers.

Decline: When sales of a product tend to fall, such a stage is called decline.

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When a product ceases to satisfy the customer s needs in relation to those

available in the market, it is no more preferred. As a result, its competing

products offering superior benefits take over the market. This leads to
weakened profitability.

Type of Channels of Distribution: Channels of distribution refer to the

ways and means of reaching the customer through the intermediaries such
as wholesalers, retailers, and other agencies, if any.

However, consumer product manufacturers also through Internet, mail

order operations, and door-to-door selling are following this method. It is
common sight to find the representatives of the manufacturers going from
house to house to sell their products, which are normally used in the
households.
Manufacturer – wholesaler – consumer: This channel is primarily used in
the case of industrial goods and high-value consumer durable products.
The wholesaler, who may also be called as distributor in this channel,
carries out the functions of retailing to large customers who may in
themselves be the manufacturers also. The wholesalers in this channel buy
goods from many manufacturers, stock, and subsequently, sell them
through internet or directly to the customers in a wider geographical area.
An example of the use of this method can be observed in the computer
hardware industry.
Manufacturer – retailer – consumer: Here, the large retailing chains,

including supermarkets, use this channel to buy products in large

quantities from manufacturers at a very competitive price and sell the same

to the ultimate consumers. As the retailers enjoy large discounts in this

process, they share this benefit with their customers by keeping their

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products competitively priced. The consumers patronage this channel

because they can buy in small quantities from a wide variety at lower
prices.
Manufacturer – wholesaler – retailer – consumer: This is a chain widely
followed for fast moving consumer goods, which are likely to have mass

markets. When the consumers are large in number, widely dispersed

geographically, and products are of low value, this channel is favoured.

Manufacturers would find it prohibitively expensive to set up their own

outlets in such circumstances. For manufacturers of consumer goods such

as hosiery, food items, confectionery, clothes, and readymade garments,

cosmetics, and so on, intermediaries are indispensable in the distribution
chain.

UNIT – 5

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HUMAN RESOURCE MANGEMENT

Human Resource Management: Human resource management is the process

of managing the human resources of an organization in tune with the vision of
the top management.

Personnel Management: Defines personnel management as the planning,

organizing, and controlling of the procurement, development, compensation,
integration and maintenance of people for the purpose of contributing to the
organizational goals.

Personal management versus Human resource management:

1. Personnel management function is often viewed as a function of the

specialized staff.

Human resource management function is the responsibility of all the

line managers in the organization.

2. Personnel management goal is employee orientation

Human resource management goal is organization orientation

3. Personnel management managerial function

Human resource management operative function

4. Personnel management cooperative level manager concern

Human resource management top level manager concern.

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Definition of HRM: According to Flippo HRM is planning,

organizing , directing and controlling of the procurement
development, Compensation, integration, maintenance and
suppuration of human resources to the objectives.

FUNCTION OF HRM:

Most experts agree that managing involves 5 functions

 Planning 

 Organizing 

 Staffing 

 Leading 

 Controlling 

 Planning: Establishing goals and standards, developing rules and

procedures, developing plans and forecasting. 

 Organising: Giving each sub ordinate a specific staff establishing
departments deligating authority,Communication and co-ordinating work. 

 Staffing: Manning the position. Determining the required people, selecting
training, developing, Evaluating and compensating. 

 Leading: Getting others to get the job done, maintain moral, motivating
sub-ordinates. 

 Controlling: Setting standards such as sales quota, quality standards
production levels, checking Actual performance and comparing with
standards, taking necessary action. 

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Line and staff aspects of HRM:

Types of Authority:

1. Line authority: Line authority entitles a manger to direct the work of an

employee. It is the employer-enployee authority relationship that extends
from top to bottom. A line manager directs the work of employees and
makes certain decisions without consulting anyone. Sometimes the term
line is used to differentiate line managers from staff managers. Line
emphasizes managers whose organizational function contributes directly
to the achievement of organizational objectives.

2. Staff managers and Staff authority: Staff managers have staff authority.
A managers function is classified as line or staff based on the organizations
objectives.

As organizations get larger and more complex, line managers find that they
do not have the time, expertise or resources to get their jobs done
effectively. They create staff authority functions to support, assist, advice,
and generally reduce some of the informational burdens they have.

3. Functional control: The authority exerted by a personnel manager as a

coordinator of personnel activities. Here the manager acts as the right arm
of the top executive.

JOB ANALYSIS

Harry L.Wylie: Job analysis deals with the anatomy of the job. This is the
complete study of the job embodying every known and determinable factor.
Including the duties and responsibilities involved in its performancve. The
conditions under which performance is carried on, the nature of the task; the

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qualifications required in the worker, and the conditions of employment such as

pay, hours, opportunities and privileges .

Objectives of Job analysis:

1. Job Description:

Job description is a job profile which describes the contents environment

and condition of jobs. It is prepared on the basis of data collected through
job analysis. It provides information relating to activities and duties to be
performed in a job. It differentiate one job from another by introducing
unique characterstics of each job.
2. Job Specification:

Job specification is another notable objective of job analysis. It includes the

information relating to the requirements of skills and abilities to perform a
specific task. It states the minimum acceptable qualifications that an
incumbent must possess to perform the assigned duty successfully. The job
specification statement identifies he knowledge, skills, abilities needed to
perform that task effectively.
3. Job evaluation:

Job analysis also provides required information which are necessary for
evaluating the worthiness of jobs. After the preparation of job description
and job specification statements. It assists for the evaluation of actual
performance against the predetermined standard. Then the deviation is
found out that has taken place during the course of action. Moreover, it
helps to establish the value of different jobs in a hierarchical order which
allows to compare jobs one from another.

Steps involved in Job Analysis or Job Analysis Process:

1. Information collection
2. Review background information
3. Selection of representative position to be analyzed

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4. Analysis of job by collecting data

5. Develop job description
6. Develop job specification

USES OF JOB ANALYSIS:

1. HR planning
2. Recruitment and selection
3. Training and development
4. Compensation management
5. Performance appraisal
6. Information of duties
7. Health and safety
8. Job re-engineering
9. Employee counseling

METHODS OF COLLECTING JOB ANALYSIS INFORMATION:

1. Job identification
2. Significant characterstics of a job
3. What the typical worker does?
4. Job duties
5. What materials and equipment the worker uses?
6. How a job is performed?
7. Required personal attributes
8. Job relationship

JOB DESCRIPTION:

Job description is an important document which is basically descriptive in nature

and contains a statement of job analysis. It serves to identify a job for
consideration by other job analysis. It tells us what should be done, why it should
be done and where it should be done.

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A job description is an organized, factual statement of duties and responsibilities

of a specific job . It tells what is to be done, how it is done and why?

Contents of Job Description:

 Job title 

 Location of the job 

 Supervision given and receive 

 Materials, tools, machinery 

 Designation of superior/sub-ordinates 

 Salary particulars 

 List of duties 

 Conditions of work 

 Training and development facilities 

JOB SPECIFICATIONS:

Job specification is a written statement of qualifications, traits and mental

characterstics that all individual must possess to perform the job duties and
discharge responsibilities effectively.

A job specification is a statement of minimum acceptable human qualities

necessary to perform a job properly. In contrast to the job description it is a
standard of personnel and designates the qualities required for acceptable
performance.

Departmental human resource management plans are used to link together the
overall policies of the Civil Service Branch, the mission, objectives and values of
the department, and any specific Human Resource Management activities being
undertaken at line management level. The plans thereby provide clear policies
and guidelines for staff and managers.

Plans should provide answers to three fundamental questions:

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 What staff will be need, and how are we going to acquire and retain the
number and quality of people required to meet the forecast needs of the
department? 



 How are we going to ensure that we have a well motivated workforce? 




 What actions will be needed to train, develop and fit people for greater
responsibility and responsiveness to change and the resulting demands for
different skills and abilities? 

In answering these questions, the Human Resource Management plan must refer
to and support departmental plans. This ensures the relevance and credibility of
Human Resource Management.

Thus the Human Resource Management plan should relate to the department's
organization structure, mission, values and programme objectives for the
planning period.

Before a Human Resource Management plan is drawn up, it should be considered

how Human Resource Management will be organized and managed in the
department. Due to the importance of the subject, an officer at the directorate
level should normally be assigned the responsibility for Human Resource
Management in the department. An officer at this level should have the broad
understanding of the department's mission, values and objectives. It needs to be
considered what the relationship should be between managers and
administration staff, and/or officers charged with specific human resource
management responsibilities, e.g. training officers.

Once these aspects of the planning process have been established, then the key
areas of Human Resource Management can be addressed and initiatives mapped
out.

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Key components

The plan needs only be as detailed as the department determines is appropriate,

and may not necessarily show specific activities in all areas of Human Resource
Management. However, the component areas are:

 MANPOWER PLANNING 



 RECRUITMENT 



 PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT 



 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT 



 STAFF RELATIONS 



 MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS 

MANPOWER PLANNING

Introduction

Manpower planning enables a department to project its short to long term needs
on the basis of its departmental plans so that it can adjust its manpower
requirements to meet changing priorities. The more changing the environment
the department is in, the more the department needs manpower planning to
show:

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 the number of recruits required in a specified timeframe and the availability

of talent 


 early indications of potential recruitment or retention difficulties 



 surpluses or deficiencies in certain ranks or grades 



 availability of suitable qualified and experienced successors 

Key components

Manpower planning comprises two key components:

 succession planning 

 turnover 

Succession Planning

Succession planning assesses the likely turnover in key posts, identifies

suitable candidates to fill these posts in future, and ensures that they have the
right training and exposure for their future work. Given the effort and support

required for undertaking succession planning, it is normally confined to

the directorate and those ranks immediately below, plus any grades with high
turnover or anticipated expansion.

Succession planning is a very important exercise because it minimizes the

impact of turnover in these key ranks and gives a branch or department early
warning of any skill shortages or likely difficulties in finding suitable candidates.

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Ideally a succession plan should cover 3 to 5 years. The succession plan should
identify

 key posts and possible successors 




 causes of turnover 



 competencies of successors and the training required for them 




 posts for which no apparent successor exists and the remedial action
planned 

The information derived from the succession plan should feed into the training
and development of the individuals concerned by ensuring that they attend the
necessary training and are posted to jobs that will provide them with the
experience for their intended role.

Turnover

Turnover refers to retirement, resignation and redundancy. While a

department cannot plan turnover because there are factors, such as resignation,
which are beyond its control, it can monitor turnover carefully to ensure the
department will have minimal difficulties in retaining staff. If such difficulties are
envisaged or experienced, the department will find out the causes for them and
take early steps to address them by improving, for example, motivation or
training and development opportunities.

When addressing the aspects of succession and turnover, the department also
needs to consider other manpower planning factors:

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· external factors

· internal factors

External Factors:

A number of factors may affect whether talent is available in the market to

fill posts in a department. These include the availability of the required personnel
with the necessary qualifications, skills and experience at a specified time, the
relative job opportunities in the private sector and the general outlook of the
economy.

Internal Factors:

Departmental Plan: A department assesses the number of staff it requires

at different levels, at specified timeframes, in the light of its present and planned
future work commitments. This may lead to an increase or decrease of the
current manpower.

RECRUITMENT

Introduction

Before a department takes steps to employ staff, it should work out the type
of staff it needs in terms of grade and rank, and the time scale in which the staff
are required.

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The general principles underpinning recruitment within the civil service are
that recruitment should:

 use procedures which are clearly understood by candidates and which are
open to public scrutiny; 



 be fair, giving candidates who meet the stipulated minimum requirements
equal opportunity for selection; and 



 select candidates on the basis of merit and ability. 

Recruitment of overseas officers is undertaken only when no or insufficient

local candidates are available.

Key components

There are three key components to the recruitment process:

 deciding on terms of appointment 




 selection of candidates 



 probation 

Deciding on Terms of Appointment

Terms of Appointment : Having decided on the grade and rank of the staff
required, and the timing concerned, the department should consider what the most
appropriate terms of appointment would be. This should take into account the

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nature of the duties to be performed and the overall manpower deployment of the
department. The different terms of appointment that can be offered are -

1. permanent and personable terms;

2. agreement terms;

3. temporary terms (month-to-month or day-to-day);

4. part-time;

5. non-civil service appointment; and

6. consultancy

Guides to Appointment : Entry requirements of staff in each rank and grade are
agreed between the Head of Grade/Department concerned and the Civil Service
Branch, taking into account the advice of the Standing Commission on Civil
Service Salaries and Conditions of Service or other relevant advisory bodies.
These requirements are periodically reviewed and laid down in Guides to
Appointments.

Selection of Candidates

Advertising : Vacancies in the civil service are normally advertised in

newspapers and through circulars.

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Screening and Selection : Departments screen applications to see if the

applicants meet the specified qualifications and other requirements of the post.
Suitable candidates are then shortlisted for subsequent examination and/or
interviews. Not all grades/departments would require candidates to undergo
examination, but candidates would normally be required to be interviewed by a
recruitment board or an officer from the recruitment team.

Roles and Responsibilities : The Civil Service Branch recruits staff of some
General Grades while Heads of Grades/Departments recruit staff of their own
grade/department. For recruitment to middle and senior ranks, the advice of the
Public Service Commission has to be sought before appointment is offered.

Flexibility : To minimize recruitment difficulties as well as attract and retain the

best people, there are flexibilities which include recruitment overseas, offer of
agreement terms, lowering entry qualifications and granting incremental credit
for experience.

Probation

During probation staff are introduced to the mission, objectives and values of the
civil service and their departments. Probation is a serious process which
provides regular feedback on performance and assesses suitability for
employment in the civil service. It includes:

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 on-the-job training : staff should be exposed to the different duties

required for their rank. In this way they can learn the skills expected of
them and managers can verify their long-term suitability; 



 supervision and guidance : staff should receive close and sympathetic
supervision and guidance to enable problems and difficulties to be
identified early and timely counseling or other action to be taken. 

Newly joined staff must be told the length of their probationary period, which
varies with the requirements of each grade. If there are indications that staff are
not suitable for confirmation, they must be counseled and then warned in writing
if the problem persists. Confirmation is the step whereby a member of staff on
probation is found suitable for the job and employed on permanent and
personable terms.

PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT

Introduction

Performance management is a very important Human Resource Management

function. Its objective is to improve overall productivity and effectiveness by
maximizing individual performance and potential. Performance management is
concerned with

 improving individual and collective performance; 




 communicating management's expectations to supervisors and staff; 

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 improving communication between senior management, supervisors and

staff; 



 assisting staff to enhance their career prospects through recognizing and
rewarding effective performance; 



 identifying and resolving cases of underperformance; and 




 providing important links to other Human Resource Management
functions, such as training. 

Key Components

Performance management therefore consists of several key components -

 motivation 



 performance appraisal 



 promotion 



 guidance and supervision 



 addressing poor performance 

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MOTIVATION

Motivation is in many ways the key to the success of Human Resource

Management development. Managers should aim to increase performance
through self-motivation, rather than having to use external motivation (i.e. the
imposition of rules and continual improvements to conditions of service) to bring
about higher standards of performance.

The civil service has many formal programmes to enhance motivation, and these
are discussed in the "staff relations" section of this booklet. However, even more
important is the motivational impact that supervisors have on their staff.

Principle : The basic principle underpinning motivation is that if staff are

managed effectively, they will seek to give of their best voluntarily without the
need for control through rules and sanctions - they will eventually be self-
managing.

Procedures : Some of the most effective ways for managers to motivate staff
include giving praise; recognition; and positive feedback; passing on feedback
from more senior managers; and letting other staff know which staff have been
responsible for praiseworthy work and/or effort. Too often staff experience
'management by mistake', where most of the feedback received is corrective or
punitive for mistakes they are perceived to have made.

If staff feel that their decisions are generally supported, and when genuine
mistakes are made they will be guided in the right direction, they will be more
positive, confident and prepared to take on responsibility and decision-making.

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When staff are shown clear expectations, valued, trusted, encouraged and
motivated, then they will be more likely to give of their best.

Performance Appraisal

Performance appraisal assesses an individual's performance against

previously agreed work objectives. It serves two functions. First, it enables
management to evaluate an individual's performance in the current job to
identify strengths and overcome weaknesses. Second, it provides information to
assist management plan postings, transfers and promotions. In so doing,
management is able to compare performance and potential between officers of
the same rank.

Principles : The basic principles governing performance appraisal are -

 Heads of Department/Heads of Grade have the flexibility to design their

own appraisal system within the framework of these principles; 



 performance appraisal should be regarded as a multi-purpose
management tool. Outcomes from staff appraisal should guide other
Human Resource Management functions; 



 it is a joint responsibility of the individual and the supervisor; 




 it is a continuous and ongoing process; 




 it should relate individual performance to departmental objectives; 

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 checks and balances should be built into the system to ensure fairness and
objectivity; and 



 outstanding performance at one rank does not necessarily indicate
suitability for promotion to a higher rank. 

Procedure : Except for officers on probation, performance appraisal is normally

carried out once a year. Different grades/departments may have their own
performance appraisal form which enshrines the principles set out in the preceding
paragraph.

At the beginning of the reporting cycle, the appraisee should agree with
the appraising officer on the main objectives or responsibilities over the
reporting period. The list of objectives or responsibilities should be reviewed
between the appraisee and the appraising officer during the reporting cycle to
see if changes are necessary. At the end of the reporting cycle, the appraising
officer will write his assessment. He will pass his assessment to the
countersigning officer for the latter's views.

To provide feedback to the appraisee, the appraising officer and the

countersigning officer decide between them who should interview the appraisee
to discuss with him/her the performance during the reporting period. The
interviewing officer should show the entire report to the appraisee before the
interview. A summary of the discussion at the interview and the points made by
the appraisee should be recorded in the appraisal form. After the interview, the
appraisal form is passed to the grade manager for his assessment.

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Promotion

Promotion denotes that an individual has the competencies, i.e. the skills,
abilities, knowledge and attitudes, required to perform effectively at the next
higher rank. The competencies reflect the knowledge and skills exhibited in
observable behaviour in the relevant areas of work. Promotion provides
motivation to perform well and is an important part of performance
management.

Principles : The principle of merit, or the best person for the job is key to
promotion. Ability, potential and experience are taken into account in the
assessment. The process of assessment should be fair and transparent. It is kept
separate from the day to day management of performance and from the annual
performance appraisal. The former should be a continuous process, while the
latter can be used to assist in determining suitability for promotion.

Promotion Procedures : Heads of Department/Heads of Grade have flexibility to

invite certain officers to apply for promotion, or allow officers to opt out of
promotion.

 As a general rule promotion boards are convened to increase transparency and

impartiality; and 

 provide an opportunity to consider eligible officers' potential and
organizational succession planning. 

Where necessary and appropriate, promotion interviews are held to assist in

assessment to supplement information provided in staff reports. This will apply
to situations where staff reports are insufficient and questionable in terms of

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fairness or consistency. The promotion boards should be aware of potential

unfairness if some staff are interviewed and others are not.

It is good management practice to provide promotion feedback to the staff who

were considered but were not selected after a promotion exercise, to enhance
communication. Departments respond to enquiries from staff arising from
promotion exercises. They are encouraged to take a proactive approach in giving
promotion feedback to staff after the relevant exercise has taken place.

Guidance and Supervision

Day-to-day guidance and supervision is necessary to provide direction and

feedback to staff. It reinforces the annual performance appraisal, helps groom
officers for promotion, and assists staff who are not performing well.

Principles : Guidance and supervision reinforces behaviour that contributes to

good performance and discourages behaviour that blocks progress. Feedback
should be -

 frequent - staff should not have to wait until formal performance review or
appraisal for feedback; 



 balanced - it should focus on good and bad performance; 




 immediate - immediate feedback has much more impact than feedback
given several weeks or months later; 



 specific - staff should be in no doubt what actions feedback covers; and 

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 constructive - feedback should focus on overcoming difficulties or

reinforcing successful behaviour. 

Procedure : Guidance and supervision is offered on a day-to-day basis as needed.

Addressing Poor Performance

Poor performers need to be appropriately handled to ensure they will not

persist in their adverse performance, and will give of their best to the civil
service. Management must take action to tackle such performers, otherwise there
may be an adverse effect on the morale of staff who are performing satisfactorily.

Principle : When staff are not performing at the level appropriate for their rank
and experience, they should be told so, and be helped to overcome the poor
performance through close supervision and counseling. When it is clear that
these are to no avail, retirement in the public interest would need to be resorted
to. The whole procedure needs to be handled in a sensitive, objective and fair
manner.

Procedure : Each instance needs to be –handled in the light of circumstances.

The normal sequence of action is as follows

 counseling - staff should be told the areas where they need to improve and
how this should be achieved; and 




 appraisal - if staff do not respond to counseling their poor performance
will be indicated in their annual appraisal. 

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If no improvement is shown after counseling and appraisal, there is a

formal process of dealing with non-performance involving written warning,
stoppage of increment and retirement in the public interest.

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Introduction

The objective of training and development is to enable civil servants to

acquire the knowledge, skills, abilities and attitudes necessary to enable them to
improve their performance.

Staff training and development should focus on the department's objectives and
goals and staff's competencies in achieving them. A strategic approach has the
following characteristics :

 commitment to training and developing people; 





 regular analysis of operational requirements and staff
competencies; 



 linking training and development to departmental goals and
objectives; 



 skilled training personnel; 



 regular evaluation; 



 a continuous learning culture; 

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 joint responsibility between managers and staff for identifying and

meeting training needs; and 



 a variety of training and development methods for different
circumstances and learning styles. 

Key components

Training and Development consists of two main aspects :

 training 



 development 

Training

Departments manage their own training function and have varying levels
of responsibility to do this effectively :

 Management formulates departmental training policies and draws up

training and development plans to support departmental missions,
objectives and values. 



 Managers identify competencies and training needs, implement training
activities and provide coaching and supervision to ensure staff
development occurs. 

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 Staff take responsibility to make the most of the opportunities provided to

maximize their potential. 

 Various types of training are provided in the civil service – 



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 induction : to familiarize new recruits with job requirements and
procedures, departmental objectives and performance standards; and the
values and norms of the department. 
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 management development : to equip managers with the knowledge and
skills required and to widen their perspective. 
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 vocational : to provide staff with the professional or technical knowledge
and skills required for work. 
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 language and communication : to meet operational needs (e.g. Thai,
Vietnamese) and to prepare for the future (Putonghua and written
Chinese). 
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 computer : to provide staff with basic computers skills. 

Development

The purpose of career development is to identify and develop the potential

within staff, to build existing skill levels, and to prepare staff to take on greater
responsibility during their career.

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Career development has to balance the needs and aspirations of the

individual with the needs of the service - where these conflict, the needs of the
service should prevail.

Posting

Postings for staff should take account of the previous experience of the
individual and his future needs and potential. Staff can either be developed to have a
broad experience across a number of areas or they can focus on a particular area and
develop in-depth experience. Determining the most appropriate way to develop staff
is a balance between the needs of the organization and the aspirations of the
individual. Future posting aspirations should be discussed with staff on the
understanding that in the final analysis the needs of the civil service are paramount.

Acting Appointment

There are three kinds of acting appointments :

 Acting "with a view" - whereby staff are posted to the acting rank to assess
their suitability for substantive promotion 
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 Acting "with a singling out effect" - whereby staff who do not merit
immediate promotion or an acting appointment with a view to substantive
promotion but who are nevertheless assessed to have better potential
than other officers to undertake the more demanding duties in the higher
rank, are placed in the higher rank to assess their suitability for
substantive promotion. 
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 Acting for administrative convenience - whereby staff are placed in a
higher rank to cover the absence of the normal post holder, e.g. through 

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sickness, long holiday or maternity leave. Staff acting for administrative

convenience revert to their substantive rank on the return of the
substantive post holder.

Apart from acting for administrative convenience which is more ad hoc, the other
two types of acting provide opportunities for staff to be exposed to more onerous
duties and responsibilities, thereby testing their ability.

Secondment

Secondment from departments for attachments in policy branches in the

Government Secretariat are good ways to expose staff to a different working
environment which places greater emphasis on policy formulation and resource
control. Apart from secretariat attachments, secondments and exchange schemes
with overseas and private sector counterparts can be arranged to broaden staff's
exposure.

STAFF RELATIONS

Introduction

The purpose of staff relations is to ensure effective communication

between management and staff, to secure maximum cooperation from staff, and
to motivate staff to give their best by ensuring that they feel fairly treated,
understand the overall direction and values of the Civil Service and those of their
departments, and how decisions that affect them have been reached.

The principles that govern staff relations are that, where possible:

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 management should communicate regularly and openly with staff; 

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 staff should be consulted on matters that affect them; 
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 problems and disputes should be resolved through discussion and
consultation; 
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 the Government should uphold the resolutions of the International
Labour Organization conventions; and 
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 management should devise and encourage activities that contribute to
staff's well being. 

Key components

Staff relations cover :

 securing staff commitment 

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 dispute resolution 
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 addressing grievances 

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welfare

Securing staff commitment

The public judges service by personal experience. This is largely

determined by the staff who handle individual cases - often front-line staff.
Staff commitment is thus crucial to providing the quality of service that the
public expects.

Front-line staff have difficult jobs to do and should be fully trained to

answer questions, to know the rules they must administer, and to be taught
how to deal with unusual cases as well as the inevitable difficult customer. In
short they need to know how to be positive, helpful and courteous - everyday.

Managers are responsible for ensuring that programmes are in place

for this purpose. They must also lead by example, so that the principles of
good service cascade through all levels of the department.

Consultation

At the central level, there are four staff consultative councils : the
Senior Civil Service Council, the Model Scale I Staff Consultative Council, the
Police Force Council and the Disciplined Services Consultative Council. It is

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Government's policy that staff should be consulted on all significant changes

to terms and conditions of service.

At the departmental level, Departmental Consultative Committees provide a

consultative channel between management and staff representatives, mainly
on departmental matters.

Managers should listen to their staff, and encourage them to air their
views or make suggestions. In addition to formal channels, this can be
achieved through opinion surveys, suggestion schemes, working groups, and
other informal discussions.

Communication

Communication is a two-way process, for releasing staff's ideas, energy and

ambitions. Through communication, management helps staff understand the
mission, objectives and values of the department, and staff can let
management know their ideas and aspirations for giving their best. To
achieve effective communication, managers normally consider the following -

 the message they intend to send 

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 who they need to communicate with 
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 the most effective form of communicating this particular message 

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how the audience would be likely to receive the message.

Formal communication channelsbriefings, newsletters and circulars.

activities, and day-to-day contact.

Recognition

Recognition of individual or group achievements and efforts will help

promote the right attitude to work, and bring out the best in staff.

Apart from pay increase, promotion and job extension, recognition is a good
way to motivate staff. The following formal schemes help to motivate staff -

 Commendation/Appreciation Letters 
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 Long Service Travel Awards 
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 Long and Meritorious Service Award 
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 Retirement Souvenirs 
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 Honours and Awards 
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 Staff Suggestions Scheme 

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Staff Motivation Scheme

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