SURFACE WATER

HYDROLOGY
RUNOFF

Dr. Muhammad Raza Ul Mustafa

Department of Civil Engineering
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
 Outcomes

 On completion of this session you

should be able to identify

 What is runoff?
 Runoff characteristics
 INTRODUCTION
 Runoff
 Gravity movement of water from a
watershed (catchment area) through a
surface channel.
 Output from a watershed (catchment
area) in a given unit of time.

 Units of runoff are normally expressed as:

 Volume per unit of time: cumecs (m3s-1) and
cumecs per square kilometre (m3s-1km-2)
 Depth equivalent: mm/day (or month or year)
 INTRODUCTION
 Precipitation – evapotranspiration – initial loss
(interception + depression storage) – infiltration
= Overland flow
Overland flow Channel
Catchment
Overland flow Channel Stream Outlet
Overland flow

SURFACE RUNOFF
 Sources of Runoff
 Formation of runoff is contributed by three
components:
i. Flow above the soil - Overland flow or
Surface runoff
ii. A part of the precipitation that infiltrates
flows laterally through upper crusts of the
soil and returns to the surface at some
location away from the point of entry -
Interflow
iii. Flow deeply below the soil over a long
period of time and ultimately reaches the
surface - Groundwater runoff/ flow
 Sources of Runoff

Overland Flow
 Excess precipitation moves on the
ground surface as laminar flow.

 This flow unable to be intercepted due

to the high intensity rainfall and/or low
value of infiltration capacity.

 Small channels will join bigger channels

till the flow reaches the stream.
 Sources of Runoff

Interflow
 It is also called throughflow, subsurface
storm flow, storm seepage etc.

 There may be several levels of interflow,

depending on the texture and
characteristics of the soils.

Point of entry
Interflow 1
Interflow 2
 Sources of Runoff

Groundwater Flow
 Rainfall that infiltrates the catchment
surface, percolates through the soil
layer to the underlying groundwater and
will eventually reach the main stream
channels.

 The slow movement of the flow through

the soil may lead to delays in the stream
flow occurrence. (several days, weeks
or years)
 Runoff Classification
 Runoff is categorized based on the time
delay between the precipitation and
runoff. Time delay = t precipitation – t runoff

RUNOFF

DIRECT RUNOFF BASEFLOW

Enters the stream immediately
Delayed flow that enters the
after the precipitation (surface
stream (groundwater flow)
runoff (overland flow) and
interflow)
 RUNOFF CHARACTERISTICS
OF STREAMS

 Studies on runoff (annual hydrograph)

will yield to classification of three types
of streams:
– Perennial Stream
– Intermittent Stream
– Ephemeral Stream
Stream type Runoff Characteristics
contribution
Flow throughout the year.
Perennial Direct runoff Water table always above the
& river bed. So, groundwater can
make a continuous contribution
base flow to total runoff.
Flow during wet season (30-
Direct runoff 90% of the time), but dries up
Intermittent & during dry periods. Water table
drops below the river bed.
base flow Limited contribution from
in wet season groundwater.

No base flow contribution. No

Ephemeral Direct runoff well defined channel. Water
table always below river bed.
River becomes dry soon after
the end of the storm flow
 TRUE RUNOFF/ VIRGIN FLOW
 Stream flow in the natural condition
(without human intervention)

 When there exist storage or diversion

works on a river, the flow in the
downstream channel is affected by
structures and hence does not
represent the true runoff/virgin flow.
 Virgin flow volume, Rv

Rv = Vs +Vd - Vr

Vs = Volume of flow measured (gauged flow)

Vd = Volume diverted out of the stream
Vr = Volume returned to the stream
 Rv = Vs +Vd - Vr
Vs = Volume of flow measured (gauged flow)
Vd = Volume diverted out of the stream
Vr = Volume returned to the stream Rv

Vd

Outlet Retention pond

Vs Vr
HYDROGRAPH

Dr. Muhammad Raza Ul Mustafa

Department of Civil Engineering
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
 Outcomes
 On completion of this session you should be
able to understand / identify

 Types of hydrographs
 Factors affecting hydrograph
 Components of hydrograph
 Methods of baseflow separation
 HYDROGRAPH
 A hydrograph is a plot of flow/discharge (Q)
in a stream against time (t).

 It is the most widely used method to

analyze surface runoff.

 Hydrograph analysis is often combined with

rainfall analysis to investigate how a
watershed responds to rainfall.
 HYDROGRAPH

Time, t (hr)

The area beneath a hydrograph between any two points

in time gives the total volume of water passing the point
of interest (outlet) during the time interval.
Area = Discharge x time = volume of water
 Types of Hydrograph
Types Characteristics Application
Annual Variation of daily, weekly or To study the surface water
monthly mean flows over a year potential of a stream

Monthly Variation of daily mean flows Reservoir studies

over a month

Seasonal Variation of the discharge in a Drought studies

particular season

Flood Variation of hourly mean flows To study stream

Or over a catchment due to a storm characteristics associated
Storm with floods
FACTORS AFFECTING FLOOD
HYDROGRAPH
COMPONENTS OF A HYDROGRAPH
Essential Components:
i. Rising Limb
ii. Crest Segment
iii. Recession/ Falling Limb

Other components:
tpk = Time to peak (starts from point A)
tL = Lag time, time interval from the centre of mass
of rainfall to the centre of mass of hydrograph
tB = Time base of the hydrograph
Hydrograph
 Lag Time, tL

Rainfall
Centre of
mass of
QP
rainfall

B  C
tr

Centre of
mass of
hydrograph

 
A D

Time to peak, tpk

Time base, tB

Time (hr)
 i. Rising Limb AB

Point A, the starting point of the rising curve

Point B, the point of inflection;
It represents the increase in Q due to the gradual building up
of storage in channels and over the watershed surface.
Initial losses and high infiltration losses cause Q to rise rather
slowly in the initial periods.
As storm continues, more and more flow from distant parts
reach the watershed outlet.
Watershed and storm characteristics control the shape of the
rising limb of a hydrograph.
 ii. Crest Segment BC

 Between the two points of inflection with a peak QP in

between.
 It represents the peak flows that occurs when the
runoff from all parts of the watershed contributes to
maximum amount of flow at the outlet.
 iii. Recession/
Falling Limb CD

 Starting from the second point of inflection C.

 It represents withdrawal of water from the storage
built up in the watershed.
 Depletion of storage takes place after the cessation
of rainfall.
 Shape of this limb depends entirely on watershed
characteristics and independent of storm
characteristics
Direct Surface Runoff vs. Groundwater Flow

Base flow
separation
 BASE FLOW SEPARATION

 As mentioned earlier, a hydrograph consists

of 3 sources – surface runoff (overland flow),
interflow and base/ groundwater flow.
 In most cases, it is not easy to estimate the
actual amount of base flow that contributes
to the watershed.
 Therefore, one way to do this is to assume
and separate the base flow components
from the hydrograph.
 BASE FLOW SEPARATION

 There are 3 methods of base flow

separation:
– Method I – Straight Line Method
– Method II
– Method III

 The surface runoff hydrograph obtained after

the base flow separation is called ‘Direct
Runoff Hydrograph’ (DRH).
Method I – Straight Line Method
A straight line is joined from the beginning of
the surface runoff (point A) to a point on the
recession limb representing the end of the
direct runoff (point B).
 Point A is identified in view of the sharp
change in the curve but point B is slightly
hard to locate. Therefore, point B is
estimated by using,
N = 0.83 A 0.2
A = the watershed area (km2)
N = number of days measured from Qpeak
 Method II
This method projects the initial base flow curve
from point A to C, which lies directly below the
peak rate of flow. Later, point C is joined to
point B by a straight line.
 Method III
The base flow recession curve after the depletion of the
flood water is extended backwards till it intersects the
ordinate at the point of inflection, Pi . Points A and F
are joined by arbitrary smooth curve while points F and
E are joined by a straight line.
 Peak N days

Discharge 
Pi

III
F

A B
  E

 I
C II

Time

Base Flow Separation Methods

 DRH Area Calculation
Discharge (m3/s)

Q3

Q2 Qn-1
Q1 Qn

t1 t2 t tn-1 tn Time

1 1 1 1 1 
A  t  Q1  (Q1  Q2 )  (Q2  Q3 )  ...  (Qn1  Qn )  (Qn )
2 2 2 2 2 
= Δt [Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + … Qn] = Volume of Direct Runoff
 EFFECTIVE RAINFALL (ER)

 Effective Rainfall Hyetograph (ERH) is defined by

subtracting the initial losses and infiltration losses
(phi-index) from a hyetograph of the rainfall.
 Effective rainfall (rainfall excess) contributes to the
increase of water level and discharge i.e. surface
runoff (direct runoff).
 ERH is also known as hyetograph of rainfall excess
or supra rainfall.
Hyetograph: Rainfall (cm/hr) versus Time, t (hr)

2.5

Intensity (cm/hr)
2

Effective rainfall/
1.5 Rainfall excess
(ER)/ Supra
rainfall
1

0.5

 Losses

0 1 2 3 4 6 7 8
5
Time (hr)
 Effective Rainfall Hyetograph
Calculation for Total Amount of Effective Rainfall (ER)

P
P2

P1 Pn
t
0 t1 t2 tn

Total Amount of ER = AERH = t [P1+ P2+…Pn]

 Intensity (cm/hr)

Intensity (cm/hr) Time

This is hyetograph!

Time
Intensity (cm/hr)
Time
Losses

This is ERH!
 This is flood hydrograph!

Discharge (m3/s)
Discharge (m3/s)

baseflow

Time Time
Discharge (m3/s)

This is DRH!

Time
 ERH vs. DRH

Discharge (m3/s)
Intensity (cm/hr)

=
Time (hr) Time (hr)

Depth of effective rainfall = Depth of direct runoff

Volume of effective rainfall = Volume of direct runoff
 ERH vs. DRH
i

t
Time, t

 DRH and ERH represent the same total

quantity of rainfall or runoff even though both
are in different units.
AERH = Total depth of effective rainfall
(rainfall excess)
ADRH = Total volume of direct runoff
 VDRH = VERH (in m3)

HYETOGRAPH - ERH HYDROGRAPH - DRH

Intensity, i (cm/hr)

Discharge, q (m3/s)
Time (hr) Time (hr)

Total volume of effective Total volume of direct

rainfall (rainfall excess) runoff

= AreaERH x Awatershed = AreaDRH

= S (i.t) x Awatershed = S (q.t)

= y m3 = y m3
 Example 6.2 (p. 190)
1. Determination of N: Inspection or equation
2. Base flow separation
3. Calculation of total direct runoff due to storm
4. Find the runoff depth (= rainfall excess)
5. Find phi-index
I = Total rainfall – Rainfall excess
-index = I / Total rainfall duration
 Example 6.3 (p. 191)

Column 4: Incremental rainfall depth, P

Column 5: I =  . t
Column 6: ER = P – I
Column 7: Intensity, i = ER / t
Total effective rainfall = AERH
Volume of direct runoff = AERH x Area of catchment