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OMBINED
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UNDAMENTALS
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Table Of Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMBINED CYCLE POWER GENERATION
.......................................3
1.1 COMBINED CYCLE FUNDAMENTALS THEORY AND OPERATION.........................3
1.1.1 Overview ...........................................................................................................3
1.1.2 The Gas Turbine (Brayton) Cycle .....................................................................5
1.1.3 The Steam-Water (Rankine) Cycle ...................................................................8
1.1.4 Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) ........................................................9
1.1.5 The Combined Cycle.......................................................................................10
1.1.6 Rankine Cycle Parameters and Efficiency ......................................................11
1.1.7 Combined Cycle Parameters and Efficiency...................................................11
1.2 BENEFITS OF THE COMBINED CYCLE...................................................................13
1.2.1 Operational Benefits........................................................................................13
1.2.2 Environmental Aspects ...................................................................................14
1.2.3 Repowering and Economic Aspects ...............................................................15
2.0 GAS TURBINES
.....................................................................................................................16
2.1 Applicable Physics Concepts and Laws .....................................................................16
2.2 Gas Turbine Engine Fundamentals ............................................................................17 2.2.1
Gas Turbine Cycle ..........................................................................................18 2.2.2 Gas
Turbine Engine Theory ............................................................................19
2.3 Gas Turbine Main Components ..................................................................................20 2.3.1
Air Inlet Equipment..........................................................................................20 2.3.2
Compressor.....................................................................................................20 2.3.3
Combustion Section ........................................................................................24 2.3.4 Turbine
Section ...............................................................................................28
2.4 Gas Turbine Parameters and Efficiency .....................................................................31
3.0 HEAT RECOVERY STEAM GENERATORS
.........................................................................35
3.1 Overview .....................................................................................................................35
3.2 Functional Description ................................................................................................35 3.2.1
Steam/Water Flowpath....................................................................................35 3.2.2 Steam
Generation ...........................................................................................37 3.2.3 Superheated
Steam ........................................................................................38 3.2.4 Gas Side
Flowpath..........................................................................................38
3.3 HRSG Characteristics and Design Considerations.....................................................39 3.3.1
HRSG Geometry .............................................................................................39 3.3.2 Exhaust
Gas Considerations...........................................................................39 3.3.3 Duct
Firing.......................................................................................................40 3.3.4 Stack
Temperature..........................................................................................41 3.3.5 Bypass Stack
And Damper .............................................................................41 3.3.6 Stress and Fatigue
..........................................................................................42 3.3.7
Blowdown........................................................................................................42 3.3.8 Selective
Catalytic Reduction..........................................................................42
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 Revisi
on: Al Ezzel Power
OPERATOR TRAINING MANUAL Plant
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OMBINED
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UNDAMENTALS
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4.0 STEAM TURBINES

................................................................................................................43
4.1 Turbine Principles ............................................................................................................43
4.1.1 Nozzles and Their Principles ............................................................................43 4.1.2
Basic Turbine Types and Principles..................................................................43 4.1.3
Classification of Turbines..................................................................................49
5.0 INTEGRATED COMBINED CYCLE OPERATION
.................................................................50
5.1 Normal Startup............................................................................................................50 5.1.1
Combustion Turbine Startup ...........................................................................50 5.1.2 HRSG
Startup .................................................................................................51 5.1.3 Steam Turbine
Startup ....................................................................................56 5.1.4 Fast
Starts.......................................................................................................58
5.2 Operating Modes ........................................................................................................59 5.2.1
Base Load .......................................................................................................59
5.3 Shutdown of Combined Cycle Plants..........................................................................61 5.3.1
Normal Shutdown............................................................................................61 5.3.2 Emergency
Shutdown .....................................................................................62
6.0 COMBINED CYCLE PERFORMANCE MONITORING
..........................................................63
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................63
6.2 Energy Conversion Cycle ...........................................................................................63 6.2.1
Energy Conversion..........................................................................................63 6.2.2 Energy
Leaving the Plant ................................................................................65
6.3 Plant Heat Rate...........................................................................................................66 6.3.1
Gross Plant Heat Rate ....................................................................................66 6.3.2 Net Plant
Heat Rate ........................................................................................66
6.4 Factors Affecting Plant Performance ..........................................................................67 6.4.1
Gas Turbine ....................................................................................................67 6.4.2 Heat
Recovery Steam Generator....................................................................69 6.4.4 Main
Condensers ............................................................................................73 6.4.5 Deaerator
........................................................................................................76
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1.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMBINED CYCLE POWER GENERATION
1.1 COMBINED CYCLE FUNDAMENTALS THEORY AND OPERATION
This Training Course provides an overview of the principles and theory of combined
cycle power plant design and operation. The objective of this Course is to provide plant
personnel with a basic understanding of the major components of the combined cycle power
plant and the role of each component in achieving optimum plant efficiency. In addition, this
Training Course will help the plant staff develop an appreciation for the unique characteristics of
the combined cycle power plant.
1.1.1 Overview
There are many different types of power plants including thermal power plants and hydro
power plants. Thermal power plants burn some sort of fuel (such as fossil or nuclear fuel) to
produce heat energy that is converted to electrical energy through a series of intermediate
processes. Hydro power plants convert the potential energy of water to electrical power as it
flows from higher to lower elevations.
The "traditional" thermal power plant is the Rankine Cycle plant, named after the man
who invented the cycle. A power plant cycle is a series of processes in which a fluid, generally
water/steam, is used to convert heat energy to mechanical energy. The Rankine Cycle in its
simplest form consists of a boiler, a turbine, a condenser, and a boiler feed pump. Early plants
had thermal efficiencies of approximately 25% to 30%. Only 25% to 30% of the heat energy in
the fuel burned in these plants was converted to electrical energy. The rest was lost in various
ways. Rankine Cycle plants are still being built today.
The Rankine Cycle has been refined considerably over the years and made more
efficient by the addition of components like feedwater heaters, superheaters, and reheaters. The
efficiency of the Rankine Cycle has also been improved by increasing the pressure and
temperature of the cycle. One of the most efficient Rankine Cycle plants ever built (Philadelphia
Electric's Eddystone plant, Units 1 and 2) was placed in service around 1960. The thermal
efficiency of the Eddystone plant was 42%. The laws of thermodynamics and considerations
such as material limitations have prevented any significant improvement since then.
Power plants commonly use heat rate to measure efficiency. Heat rate is measured in
BTU/KWh. Thus, heat rate shows the amount of heat in BTUs that is required to produce a
kilowatt-hour of electrical energy. Thermal efficiency can be converted to heat rate by using the
conversion factor “3413 BTU equals 1 KWh”. If a power plant could be built with 100%
efficiency, its heat rate would be 3413 BTU/KWh. In contrast, the 42% efficiency of the
Eddystone plant corresponds to a heat rate of 8126 BTU/KWh. The heat rate of the Ennis-
Tractebel Plant is approximately 6550 BTU/KWh (52% thermal efficiency at 83°F); although it
varies depending on equipment performance and ambient conditions.
Gas Turbines and Combined Cycle
The first practical gas turbine was developed in Europe in 1939. At the end of World War
II, the first gas turbines were developed for aircraft. Shortly after the war, the first industrial gas
turbines for power production and other industrial applications, such as driving locomotives,
were introduced. Gas turbines use another type of cycle called the Brayton cycle, also named
after its inventor. The first commercial, industrial gas turbines were relatively inefficient, typically having a thermal
efficiency of 16% to 17%.
As the gas turbine industry matured, the design of gas turbines, like that of Rankine Cycles, was improved.
Use of gas turbines in the power utility industry increased steadily from their introduction in the late 1940's. Gas
turbines reached a peak of popularity in the early 1970's. At that time, the growth in demand for electric power
exceeded the ability of the industry to meet electrical demand through addition of Rankine Cycle plants alone. Gas
turbines were attractive because they could be built much more rapidly than Rankine Cycle plants.
The oil crisis of the early 1970's brought a sudden halt to the popularity of gas turbines for three reasons.
First, almost all utility gas turbines use either gas or oil for fuel. The cost of these fuels went up dramatically while
their availability went down. Secondly, the oil crisis brought renewed attention to the need for efficiency (getting more
energy out of the fuel). Gas turbines of this period were significantly less efficient than Rankine Cycle plants. Typical
gas turbine thermal efficiencies were 20% to 25%. Finally, the emphasis on conserving energy reduced the rate of
increase in electrical power demand and thus the need for new power plants.
The gas turbine industry has seen a resurgence in the last 15 to 20 years. Part of this recovery has resulted
from steady increases in gas turbine efficiency due to material and design improvements. Another cause for growth in
the gas turbine industry has been the growing popularity of combined cycle plants. A combined cycle plant consists of
one or more gas turbines that drive generators and exhaust into a special boiler called a heat recovery steam
generator (HRSG) that generates steam for a Rankine Cycle unit.
One of the principal reasons for the popularity of the combined cycle power plants is their high thermal
efficiency. Combined cycle plants with thermal efficiencies as high as 60% are being built. Combined cycle plants can
achieve these efficiencies because much of the heat from the gas turbine(s) is captured and used in the Rankine
Cycle portion of the plant. Refer to Figure 1-1. The heat from the exhaust gases would normally be lost to the
atmosphere in a simple gas turbine
 Another reason for the popularity of combined cycle plants is the relatively short time
required for their construction. Although it takes longer to build a combined cycle plant than a
simple gas turbine plant, a combined cycle plant can be built in much less time than a Rankine
Cycle plant of comparable output.
One of the biggest obstacles to even greater acceptance of combined cycle plants is the
fact that the gas turbines used in combined cycle plants still burn oil and gas. Gas turbines built
to date cannot burn coal directly. Often oil and gas cost much more than coal. While the
combined cycle plant might be more efficient thermodynamically than a coal fired plant, the coal
plant might be less expensive to run because of the lower cost for fuel. One solution to the high
fuel cost for gas turbines is the development of gas turbines that can burn coal. While there
have been experimental gas turbines built with this capability, none have reached
commercialization.
Natural gas is the most common fuel used by combined cycle gas turbine power plants.
In recent years however, manufacturers have designed and built gas turbines which can burn
various forms of low and medium Btu gas. These low btu gasses can be derived as a byproduct
of the refinery process, or in some cases, produced through a process referred to as
gasification. During gasification, solid fuel such as coal or wood is routed through a heated
vessel of approximately 1500-2000ΕF (816-1093°C). The high temperature environment causes
an immediate release of volatile gasses from the solid fuel; with the resulting byproducts of the
gasification process being char, ash, and low-medium Btu gas. Gas turbines can burn the
resultant gas as easily as natural gas, and thus indirectly can use wood or coal as a fuel.
1.1.2 The Gas Turbine (Brayton) Cycle
The first major component of the combined cycle power plant is the gas turbine. In installations
where the gas turbine exhausts directly to the atmosphere, it is said to be operating in a "simple
cycle" mode. When a gas turbine exhausts into a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) and
the resultant steam is used to operate a steam turbine generator, the plant is referred to as a
combined cycle power plant.
A common arrangement of a gas turbine driving an electric generator is shown in Figure 1-2.
The basic gas turbine consists of a compressor, a combustion section, and a turbine section. Air
is drawn into the compressor which raises the air pressure by a factor of 12 to 18:1. The
temperature of the air also increases with compression, and may be as high as 600ΕF (316°C)
at the compressor discharge.
In the combustion section, fuel is injected into the compressed air and burned to convert the
fuel's chemical energy into heat energy. Burning the fuel results in a high temperature, high
pressure gas with considerable thermal energy. This hot gas enters the turbine section where it
expands, giving up its thermal energy to the blades of the rotating turbine. In the process of
expanding and cooling through the turbine section, the thermal energy of the gas is converted
into mechanical energy that is used to do work. A large portion of the work from the turbine,
about 60%, is used to drive the compressor. The remainder of the turbine work is available to
produce power by driving a generator. The heat exhausted from the gas turbine is typically in
the range of 900 to 1100ΕF (482-973°)C.
The thermodynamic cycle of a gas turbine is referred to as the Brayton Cycle. The four
processes of the Brayton Cycle are represented on a temperature-enthalpy (T-h) diagram
shown in Figure 1-3. The T-h diagram is a convenient way to illustrate and analyze the
performance of power plant cycles including the gas turbine cycle. Temperature (T) is
represented on the vertical axis and enthalpy (h) on the horizontal axis. Enthalpy is a property of
substances that describes the availability of energy to do work.
The T-h diagram is useful in analyzing thermodynamic cycles because it reveals the
amount of heat required to make a process occur in a cycle. If a process can be represented as
a curve on the T-h diagram, the area under the curve is the amount of heat required to make
that process occur.
Each process in the Brayton Cycle can be drawn on the T-h diagram in Figure 1-3. The
first process is the compression of air in the compressor represented by the line AB. As the air
is compressed, its temperature and pressure increases and there is a corresponding increase in
enthalpy. As work is done on the air, the air stores this energy in the form of temperature and
pressure. The power (energy) to perform this work originates from the turbine which is directly
coupled to the gas turbine compressor through a common shaft.
The second process is the addition of heat to the cycle at a constant pressure by burning of fuel
represented by the line B-C. The temperature of the gas that results from the combustion
increases considerably from the temperature of the air at the compressor outlet.
The third process is the expansion and cooling of the gas as it passes through the
turbine, is represented by the line C-D. Here, the energy of the hot pressurized gas is used to
perform work.
The final process in the Brayton cycle is the cooling of the hot gas that exhausts to the
atmosphere, represented by line D-A. The exhausted gas mixes with ambient air, thus
decreasing in temperature.
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 The amount of heat that is required to make the Brayton cycle work is represented by
the area under line B-C. The fraction of heat that is rejected is represented by the area under
the line D-A. The area between these two lines represents the heat that is converted to useful
mechanical energy. The heat converted to useful mechanical energy is 25% to 30% of the total
heat required to make the process work.
Cycle Performance
To analyze simple cycle performance, data for a typical gas turbine is shown in Figure 1-
4. The figure shows the energy supplied and energy output from a typical gas turbine cycle. The
data shown reflects operation at 100 percent load. The data is based on an ambient
temperature of 59ΕF (15°C) and site altitude of 1,700 feet (518 meters) above sea level. Energy
supplied by the fuel is 925,000,000 BTU/hr based upon 37,910 lb/hr (17,196 kg/hr) of gas fuel
with a heating value of 1000 BTU/SCF (SCF - Standard Cubic Feet). The power output of the
gas turbine is 81,074 KW.
Overall efficiency of the gas turbine is 29.92%. The temperature of the exhaust gas is
990ΕF (532°C) and exhaust gas flow is 2,577,856 lbs/hr (1,169,296 kg/hr). Since this exhaust
gas started at ambient temperature as air and fuel, considerable energy is used to heat the gas
to such a high temperature.
If the heat energy added to the exhaust gas was converted to electrical energy in this
instance, an additional 179 MW could be generated by the cycle (over twice the electrical power
actually generated). In practice, it is impossible to convert all of this heat energy into useful
energy. However, it is possible to recover a large fraction of the heat energy in the exhaust gas
by operating the gas turbine in a combined cycle. In a combined cycle plant, some of the
exhaust heat energy is used in a Rankine Cycle.

Figure 1-4 Gas Turbine Performance Analysis

1.1.3 The Steam-Water (Rankine) Cycle
The Rankine Cycle used in conventional thermal power plants can be represented on a
T-h diagram. As with the Brayton Cycle, each line segment in the diagram corresponds to a
process in the cycle. A simple Rankine Cycle consists of only four components; the boiler (often
called a steam generator), a turbine, a condenser, and a boiler feed pump. The simple Rankine
Cycle is shown on the T-h diagram in Figure 1-5. It must be noted that the illustration uses a
boiler with a superheater, thus the temperature of the steam entering the turbine is above
saturation temperature.
The first process in the Rankine Cycle is the increase in pressure of the condensate
from the condenser by the boiler feed pump. The increase in pressure occurs with a slight
increase in enthalpy. The increase in energy which the boiler feed pump adds to the cycle is
represented by line 1-2.
The second Rankine Cycle process (Line 2-3) is the addition of heat (represented by Q)
to the water entering the boiler. Within the boiler, the water is transformed from a liquid to a gas
(steam). The generation of steam is assumed to occur at a constant pressure. Additional energy
is added to the steam as it passes through the superheater (line 4). The steam is then
expanded and cooled as it passes through the turbine as represented by line 4-5. Here, the
energy of the steam is used to perform work.
The last process in the Rankine Cycle is the condensation of the steam that exhausts
from the turbine, represented by line 5-1. During condensation, considerable heat, called the
heat of vaporization, is lost.
The heat required to make the Rankine Cycle work is determined by the area under the
lines between points 2 to 4; and the heat lost from the cycle is under the line between points 5
and 1. The area between the lines represents the heat that is converted to useful mechanical
energy. The useful mechanical energy is only about 1/3 of the heat required to make the cycle
work.

Figure 1-5 Rankine Cycle T-h Diagram

Cycle Performance
Rankine Cycle performance can be analyzed by referring to the typical (simplified,
idealized) power plant cycle shown in Figure 1-6. Steam pressure at the turbine inlet is 1400
psia (96.52 bar) and temperature is 1000ΕF (537°C). The efficiency of this idealized plant is
41.5%. The efficiency of a real Rankine Cycle with the same configuration would be lower than
the ideal cycle. Actual Rankine Cycle efficiency is lower than that calculated for the cycle alone.
In practice, Rankine Cycle efficiencies range from 20% to 39%.
Actual Rankine Cycle plants are considerably more complex than the simple cycle
shown in Figure 1-5 because components such as feedwater heaters are added to improve
efficiency. While most of the additions to the Rankine Cycle improve its efficiency, there are also
factors in a real Rankine Cycle that tend to make it less efficient.
• Not all of the chemical energy supplied to the boiler from the fuel is absorbed by the steam.
Typically only 85% to 90% of the energy input is absorbed. This means that the boiler is only
85% to 90% efficient.
• Additional auxiliary equipment, such as fans and soot blowers, uses part of the power
produced (usually around 5%).

Figure 1-6 Basic Power Plant Cycle Efficiency

1.1.4 Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG)
The HRSG is basically a heat exchanger composed of a series of superheater,
evaporator, and economizer sections. These sections are positioned from gas inlet to gas outlet
to maximize heat recovery from the gas turbine exhaust gas. The heat recovered in the HRSG
is used to supply steam to the steam turbine at the proper temperature and pressure.
In the simple cycle mode of operation, the temperature of the exhaust gas leaving a gas
turbine can be as high as 1100ΕF (593°C), and flow rates can be as high as 3 million pounds
per hour (1,360,777 kg/hr). High temperature gas represents a source of heat energy, some of
which can be recovered if the means to do so are available. By recovering some of this waste
heat, the output and the efficiency of a power plant can be increased.
The function of a heat recovery steam generator is to recover the waste heat available in
these exhaust gases and transfer that waste heat to water and steam. The heat recovered is
used to generate steam at high pressure and high temperature. The steam is then used to
generate additional power in a steam turbine driven generator. The HRSG provides the critical
link between the gas turbine and the Rankine Cycle in a combined cycle plant. The HRSG is a
key component in combined cycle efficiency.
1.1.5 The Combined Cycle
Combined cycle refers to a power plant in which a gas turbine is integrated with a
Rankine Cycle unit. The Rankine Cycle makes use of much of the heat in the gas turbine
exhaust gases. Thermodynamically, the combined cycle can be represented by joining the high
temperature Brayton cycle with the moderate pressure and temperature Rankine Cycle. An
example of a combined cycle showing the Brayton cycle (gas turbine) and the Rankine Cycle
(steam turbine) on a T-h diagram is shown in Figure 1-7. The area enclosed by the Rankine
Cycle is within the area that represents the heat rejected from the Brayton cycle. Thus, the
Rankine Cycle area represents the heat energy that is converted to useful mechanical energy
that would otherwise be rejected to the atmosphere.
A large portion of the heat lost from the Brayton cycle is used in the Rankine Cycle. A
much greater fraction of the heat added to the cycle is actually converted to useful mechanical
energy in the combined cycle than either the Brayton cycle or the Rankine Cycle alone. The
Rankine Cycle parameters (pressure and temperature) are selected to match the temperature of
the available gas turbine exhaust gases. Usually, the pressure and temperature used in the
Rankine Cycle portion of the combined cycle plant are much lower than those used in
conventional Rankine Cycle plants. The lower pressure and temperature are necessary
because the gas turbine exhaust gas, while very hot, is not nearly as hot as the flue gas
entering the convection pass of a conventional fired boiler.
The challenge in joining the Brayton and Rankine Cycles in a combined cycle plant, is
the degree of integration needed to maximize efficiency at an economic cost. The simple
combined cycle can consist of a single gas turbine, HRSG, steam turbine, condenser, and
auxiliary systems. In addition, if the environmental regulations require, an emissions reduction
system can be directly integrated within the HRSG. A variety of more complex configurations
are possible.

Figure 1-7 Combined Cycle T-h

Diagram
1.1.6 Rankine Cycle Parameters and Efficiency
The efficiency of the Rankine Cycle is influenced by the configuration of the plant and
the steam/water conditions in the cycle. In order to achieve the highest overall combined cycle
plant efficiency, the efficiency of both the Brayton cycle and the Rankine Cycle must be
compromised.
For the Rankine Cycle, the higher the steam pressure and temperature, the more
efficient the cycle. Furthermore, the steam must be superheated far above its saturation
temperature to prevent condensation as it passes through the steam turbine. As an example, in
a cycle with initial conditions of 2415 psig (167 bar) and 1000°F (537°C), the steam is heated
388°F (183°C) above saturation and thus is said to have 388°F (183°C) of superheat. There
must be a source of heat that is hotter than 1000°F (537°C) in order to heat the steam to
1000°F (537°C). In a typical boiler, the fireball and hot flue gases (approaching 2000°F/1093°C)
provide that high temperature.
The temperature of exhaust gas from a typical gas turbine is lower than the flue gas in a
conventional fired boiler, usually 900 to 1100°F (482-593°C). Since this temperature is relatively
low compared to the conventional, fired boiler, the maximum pressure that the HRSG can have
and still provide adequate superheat is lower than the fired boiler found in the conventional
Rankine Cycle. Typical initial steam conditions for a combined cycle plant are 900 psig (62 bar)
and 900°F (486°C). Steam at this pressure and temperature has about 368ΕF (193°C) of
superheat. The relatively low pressure and temperature make the Rankine Cycle portion of the
combined cycle plant less efficient than the Rankine Cycle in most conventional plants. None
the less, the use of a relatively inefficient Rankine Cycle together with the gas turbine in a
combined cycle, makes the overall cycle efficiency higher than a conventional Rankine Cycle
alone.
Another critical parameter that affects the efficiency of the Rankine Cycle is the pressure
in the condenser. In general, the lower the condenser pressure (the higher the vacuum), the
more efficient the Rankine Cycle can be. The factors that determine the condenser pressure for
a given load on a Rankine Cycle unit are the condition of the condenser (especially how clean
the tubes are) and the temperature of the circulating water. The lower the circulating water
temperature, the lower the condenser pressure and thus the more efficient the Rankine Cycle.
The design and operating considerations for the condenser of a combined cycle plant are the
same as those for a conventional Rankine Cycle plant.
1.1.7 Combined Cycle Parameters and Efficiency
The joining of the gas turbine and the Rankine Cycle in the combined cycle plant
requires some compromises in component efficiency in order to assure the maximum overall
combined cycle plant efficiency. For example, if the efficiency of the gas turbine were
maximized without regard to the efficiency of the plant as a whole, the Rankine Cycle portion of
the plant might be adversely affected. Maximizing gas turbine efficiency could result in an
overall reduction of the combined cycle efficiency. Similarly, if the Rankine Cycle portion were
modified without regard to the gas turbine, the gas turbine efficiency might decrease and lower
the overall plant efficiency.
 Two principal issues must be considered in the combined cycle performance. The first
issue is the initial steam conditions in the Rankine Cycle. The higher the initial steam pressure
and temperature, the more efficient the Rankine Cycle. Gas turbine exhaust temperature
determines the upper limits on Rankine Cycle initial conditions; the higher that temperature, the
higher the Rankine Cycle pressure and temperature can be. Higher gas turbine exhaust
temperature also benefits the Rankine Cycle because the higher the temperature of the gas
turbine exhaust the more thermal energy (heat) is available to the HRSG.
High gas turbine exhaust temperature is desirable for high Rankine Cycle efficiency. The more
efficient the gas turbine is, the lower its exhaust gas temperature. Accordingly, some
compromise is required between gas turbine efficiency and Rankine Cycle initial conditions.
Gas turbine exhaust temperature is also a concern when the gas turbine is at less than
full load. When the gas turbine drives a generator that is synchronized to an electrical
distribution system, the turbine speed is constant regardless of the load. The compressor
operates at the same constant speed and thus provides the same amount of air to the
combustion section, regardless of the amount of fuel being burned. The result is considerably
lower firing temperatures and exhaust temperature at reduced load. The reduced temperatures
cause both the gas turbine and Rankine Cycle efficiencies to fall as the load is reduced.
In older gas turbine designs, there was no way to remedy this problem. In newer gas
turbine designs, air flow through the compressor can be controlled by adjustable Inlet Guide
Vanes (IGVs). The control is done by changing the angle of attack of the IGVs in operation. At
reduced loads, the IGVs can be adjusted to produce a lower air flow and maintain high exhaust
temperatures at reduced load. The range of load over which this method is effective is relatively
small, typically from 70% to 100% of full load.
The second principal issue in combined cycle efficiency is the gas turbine exhaust
pressure. The pressure at the gas turbine exhaust is the same as the pressure at the HRSG
inlet. As exhaust pressure increases, the velocity of the exhaust gas through the HRSG tube
bundles also increases.
Heat transfer in the HRSG is principally convective heat transfer. The effectiveness of
convective heat transfer is partially dependant on velocity. As the velocity of the exhaust gases
increase, the heat transfer increases also. Thus, HRSG efficiency improves as the gas turbine
exhaust pressure increases. This is, however, the opposite of what is desirable for gas turbine
efficiency.
Heat transfer can be increased without increasing gas turbine exhaust pressure by
adding more tubes in the HRSG which increases the heat transfer surface area. The increased
cost of the additional heat transfer surface area may, however, outweigh the increase in gas
turbine efficiency.
For the simple cycle, increasing the pressure ratio increases gas turbine efficiency while
increasing firing temperature can decrease efficiency. However, increasing the firing
temperature increases the gas turbine output. For the combined cycle, very high pressure ratios
result in little increase or even a decrease in combined cycle efficiency. Increases in firing
temperature always result in an increase in combined cycle efficiency.
 Designers of combined cycle plants must compromise the efficiency of the gas turbine
and the Rankine Cycle, especially the HRSG, in order to optimize the performance of the
combined cycle. By design, the pressure ratio is limited somewhat and the exhaust pressure is
slightly higher than it would be with the gas turbine operating in simple cycle. This optimization
has resulted in combined cycle efficiency as high as 60%. Future increases in gas turbine firing
temperatures could produce combined cycle efficiencies even higher.
1.2 BENEFITS OF THE COMBINED CYCLE
The demand for combined cycle power plants has increased dramatically over the last
decade. The principal reason for this increase in popularity is probably the fact that combined
cycle plants offer the most efficient, proven technology for generating steam and/or electric
power commercially available today. There are other reasons for the increase in popularity
however, including availability of gas and oil fuel, moderate capital cost, and short construction
schedule as compared to conventional Rankine Cycle plants. This Section describes the
benefits of combined cycle technology.
1.2.1 Operational Benefits
Many of the benefits of combined cycle technology are related directly to operational
benefits. Those benefits are described below.
Efficiency
Recent advances in gas turbine technology have increased efficiency while maintaining
high availability and reliability ratings. Manufacturers, such as General Electric, have
implemented design advancements in cooling and aerodynamics to boost the efficiency of their
simple cycle MS7000F gas turbine to over 35%. This is a significant improvement compared to
the GE frame 5 units of the 1970's that had thermal efficiencies of 22 - 23%. Specially
developed high strength alloys and improved coatings have allowed firing temperatures to
exceed 2300ΕF (1,260°C). These gas turbines have simple cycle efficiencies comparable to
conventional fossil-fired power plants.
Other efficiency improvements have come from enhancements in the following areas:
• Inlet guide vane design.
• Compressor blade design.
• Tighter compressor and turbine clearances.
• Improved turbine nozzles, buckets, and shrouds.
• Improved combustion systems.
Reliability
Early industrial gas turbines were relatively unreliable when compared to steam turbines
in Rankine Cycle plants. Advanced gas turbine designs have resulted in greater reliability and
higher availability. Availability is a measure of reliability that is essentially the ratio of the time
the machine was available to produce power to the time the unit should have been on-line.
Since the early seventies, gas turbine availability has increased from as low as 70%, to over
90%. Projected availability for newer models can be as high as 95% with 3000 hours MTBF
(Mean Time Between Failures). This is better than the availability of many conventional Rankine
Cycle plants. Improvements in reliability are mainly due to improved materials and ‘designed-in’
redundancy of critical accessory components; especially in the control systems. Building
redundancy into a design ensures that there is at least one back-up component to perform a
function so that the failure of a single component does not result in a forced outage.
Flexibility
Beyond thermal efficiency and reliability gains, combined cycle plants can offer
considerable operating flexibility. In many combined cycle plants, the gas turbine can be
operated in simple cycle or in the combined mode. This feature requires the installation of a
bypass stack and damper between the combustion turbine exhaust and the HRSG. The damper
can be positioned to direct the gas turbine exhaust gas to either the bypass stack or the HRSG.
Use of a bypass damper allows the gas turbine to be placed in operation while the Rankine
Cycle portion of the plant is shut down. Flexibility can be extended through the addition of
multiple gas turbines, HRSGs, and steam turbines. However, increased flexibility comes at the
cost of greater complexity.
Rankine Cycle power plants equipped with fired boilers often require several hours, or
even days, to go from cold iron to base load operation. The majority of the startup process is
spent preheating the boiler and steam turbine to prevent thermal stress and fatigue to the
equipment. Because conventional (Rankine Cycle) power plants operate at such high
temperatures and pressure, they are constructed with heavier/thicker materials designed to
withstand the design operating conditions. To include; the turbine shell and rotor, the boiler
drums, and the fire brick in the boiler furnace. These heavier/thicker materials require a very
slow and gradual heat up process to bring the plant to base load operation.
Combined cycle power plants, on the other hand, operate at lower temperatures and
pressures and are therefore constructed with lighter materials. The gas turbine portion of a
combined cycle plant can be brought from cold iron to full load in a matter of 10 to 20 minutes
depending upon the particulars of the unit. The primary limiting factor on the gas turbine ramp
rate is the heat up of the HRSG. However, since HRSG’s are made of lighter materials than
conventional boilers, they can often be brought to full steaming conditions in an hour or less.
This increased flexibility over conventional Rankine Cycle plants results in reduced costs in
man-hours and downtime, and increased revenue in being able to generate power in a short
period of time.
High Degree of Control and Automation with Minimal Monitoring
Present day gas turbines incorporate a high degree of automation and control/monitoring
capabilities that make them quite simple to operate. Gas turbine control systems are based on
digital components and techniques that allow flexibility and high reliability. The capabilities of the
controls include automatic startup, synchronizing and loading to rated load, complete
monitoring, and protection of the gas turbine from unsafe operating conditions.
High control system reliability is achieved by redundant control sensors, controllers, and
final control elements (i.e., temperature and flow control valves etc.). Continuous monitoring is
provided on graphic computer screens and the operators’ interface with the gas turbine is
through keyboards or other devices. The computer based systems employ built-in diagnostics
and troubleshooting routines that analyze and correct operation and control problems. The use
of redundant components allows on-line replacement of boards and sensors that are physically
accessible during operation. All of these features contribute to the increase in automation and
minimize the need for operator interaction for normal turbine operation.
1.2.2 Environmental Aspects
Over the past decade, growing concern for the environment has led to strict standards
regarding air emissions and industrial pollution. NOx emissions are a product of every air-fed
combustion process, including those in the gas turbine. NOx emissions are suspected of
contributing to several atmospheric processes that are either known or thought to be degrading
to the environment. Among those processes are acid rain, forest and vegetation decline, and
changes to the ozone layer.
Power plants are responsible for about one-third of the annual NOx emissions. Utilities have
been forced to add new equipment or modify existing equipment to comply with recent
regulations. These additions and modifications have proven to be both expensive and time
consuming.
Gas turbines and combined cycle plants have proven to operate with significantly lower
emissions of contaminants to the air than older Rankine Cycle plants. Emissions include sulphur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulates. Another environmental benefit of the combined cycle
plant is related to its high efficiency. By operating more efficiently, less fuel is burned for a given
electrical output resulting in fewer
combustion by-products. If natural gas is fired, sulphur dioxide (SO2) and particulate emissions
are negligible. Also, advances in combined cycle technology have yielded modifications in the
process which reduce emissions even further. Several of these modifications are listed below:
• Steam/Water Injection - Injecting steam or water into a gas turbine's combustor has proven to
significantly reduce NOx emissions. Steam inside the combustion zone has a quenching effect
which suppresses NOx formation by as much as 70%. Steam/water injection also increases
power output, but reduces combined cycle efficiency slightly.
• Low NOx Burners - Modifications in gas turbine combustors have resulted in lower NOx
emissions by adequately premixing the air and fuel upstream of the combustor and providing
more stable control of fuel and air in the combustion process. The low NOx burners reduce the
amount of excess air, control flame length, and reduce flame temperatures, all of which reduce
the formation of NOx
.
• Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) - SCR is a process in which nitrogen oxides are removed
by the injection of aqueous ammonia (NH3) into the flue gas upstream of a catalyst structure.
The catalyst causes a chemical reaction that converts the nitrogen oxides to elemental nitrogen
and water vapor. The SCR unit, generally located within the HRSG, offers a NOx removal
efficiency of up to 90%.
In addition to reduced air emissions, combined cycle power plants generally operate with
less thermal pollution of cooling water sources, and reduced consumption of water and natural
resources. Also, the space required to build a combined cycle facility is significantly less than for
conventional Rankine Cycle plants. All of these environmental factors are considered by Public
Utilities Commissions in granting licenses to build new power plants. The less the environmental
impact, the more likely a license will be granted. Accordingly, the difficulty and risk of completing
the licensing process required for a combined cycle plant is less than that for a comparable,
conventional, Rankine Cycle plant.
1.2.3 Repowering and Economic Aspects
Repowering is a term generally applied to the replacement of the boiler in an older
Rankine Cycle plant with a gas turbine and HRSG. The result is a combined cycle plant with
greater capacity and efficiency than the old Rankine Cycle plant. Repowering with advanced
gas turbines and HRSGs can improve overall plant thermal efficiency by more than 20%.
Repowering can also triple total plant electrical capacity. Repowering often has the advantage
of being more economical, cost per kilowatt generated, than other options for adding capacity.
While repowering is normally thought of as the conversion of an older Rankine Cycle
plant, modifications can also be made to existing gas turbine plants operating in simple cycle.
Modification may involve the addition of the appropriate duct work to a new HRSG and Rankine
Cycle components. Some gas turbine power plants are built to run in simple cycle initially and
are later converted to combined cycle configuration when the economic conditions are
favorable.
The amount of time required to repower a plant also has a significant economic impact in
power plant construction. Depending upon equipment size and complexity, delivery and
construction of a gas turbine combined cycle power plant can be completed in just over a year;
much less time than required for construction of conventional power plants. Shorter construction
time generally results in a significant decrease in overall cost. In addition, the system capital
cost is typically low as a result of smaller, standardized components, modular construction,
rapid erection, and minimum support system costs.
2.0 GAS TURBINES
To understand the design, function, operation, and control of gas turbines it is first
essential to grasp the underlying principles. This chapter addresses the theory and principles of
gas turbine design and operation, as well as the construction, classification, and characteristics
of gas turbines.
2.1 Applicable Physics Concepts and Laws
To understand basic gas turbine engine theory, one must be familiar with the physics of
the gas turbine engine. The three physics concepts which apply to the operation of a gas turbine
engine are:
▪ Boyle’s Law
▪ Charles’ Law
▪ Newton’s Law
Boyle’s Law
Compressibility is a characteristic of all gases. The English scientist, Robert Boyle, was
among the first to study this characteristic, referring to it as the springiness of air. Boyle
discovered that when the temperature of an enclosed sample of gas was kept constant and the
pressure doubled, the volume was reduced to half the former value. As the applied pressure
was decreased, the resulting volume increased. From these observations he concluded that for
a constant temperature the product of the volume and pressure of an enclosed gas remains
constant. This became Boyle's law, which is normally stated; The volume of an enclosed dry
gas varies inversely with its pressure, provided the temperature remains constant.
Boyle's Law can be demonstrated by confining a quantity of gas in a cylinder which has
a tightly fitted piston. By applying force to the piston, the gas in the cylinder will compress to
some specific volume. If the applied force is doubled, the piston will compress the gas to one
half its original volume (Figure 2-1). As the applied pressure is decreased, the resulting volume
is increased.
Changes in the pressure of a gas also affect the density. As the pressure increases, its
volume decreases; however, there is no change in the weight of the gas. Therefore, the weight
per unit volume (density) increases. So it follows that the density of a gas varies directly as the
pressure, if the temperature is constant.

Charles’ Law
Jacques Charles, a French scientist, provided much of the foundation for the modern
kinetic theory of gases. He found that all gases expand and contract in direct proportion to the
change in the absolute temperature; provided the pressure is held constant. Any change in the
temperature of a gas causes a corresponding change in volume. Therefore, if a given sample of
gas were heated while confined within a given volume, the pressure should increase.
An example of Charles' Law is as follows:
• If an aerosol can is placed in a fire and heated, it would eventually explode. This results from
the expansion of the gas in the can due to the rise in absolute temperature.
Newton’s First Law
Newton’s First Law states that a body at rest tends to remain at rest. A body in motion
tends to remain in motion. An example of Newton's First Law is as follows:
• A parked automobile will remain motionless until some force causes it to move (a body at rest
remains at rest). The second portion of the law can be demonstrated only in the theoretical
sense. The same automobile placed in motion would remain in motion if all air resistance were
removed, if no friction were in the bearings, and if the surface were perfectly level.
Newton's Second Law
Newton’s Second Law states that an imbalance of force on a body tends to produce an
acceleration in the direction of the force. The acceleration, if any, is directly proportional to the
force and is inversely proportional to the mass of the body. An example of Newton's Second
Law is as follows:
• When throwing a baseball, the force required to accelerate the ball at a rate of 50 ft/sec (15.24
m/sec) would have to be doubled to accelerate the ball at a rate of 100 ft/sec (30.48 m/sec).
However, if the mass of the ball were doubled, the original acceleration rate of 50 ft/sec (15.24
m/sec) would be cut in half to 25 ft/sec (7.62 m/sec).
Newton's Third Law
Newton’s Third Law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
An example of this is as follows:
• The firing of rifle. The firing of the rifle causes the bullet to go in one direction (the action) and
the gun to recoil into your shoulder (the reaction). Force = Mass x Acceleration.
2.2 Gas Turbine Engine Fundamentals
A gas turbine is an internal combustion engine. Like all internal combustion engines, gas
turbines compress air, take in fuel for combustion, and use the resultant volume of hot gases to
develop shaft horsepower. Referring to Figure 2-2, the three primary sections of a gas turbine
engine are:
• Compressor - Air is drawn into the air inlet by the compressor. Within the compressor, the air
in compressed and a corresponding temperature increase is incurred. The hot, compressed air
is discharged to the combustion section of the engine.
• Combustor - Fuel is admitted into the combustion section by fuel nozzles. The fuel/air mixture
is ignited and combustion occurs.
• Turbine - The hot and rapidly expanding gases are directed aft through the turbine rotor
assembly. There, thermal and kinetic energy are converted into mechanical energy. The gases
are then expelled out the turbine exhaust.

Figure 2-2 Basic Gas Turbine Engine

2.2.1 Gas Turbine Cycle
A cycle is a process that begins with certain conditions, progresses through a series of
additional conditions, and returns to the original conditions. Gas turbine engines operate on the
Brayton Cycle. The Brayton Cycle is one where combustion occurs at a constant pressure. Gas
turbine engines have components designed to perform each function of the cycle separately, yet
continuously. These functions are intake, compression, combustion, expansion, and exhaust.
Figure 2-3 is a graphic illustration of the Brayton Cycle with respect to pressure and volume.
Figure 2-3 Brayton Cycle
The illustration of the Brayton Cycle in Figure 2-3 can be applied to the operation of a
gas turbine engine. At Point A, air enters the inlet at atmospheric pressure and constant volume.
As the air passes through the compressor, it increases in pressure and decreases in volume;
Line A-B. At Point B, combustion occurs at a constant pressure while the increased temperature
causes an increase in volume; Line B-C. The hot gases enter the turbine and expand through it.
As the gases pass through the turbine rotor, the rotor turns kinetic and thermal energy into
mechanical energy. The expanding shape of the turbine passages causes further increase in
volume and a sharp decrease in pressure; Line C-D. The gases are released to the atmosphere
with a large drop in volume and at constant pressure; Line D-A. At this point the cycle is
complete. The Brayton Cycle is continuous in a gas turbine engine with each action occurring at
all times.
2.2.2 Gas Turbine Engine Theory
There are several pressure, volume, and velocity changes that occur within a gas turbine
during operation. The following discussion applies the Physics Laws that pertain to the
operation of a gas turbine engine and their relationship to the Convergent/Divergent Process.
Figure 2-2 demonstrates the application of these principles to the operation of a gas turbine
engine.
Air is drawn into the front of the compressor. The rotor is so constructed that the area
decreases through each successive stage. This tapered construction gives a convergent area;
designated as Area A on Figure 2-2. Each succeeding stage is smaller than the previous, and
as a result, the air is compressed as it progresses through the compressor.
Because of its high rotational speed, the rotor imparts velocity to the air. Between each
rotating stage is a stationary stage or stator. Each pair of rotor and stator blades constitutes a
pressure stage. During operation, there is a pressure increase and a corresponding reduction in
volume through each compressor stage (Boyle’s Law).
Once through the final stage of compression, the hot compressed air enters the
combustor section of the engine. The continuous operation of the compressor forces air through
the combustor (and the rest of the engine) at a constant rate, thus a constant pressure is
maintained in the combustion section. As the air enters the combustor section, it is mixed
(atomized) with fuel and combustion takes place at a constant pressure. As a result of
combustion, there is a large increase in the volume of the air (expansion) and combustion gases
(Charles' Law).
After combustion, the combustion gases travel rearward to Area C. This occurs partially
by velocity imparted by the compressor and partially because the gas is escaping to a lower
pressure area; i.e. the turbine exhaust. The high velocity, high-temperature gases are directed
through the first stage turbine nozzle to the first stage of the turbine rotor (Area D). The kinetic
energy (velocity) and thermal energy (temperature) of the moving gases impart rotation to the
turbine rotor as they pass through the turbine stages. Between each rotating turbine stage is a
static stage or nozzle which directs the hot expanding gases to the next successive stage.
A nozzle is a stator ring with a series of vanes. They act as small nozzles to direct the
combustion gases uniformly and at the proper angle to the turbine blades. Due to the design of
the nozzles, each succeeding stage imparts velocity to the gases as they pass through the
nozzle. Each nozzle converts heat and pressure energy into velocity energy by controlling the
expansion of the gas.
Each stage of the turbine is larger than the preceding one. The pressure energy drops
are quite rapid; consequently, each stage must be larger to use the energy of a lower pressure,
lower temperature, and larger volume of gases. If more stages are used, the rate of divergence
will be less.
Area D must diverge rapidly in proportion to the rate in which Area A converges into
Area B. Atmospheric air is raised in pressure and velocity, and lowered in volume within Area A
by the compressor. Each stage can only compress air about 1.2 times, so the rate is limited.
However, in the turbine rotor (Area D), the gases give up thermal and pressure energy and
increase in volume through three stages. If this did not happen rapidly, back pressure from Area
D would cause Area C to become choked. The gases in the combustor would back up into the
compressor. There, they would disrupt air flow and cause a condition known as surge, or
compressor stall. This condition can destroy an engine in a matter of seconds. Surge is further
explained in Section 2.3.2, pertaining to axial flow compressors.
Gases from the last turbine stage enter the exhaust duct where they are expelled to
atmosphere. The exhaust gases enter the atmosphere at or slightly above atmospheric
pressure. This depends on the length and size of the exhaust duct, or the placement of a heat
recovery steam generator (boiler).
2.3 Gas Turbine Main Components
2.3.1 Air Inlet Equipment
The function of the air inlet is to deliver air, with minimal turbulence and pressure
variation to the gas turbine compressor. Gas turbines are sensitive to inlet air quality because of
the inherent design and the enormous amount of air consumed. Filtration is necessary to
provide protection against the effects of contaminated air that may degrade gas turbine
performance and life through erosion, corrosion, fouling, and plugging of the cooling passages.
The inlet filter compartments that are now typically supplied by turbine manufacturers
can be separated into two generic types: self-cleaning and multi-stage. Conventional
compartments typically use self-cleaning filter systems with treated paper media. Special
features are included which allow these high-efficiency filters to be cleaned of accumulated dust
by momentarily directing a backward flow of air through the filter. The pulse cleaning air can be
derived from the plants instrument air system or from the gas turbine compressor. The reverse
air pulse dislodges accumulated dust and debris, which then falls from the filter. Only a few of
the many filter elements are cleaned at any given time, so that air flow to the operating gas
turbine is essentially undisturbed. Pulsing of the filters is normally initiated when the pressure
drop across the filter compartment increases to a predetermined setpoint. The ability to clean
the filters while the unit is running eliminates the need for an implosion door, thus removing a
significant potential leakage path which could allow ingestion of dust-laden ambient air to flow
directly to the gas turbine.
Downstream of the filter compartment, baffles are often installed in the air ducting to
eliminating turbulence and to silence the flow of the rushing air. In some installations, hot air
from the compressor discharge is piped back to the air inlet for the purpose of anti-icing and/or
to warm the air during engine startup to transition the compressor past a potential stall as the
engine accelerates toward idle speed.
Various types of instrumentation may also be mounted in the air inlet for monitoring
barometric pressure, air temperature, and humidity. These inputs are provided to the gas
turbine control system where they are used for monitoring turbine performance and to control
the combustion characteristics of the engine within design parameters.
Care must be exercised at all times to keep the gas turbine air inlet clean. Dirt, trash,
forgotten tools or clothing can be ingested by the compressor, resulting in serious engine
damage. It is strictly forbidden for anyone to enter the plenum chamber whenever the gas
turbine is operating. Before a gas turbine engine is ever started, the air inlet duct should be
carefully checked for debris. Once all personnel are out of the inlet air ducting, all entrance
doors should be closed and locked.
2.3.2 Compressor
The function of the gas turbine compressor is to efficiently compress the required mass
of air and deliver the air to the combustion section. There are two basic types of compressors
used for gas turbine applications; centrifugal compressors and axial flow compressors. Axial
flow compressors are most often used in power plant applications because of their ability to
pump large volumes of air at a high efficiency.
 Both the centrifugal and axial-flow compressors compress air by imparting momentum to
the air by means of rotating elements and then converting that momentum to pressure in
suitable stationary passages. Refer to Figure 2-4. In the centrifugal type compressor, air is
drawn in at the center, or ‘eye’ of a rapidly rotating vaned disc. Centrifugal action on the rotating
air mass forces it to the tips of the disc where it is flung off at high tangential velocity. Suitably
shaped stator blades receive this fast moving air stream and slow it down in such a manner as
to increase the pressure. About half of the pressure rise occurs in the rotor and the remainder in
the stator passages.
The two main elements of an axial flow compressor are the stator and the rotor. The rotor is
constructed with several rows of fixed blades which impart momentum to the air and force it
rearward. Following each row of rotor blades is a row of stationary stator blades.
An axial flow compressor draws in air from the atmosphere and moves it parallel to the
axis of rotation. The air is compressed in both the rotor and stator blade passages, by
continually diffusing the air flow from a high velocity to a low velocity, with a corresponding rise
in pressure. Each consecutive pair of rotor and stator blades constitutes a pressure stage.

Figure 2-4 Axial and Centrifugal Compressors

A typical axial flow compressor and gas turbine rotor are illustrated in Figure 2-5. The
first stage of the rotor, having the largest surface area, draws in the ambient air, increase it's
velocity, and pushes it to the first stage blades (or vanes) of the stator. By virtue of this
increased velocity, energy is transferred from the compressor rotor to the air in the form of
kinetic energy. The compressor stages continually reduce in size from inlet to outlet. As the
rotor blades ‘push’ the air into the stator passages, one stage of compression takes place; i.e.,
kinetic energy is transferred into pressure energy. The stator vanes are shaped to promote
smooth non-turbulent air flow through the compressor and to correctly position the air flow to the
next stage of rotating blades.
 Figure 2-5 Gas Turbine Rotor Assembly
Most axial flow compressors are designed to deliver air at pressures 10 to 15 times the inlet
pressure. The air flow requirement is also dependent on the physical size and speed of the
machine. The power to drive the compressor varies with air flow and pressure rise. At full load,
the compressor uses roughly two thirds the power produced by the turbine section. The
remaining power (one-third) is used to turn the generator and produce electricity. Therefore; a
one percent gain in compressor efficiency produces a two percent gain in load shaft output. It is
extremely important that the compressor blading be kept clean and maintained in good physical
condition so that maximum overall efficiency and capacity can be maintained at all times.
Compressor Surge and Stall
Power plant gas turbines are designed for continuous operation at synchronous speed to
achieve the correct frequency (Hz) output of the connected generator. Since the operating
speed of the gas turbine is held constant and very little deviation takes place, turbine
manufacturers are able to design the aerodynamics of the compressor blading to achieve
optimum efficiency at the specified synchronous speed. To achieve optimum aerodynamics, the
angle and aerofoil shape of the rotor and stator blades are precisely machined and set in place
such that the compression of air through the compressor is smooth and efficient.
During startup and shutdown of a gas turbine, the aerodynamics of the rotor and stator
blades do not promote a smooth progression of air through the compressor. This occurs, simply
because the shape and position of the blades is not conducive to low speed and low flow
conditions. As previously stated, power plant gas turbine compressors are designed for
operation at continuous synchronous speed.
Compressor surge results when the air flow stalls across the compressor blades; this is,
air is not smoothly compressed. Stalling may occur over a few blades or across one or more
stages. If enough air flow is interrupted, pressure may surge back through the compressor. This
occurrence may be minor, or it can be very severe with possible damage to the compressor. In
extreme cases, a stall can physically destroy the compressor blades, causing them to break
apart and eventually pass through the turbine, destroying the entire engine in a matter of
seconds. A compressor stall can be identified by one or several loud bangs followed by
excessive vibrations from the engine. Figure 2-6 illustrates the effects of air flow through a gas
turbine compressor during a compressor stall.

Figure 2-6 Compressor Stall/Surge

A key requirement of axial compressor design is the avoidance of compressor stall/surge
during partial speed operation. The two primary methods of preventing compressor stall/surge
are by; (1) controlling the in-flow of air to the compressor, and (2) bleeding air from the
compressor at one or more stages.
Controlling the in-flow of air to the compressor can be accomplished through the use of
variable inlet guide vanes (IGVs) and/or variable stator vanes (VSVs). Every gas turbine
compressor has a row of inlet guide vanes preceding the first stage of compressor blades. Refer
to Figure 2-7 below. In the fixed position, the purpose of the IGVs is to straighten the air flow
and direct it to the first stage of compressor blades. However, variable IGVs pivot axially and
their angle can be controlled to allow more or less air flow through the compressor. Likewise,
several stages of the compressor stator vanes can also be constructed in the same fashion.
During startup and shutdown, the IGVs and/or VSVs can be hydraulically modulated by the
turbine control system to limit air flow through the compressor, thus preventing a stall or surge
from occurring. Once the turbine is near synchronous speed, the blades are opened fully to the
normal operating position.
 Figure 2-7 Variable Inlet Guide Vanes (VIGV)

The use of interstage bleed valves is another method by which compressor stall/surge
can be prevented. In this method, manufactures construct the gas turbine compressor with
annular bleed ports at specific locations (stages). Typically, two or three stages are sufficient.
The bleed ports are each equipped with an open/closed valve which is controlled by the turbine
control system. During startup and shutdown, the valves are held open to bleed air from the
compressor, thus preventing a stall or surge from occurring. The discharged air is vented to the
atmosphere through a silencer, or in some cases it may be piped to the turbine exhaust and
directed onward through the stack. Once the turbine is near synchronous speed, the bleed
valves are closed and must remain closed during turbine operation.
IGVs For Temperature Control
During partial load operation in combined cycle configuration, gas turbine exhaust
temperature decreases as a result of decreased fuel consumption. The lower exhaust
temperature results in a decreased steam flow and temperature generated in the HRSG,
consequently leading to a drop in steam cycle efficiency.
In some gas turbine applications, the position of the variable inlet guide vanes can be
modulated during low load conditions to increase the turbine exhaust temperature. Closing
down on the IGVs at less than base load operation of the gas turbine, effectively ‘chokes’ the
engine somewhat, resulting in reduced cooling air flow through the hot gas sections of the
engine. In this respect, modulation of the IGVs can be used to increase turbine exhaust
temperature and thereby maintain steam production and superheat out of the heat recovery
steam generator.
IGV's:
2.3.3 Combustion Section
The combustion section is the area of the gas turbine engine where fuel is injected for
combustion. The injected fuel is very efficiently mixed (atomized) with the continuous flow of hot
compressed air discharged by the compressor. The resultant thermal energy from the
combustion section is directed to the nozzles and blades of the turbine section where shaft
horsepower is produced.
Various arrangements of the gas turbine combustion section are used by different
manufacturers. The four basic arrangements of combustion sections are:
• Can-Type Combustor
• Annular Combustor
• Can-Annular Combustor
• Silo Combustor
Can-Type Combustor
A can-type combustor consists of individual, cylindrical, combustion chambers mounted
outside, around the axis of the engine. Refer to Figure 2-8. This arrangement makes removing a
chamber easy. However, it is a bulky arrangement and consumes the largest amount of space
around the engine. Each combustion chamber consists of a thick metal housing and a thin metal
combustion liner. A transition piece routes air from the compressor discharge to the center of
the combustion chamber inlet.

Figure 2-8 Different Types of Combustion Sections

The combustion chamber liner is constructed with perforated cooling holes all along its length
and around its circumference. The inlet end of the liner provides mounting for a centrally located
fuel nozzle. As shown in Figure 2-8, the combustion liner fits inside the combustion chamber
housing and there is an intentional air gap between the two components. During operation, a
continuous flow of air from the compressor passes through and around the combustion chamber
liner. The air which passes through the liner is used for combustion. Simultaneously, a blanket
of secondary air flows around the periphery of the liner. The secondary air flow serves two
purposes; (1) is serves as cooling air to keep the liner and the chamber housing from
experiencing hot spots and overheating, and (2) a portion of the air passes through the
perforated holes of the liner to aid in ‘flame centering’ and to maintain a blanket of cooling air
between the flame and the inside of the liner.
The largest area of concern in any type of combustor is ‘hot spots’ and the resultant
thermal stress and damage to the affected components. Hot spots occur when a continuous
concentration of heat impinges on a specific area of the combustion chamber and/or liner. Hot
spots can result from insufficient cooling air flow to different areas of the combustion chamber,
or from uneven flame distribution within the chamber. For example, a plugged or dirty fuel
nozzle will produce a non-uniform flame which may impinge on the combustor liner to produce a
hot spot. Over a period of time, the affected area of the liner will erode until a hole is formed, at
which point sufficient cooling and flame centering cannot take place. It is for this reason that
much of the air supplied to the combustion section is used for cooling and flame centering, while
a smaller portion (25-30%) of the air is used for actual combustion.
The exposed construction of a can-type combustor provides ease of maintenance and
inspection. Replacement of fuel nozzles or combustor liners can be performed without major
disassembly of the gas turbine. The can-type combustor does however, consists of many
individual parts.
Annular Combustor
An annular combustor consists of undivided, inner and outer liners which extend around
the outside of the turbine shaft housing (Figure 2-8). The inner and outer liners form the
combustion chamber within the confines of the engine and are surrounded by a single outer
casing.
Similar to the can-type combustor, the inner and outer liners of an annular combustor
are constructed of thin metal with numerous perforated holes to allow for cooling and flame
centering. Several fuel nozzles are located circumferentially around the combustion chamber,
each discharging into a common open area.
Annular combustors function much the same way as can-type combustors; with the
primary difference being that several flames exist within a single open area rather than inside
individual cans. Because of their open area, annular combustors are very efficient and exhibit
minimal pressure losses between the compressor and turbine. In addition, annular combustors
promote uniform exhaust temperature profiles and uniform gas distribution to the turbine blades
and nozzles. There are some disadvantages however; on some engines, the liners are one
piece and cannot be removed without complete engine disassembly.
Can-Annular Combustor
 The can-annular combustor combines some of the features of both the can and the
annular combustors. In the can-annular type of chamber, individual cans are placed inside an
annular case. The cans are essentially individual combustion chambers (Figure 2-8) with
concentric rings of perforated holes to admit air for cooling and flame centering.
Depending on the size of the engine and the manufacturer, each combustion can of a
can-annular combustor can be equipped with single centrally located fuel nozzle, or several (6
to 8) fuel nozzles installed in a circular pattern at the front of the can. On cans with several fuel
nozzles, the center of the can is often constructed with a round perforated tube (Figure 2-8).
The center tube allows air distribution through its perforations to provide more air for
combustion, cooling, and flame centering. The effect is to permit more burning per inch of can
length than could otherwise be accomplished.
The short length of the can-annular type of chamber is a structural advantage. It
provides minimal pressure drop of the gases between the compressor outlet and the flame area.
Another advantage of the can-annular engine is the greater structural strength it gets from its
short combustor area. Maintenance on the cans is also easier than on that of an annular
combustor.
Silo Combustor
Silo type combustors are used on heavy duty industrial gas turbines. Asea Brown Boveri
(ABB) and Siemens are the only manufacturers’ which currently utilize the silo design. Silo
combustors are vertical mounted, very large combustion chambers, which resemble the
construction of a single can-type combustor. This arrangement has a high combustion efficiency
due to the large volume of the combustion chamber. Additionally, maintenance and inspection
of the combustion chamber is relatively simple in view of its large size and accessibility of the
components.

Figure 2-9 Silo Combustor

Ignition System
Regardless of its design or the type of combustion chambers used, the combustion
section of every gas turbine engine is equipped with an ignition system. The function of the
ignition system is to establish ignition of the fuel-air mixture in the combustion chamber(s)
during the gas turbine startup sequence.
The primary components of a gas turbine ignition system consists of one or two spark
ignitors or spark plugs, and a high voltage power source. The ignitors/plugs protrude into the
combustion chamber area and produce a high voltage spark when energized.
Ignition and Flame Distribution
Depending on the manufacturer and the size of the engine, every gas turbine undergoes
a specific start sequence during which ignition, combustion, and acceleration takes place.
Control systems are incorporated such that each phase of the startup sequence occurs at a
specific rpm, within a specified period of time, and that certain parameters are achieved (e.g.
temperature and rotational speed). Although each model of gas turbine is different, the basic
sequence of events for the startup of all gas turbine is essentially the same.
During a gas turbine startup, an external device (diesel engine/electric motor) is required
to begin rotation of the engine. As rotation begins, the compressor draws in air and begins
forcing it through the engine. As shaft speed increases, the volume of air flow through the gas
turbine engine also increases. At a specific rpm, a programmed ‘ignition sequence’ takes place.
During the ignition sequence, the spark ignitors are energized at a rate of two to three
pulses per second. Immediately following, the engine fuel valves are opened and fuel is
admitted through the fuel nozzles into the combustion section of the engine. The presence of
spark in the combustion section results in ignition of the fuel-air mixture. The flame spreads
throughout the combustion section until the fuel-air mixture at the discharge of every fuel nozzle
is ignited. In both the ‘can’ and ‘can-annular’ type combustors, crossover tubes, or flame tubes,
(Figure 2-8) provide distribution of flame between the chambers to ensure all are ignited. The
crossover tubes are necessary since only one or two of the combustion cans are equipped with
a spark ignitor.
Because gas turbines operate on a continuous compression and combustion cycle
(Brayton Cycle), the ignitors are no longer required once a flame has been established, and are
therefore de- energized. As the startup sequence continues, the starting device continually
increases the rotating speed of the gas turbine. At the same time, increased thermal energy
passes through the turbine section and the turbine begins to develop shaft horsepower. At a
certain point of the startup sequence, the turbine will develop enough horsepower to turn the
compressor without the aid of the starting device. Hence; the gas turbine is said to be at ‘self-
sustaining speed’. Once the gas turbine passes the point of self-sustaining speed, the starting
device is disengaged. The gas turbine continues to accelerate until it reaches idle speed.
2.3.4 Turbine Section
The turbine section of a gas turbine engine converts the thermal and kinetic energy of
the combustion gases, into rotational mechanical energy. In theory, design, and operating
characteristics, the turbines used in gas turbine engines are similar to those used in a steam
plant. Gas turbines, like steam turbines, use familiar impulse and reaction principles (Figure 2-
10). However; because gas turbines work with lower initial inlet pressures, they have fewer
stages and less change in blade height from inlet to exhaust. The gas turbine also differs from
the steam turbine in; (1) the type of blading material used, (2) the lower ratio of blade length to
wheel diameter.

Figure 2-10 Impulse and Reaction Turbine Blading

The turbine section of a gas turbine converts part of the thermal energy contained in the
hot gas into mechanical energy. Sufficient mechanical energy must be removed from the gas
stream to supply the power necessary to drive the gas turbine compressor, the unit auxiliaries,
provide for bearing frictional losses, and have enough excess power to drive the electric
generator.
The hot gas from combustion is delivered to the turbine section from the combustion
chambers. The temperature and flow of the hot gas is determined by generator load. The gas
temperature may range from 1,500°F to 2,450°F (816-1,343°C), depending on the design and
limitations of the gas turbine engine. While flowing through the turbine nozzles and buckets, the
gas loses both heat and pressure. When passing through the stages, the gas has given up
enough energy to turn the turbine rotor to provide the necessary mechanical power.
Generally, the turbine buckets (blades) are constructed with firtree-shaped dovetails that fit into
matching cutouts in the turbine rotor. Because each turbine stage is progressively taller in size,
the later stages are often constructed with interlocking shrouds at the blade tips to help stabilize
the bucket and increase turbine efficiency by minimizing tip leakage. Radial teeth on the bucket
shrouds combine with mating teeth on the stator to provide a labyrinth seal against gas leakage
past the bucket tips.
Figure 2-11 on the following page illustrates the second stage turbine buckets of a heavy
frame industrial gas turbine engine.

Figure 2-11 Second Stage Turbine Buckets

Similar to the turbine rotor stages, the turbine stator stages increase in size from inlet to
outlet to accommodate the expanding gas. Because a high pressure drop does occur across the
nozzles, labyrinth seals are provided along the inside diameter to prevent leakage; thus
assuring the gas flows through the nozzles and not around them. The outside diameter of the
nozzles are dynamically fixed to the turbine shell to provide for movement during thermal
transitions. Forward and aft movement of the nozzle rings is prevented by lugs that fit into
machined grooves of the turbine shell. Figure 2-12 illustrates a portion of the turbine shell and
the installed location of the third stage nozzle segments.
Figure 2-12 Third Stage Turbine Nozzles
Cooling
The primary factor that has contributed to increasing turbine output in the last two
decades has been an increase in turbine inlet temperature (firing temperature). Higher inlet
temperatures and increased mass flow through the turbine, result in increased power output.
These higher temperatures are made possible by improved blade and nozzle designs, better
materials, and improvements in cooling techniques.
The first stage nozzles and buckets are the first components of the turbine section that
come in contact with the high temperature gases flowing out of the combustion chambers. As
such, the first two or three stages of a gas turbine are often constructed with internal cooling air
passages that serve to cool the nozzles and buckets; thus preventing thermal stress and
metallurgical deterioration. The cooling air flow to the turbine components originates from the
compressor discharge. The compressed air is internally routed through the gas turbine and then
directed though the various internal cooling passages of the turbine nozzles and buckets. Once
through the cooling passages, the air is discharged into the hot gas flow path; passing through
the remainder of the turbine section and onward into the exhaust duct.
Figure 2-13 illustrates a typical air-cooled turbine nozzle. This particular nozzle design is
cooled by a combination of internal impingement and external film cooling. As illustrated, the
nozzle is hollow and equipped with cooling air holes on the leading and trailing edges.
Compressor discharge air enters the hollow base of the nozzle and impinges against the inside
of the nozzle walls. Next, the air exits into the gas path through the multitude of holes in the
nozzle wall; and in doing so, provides external film cooling to the nozzle. The discharged air
mixes with the gas flow path.
Figure 2-13 Air Cooled Nozzle
Figure 2-14 illustrates a row of air-cooled turbine buckets, typical of the first, and
sometimes second, stages of an industrial gas turbine. As shown, the buckets contain a series
of longitudinal air passages for bucket cooling. Air is introduced into each bucket through a
cavity between the wheel and the base of the bucket dovetail. The air flows through a series of
cooling holes spanning the bucket lengthwise and exits from these holes at each bucket tip. The
holes are spaced and sized to obtain optimum cooling of the airfoil with a minimum of airflow
extracted from the compressor.
Figure 2-14 Air Cooled Buckets
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LEADING EDGE HOLES TRAILING EDGE HOLES
 The degree of cooling required for a turbine stage is a function of turbine nozzle and
bucket metal temperatures. Gas turbines are produced with turbines having multiple stages,
ranging from two to five or more. The number of stages determines the energy recovered per
stage and consequently the temperature drop per stage. More energy recovery per stage and
temperature drop per stage occur as the number of stages is reduced. As a result, the average
turbine blade metal temperature is significantly lower for a gas turbine with few stages than
those having a greater number of stages.
Extraction air flow from the compressor for cooling can have a dramatic effect on the
efficiency and power output of a gas turbine. Greater extraction air flows reduce the mass of gas
flowing through the turbine. Since turbine developed power is directly proportional to mass flow,
and turbine power is roughly three times shaft output power; a one percent increase in
extraction flow results in a 3 percent decrease in useful output. Increased extraction flow will
dilute the main gas stream flow. The dilution of main gas stream flow lowers its temperature and
energy level. The result of a lower temperature and energy level is that final exhaust
temperature is reduced.
2.4 Gas Turbine Parameters and Efficiency
Operating parameters have a significant influence on gas turbine efficiency. Some
operating parameters are fixed by design of the turbine. Other parameters vary with operation,
regardless of the turbine design and vintage. The parameters considered in this section are:
Χ Compressor Pressure Ratio Χ Turbine Inlet Temperature Χ Exhaust Pressure and
Temperature Χ Ambient Air Temperature
Gas Turbine Compression Ratio
The compression ratio of a gas turbine’s compressor has the greatest influence on the
overall operational efficiency of the gas turbine. The compression of air by the gas turbine
compressor is the result of the compressor design, performance, and efficiency. The
relationship between a turbine’s compression ratio and the efficiency of the Brayton Cycle is
shown in Figure 2-15.
Figure 2-15 Brayton Cycle Efficiency vs. Pressure Ratio
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OPERATOR TRAINING MANUAL
 Early industrial gas turbines had pressure ratios of as little as 5 to 1. The latest industrial
gas turbine designs employ pressure ratios of 14 to 16 to 1, while aircraft derivative gas turbines
have pressure ratios as high as 22 to 1.
The gas turbine compression ratio is affected by the efficiency of the compressor. The
compressor consumes approximately 60 percent of the power output of the gas turbine. As a
result, if compressor performance deteriorates, the effect on gas turbine output and efficiency
will deteriorate. A one percent decrease in compressor efficiency will decrease turbine output by
almost two percent. Consequently, the condition of the compressor should be closely monitored
and corrective action taken as indicated. A common problem for compressors is dirty blades.
Corrective action in this case is cleaning the compressor without disassembly by admitting
special cleaning materials to the air inlet. Different gas turbine manufacturers have methods and
procedures for both ‘online’ and ‘offline’ compressor washing.
Turbine Inlet Temperature
The second most important parameter affecting the efficiency of the gas turbine is the
turbine inlet temperature. The turbine inlet temperature, also called the firing temperature, is the
temperature of the hot gas as it leaves the combustion section and before it enters the turbine.
The variation of gas turbine efficiency with turbine inlet temperature is not
straightforward. As the turbine inlet temperature is increased, the energy contained in the gas
increases. The hotter gas has more energy to do work during expansion through the turbine
than it would if it were at a lower temperature. As a result, higher firing temperatures can boost
turbine efficiency if the turbine exhaust temperature is not increased. In fact, the turbine exhaust
temperature generally does increase with increased firing temperature. The losses in the
Brayton Cycle increase as the exhaust temperature increases. The increased heat loss in the
exhaust gas and the inefficiency that results can be greater than the increase in turbine
efficiency, thus resulting in an overall decrease in gas turbine efficiency.
If the gas turbine operates in a combined cycle, an increase in exhaust temperature
does not represent a loss. In the combined cycle, the additional heat energy in the exhaust gas
can be captured in the HRSG and used to produce steam to drive the steam turbine. The higher
temperature exhaust gases can be used to increase the pressure, volume, and temperature of
the steam produced by the HRSG. Increased steam production increases the efficiency of the
Rankine Cycle. Thus, while higher gas turbine inlet temperatures may not benefit gas turbine
efficiency, the overall efficiency of the plant may increase.
Increased firing temperature has an impact upon the unit output as well as efficiency.
Output increases as the firing temperature increases. Maximum firing temperature corresponds
to maximum output. Since most power plant gas turbines are operated at base load, they are
most often operated in a temperature control mode that adjusts the fuel input to control firing
temperature at the maximum safe limit.
The limiting factor for firing temperature is the ability of the turbine hot gas components
to withstand the high temperatures without dangerous loss of strength or erosion. Early
industrial gas turbines had firing temperatures ranging from 1,100°F to 1,400°F (583-760°C).
The latest gas turbine designs have firing temperatures approaching 2,450°F (1,343°C). These
higher firing temperatures have been made possible through the use of special design features
in the hot gas path.
The hot gas path begins in the combustion section and ends at the turbine exhaust. The
first several stages of the blading (both stationary and rotating) are generally constructed of high
strength alloys and/or coated with special materials for corrosion and oxidation resistance.
Internal and external air cooling circuits are also required for the first few stages of blades and
stationary nozzles. These blades are generally hollow to allow cooling air to flow inside. Small
holes in the leading and trailing
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edges of the blades are often employed to allow cool air to flow over the outer surface of the
blades thus protecting them from the hot gases. Cooling air is typically drawn from the
compressor discharge or from individual compressor stages.
The most recently built, heavy-duty industrial gas turbines operate with firing
temperatures approaching 2,400°F (1,316°C). These turbines have thermal efficiency of over
35%. Gas turbine manufacturers are developing improved models with elevated firing
temperatures in the 2,500 to 2,600°F (1,371-1,426°C) range. Once available, these gas turbines
have a predicted simple cycle efficiency of over 40%.
Exhaust Temperature/Pressure
The exhaust gas pressure and temperature do not influence gas turbine efficiency in the
same sense that pressure ratio and firing temperature affect efficiency. The exhaust gas
conditions are determined by other factors such as firing temperature, pressure ratio, turbine
design, and the condition of the gas path. In general, the lower the pressure and temperature of
the exhaust, the greater the efficiency of the gas turbine.
The exhaust pressure is determined by the turbine inlet pressure, the design of the
turbine, and the design of the exhaust gas flowpath. The gas turbine is designed to expand the
gas to nearly atmospheric pressure. Low turbine exhaust pressure is desirable because the
lower the pressure at the turbine exhaust, the more efficient the turbine. The number of stages
in the turbine and the pressure drop (or expansion) experienced by the hot gas in each stage
determine the pressure at the turbine exhaust.
The temperature at the turbine exhaust is related to its pressure. For a fixed firing
temperature, the greater the expansion of the gas in the turbine (which can be measured as the
pressure ratio across the turbine), the lower the gas temperature at the turbine exhaust. Thus,
lower exhaust pressures yield lower temperatures. The pressure ratio across the turbine is
slightly less than the compressor pressure ratio. Thus, for a fixed firing temperature, as the
compressor pressure ratio increases, the exhaust gas temperature tends to decrease.
Ambient Air Temperature
Combustion turbine performance varies significantly with the pressure and temperature
of the ambient air. The pressure of the air is principally a function of the elevation (altitude) of
the plant site; the higher the elevation, the lower the pressure. Variations in pressure due to
weather changes are usually so small that they are not significant. Since the plant elevation is
fixed, the most significant component of site conditions is the temperature of the air, which may
vary from summer to winter.
Ambient air pressure and temperature affect the gas turbine efficiency because of their
effect on the density of the air. The gas turbine, also called a volumetric machine, has a certain
capacity that is expressed in terms of volume (usually in cubic feet per second). The density of
air decreases as temperature increases and/or pressure decreases. If the density of the air is
decreased, the mass flow is reduced even if the volumetric flow rate remains constant. The
reduction in mass flow occurs because there is less air in each cubic foot. Conversely, as the
density of the air increases (which occurs as the temperature decreases and/or pressure
increases), the mass flow increases. When ambient air temperature drops from 59°F to 0°F (15°
to –17°C), an approximate 12% increase in mass flow occurs through an axial flow compressor.
For most gas turbines, the compression ratio of the compressor increases slightly as the
ambient air temperature drops. During cool ambient conditions, a greater mass flow of air is
discharged from the gas turbine compressor. The increased flow of air provides additional air for
combustion as well as additional cooling air to the hot gas sections of the engine. Therefore,
more fuel can be burned and thus,
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more thermal energy is introduced to the turbine. The increase in thermal energy and mass flow
across the turbine section, results in increased shaft horsepower and increased electrical output
from the generator.
In any internal combustion engine, shaft horsepower is a product of how much fuel the
engine consumes; e.g. increasing fuel flow to the engine results in increased power output. In a
gas turbine engine, the turbine inlet temperature is the primary limiting factor as to how much
fuel can be admitted to the combustion section. Admitting too much fuel can exceed the design
firing temperature of the engine and result in severe thermal stress and eventual component
failure. If during the operation of a gas turbine, it was desired to maintain a specific turbine inlet
temperature and/or exhaust temperature; fuel flow to the gas turbine would change (vary) in
accordance with the changes in ambient temperature at the compressor inlet. The following
scenario illustrates this concept.
Referring to 2-16; turbine exhaust temperature is sensed by a temperature element (TE)
which provides a feedback signal to the fuel controller. If the controller were given a setpoint of
1000°F, it would modulate fuel flow to the gas turbine in an effort to maintain the turbine exhaust
temperature at 1000°F, regardless of ambient conditions. At any given ambient temperature, the
mass air flow through the compressor will be a specific, corresponding value. For example, at
cooler temperatures the mass flow will increase, while at warmer temperatures the mass flow
will decrease. Changes in mass air flow through the gas turbine, directly affect the amount of
cooling air that is available to the hot gas sections of the engine. If ambient temperatures
increase to 95°F (35°C), less cooling air is available, and thus fuel flow must be decreased in
order to prevent the turbine exhaust temperature from exceeding 1,000°F (537°C). As ambient
temperatures decrease, more cooling air is available to the hot gas sections, and thus fuel flow
can be increased to maintain the turbine exhaust temperature at the 1000°F (537°C) setpoint.
As previously mentioned, more fuel input equals more shaft horsepower. More shaft
horsepower equals increased electrical output from the generator. In general, cooler ambient
temperatures and increased fuel flow results in an increases of both the output and efficiency of
a gas turbine. For most gas turbines, a 23% increase in turbine output and a 5% increase in
thermal efficiency occurs when the ambient air temperature drops from 59°F to 0°F (15° to –
17°C).
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Figure 2-16 Fuel Control verses Ambient Conditions
OPERATOR TRAINING MANUAL
3.0 HEAT RECOVERY STEAM GENERATORS
3.1 Overview
In the simple cycle mode of operation, the temperature of the exhaust gas leaving a gas
turbine can be as high as 1,100°F (593°C), and flow rates can be as high as 3 million pounds
per hour. This high temperature gas represents a source of heat energy that can be recovered if
the means to do so are available. By recovering this waste heat, not only can the output of a
power plant be increased, but its overall efficiency will be greatly enhanced.
The means to recover some of the energy in the gas turbine exhaust gas is provided in a
combined cycle power plant. By installing a Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) at the
exhaust of the gas turbine, part of the heat energy available in the exhaust gas can be utilized to
produce steam which can then be used to drive a steam turbine to produce electricity.
In combined cycles, the HRSG provides the critical link between the gas turbine and the
steam turbine. HRSG designs have evolved from simple, single pressure HRSG's to more
complex arrangements involving three pressures, a reheat section, supplemental firing, NO
x

control
equipment, and condensate preheating to recover maximum heat from the exhaust gas.
Depending on the application, the HRSG may have two or three pressure levels, one stage of
reheat, and may supply process steam at an intermediate pressure to a chemical/process plant.
Various configurations of gas turbines, HRSG's and steam turbines are used, again depending
on factors like unit size, cost, reliability, throttle conditions, and spare parts requirements. An
examination of some of these features will help plant personnel to better understand their power
station.
3.2 Functional Description
The function of a heat recovery steam generator is to recover the waste heat available in
the exhaust gases from a gas turbine and transfer it to the water and steam contained in its
tubes. The heat recovered is used to generate steam at high pressure and high temperature,
which is then used to generate additional power in the steam turbine generator.
In combined cycle applications, it is typical to have HRSG's with two or three pressure
levels in order to capture as much of the heat from the flue gas as possible. The highest
pressure heat transfer sections are installed first in the flue gas path, followed by the lower
pressure heat transfer sections. A simplified illustration of a ‘three pressure’ HRSG is shown in
Figure 3-1. Similarly built ‘two pressure’ HRSGs operate on the same principle, although an
intermediate pressure circuit is not incorporated.
3.2.1 Steam/Water Flowpath
An HRSG is basically a heat exchanger composed of a series of superheater,
evaporator, and economizer sections. These sections are positioned from gas inlet to gas outlet
to maximize heat recovery from the gas turbine exhaust gas. The heat recovered in the HRSG
is used to generate superheated steam which is conditioned to a specific temperature for supply
to the steam turbine generator.
 In a typical combined cycle configuration, makeup water to the HRSG originates from
the condenser hotwell. Prior to the HRSG, the makeup condensate is utilized as a cooling
medium through the steam jet air ejector and gland steam condenser heat exchangers where it
gains thermal energy and is consequently pre-warmed. Additional pre-warming of the makeup
water occurs as the condensate passes through the HRSG low pressure economizers
(feedwater preheater) prior to entering the LP steam drum. Steam produced within the LP
drums is routed through an associated superheater and then to the LP steam turbine.
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Figure 3-1 HRSG Simplified Diagram
The LP steam drum provides a positive supply of preheated, deaerated water to the
HRSG feedwater pump. The feedwater pump shown above in Figure 3-1 is typical for this type
of installation; it is constructed with an interstage take-off which provides intermediate pressure
makeup water to the IP steam drum and IP spraywater to the reheat desuperheater. The final
discharge of the pump provides makeup feedwater to the HP steam drum and spraywater to the
HP steam desuperheater.
The bottom of the steam drums are each connected to a series of evaporator coils
located in the hot gas path of the HRSG. Together, the steam drums and their associated
evaporator coils generate steam through the absorption of thermal energy from the combustion
turbine exhaust. During operation, feedwater level in the drums is maintained near the drum’s
horizontal centerline. As steam is continuously discharged from the top of the drum, a
corresponding amount of preheated feedwater flows into the drum to maintain correct drum
level. Drum level is maintained by the respective level control valve.
The steam discharged from the steam drums is ‘saturated steam’ and must be
superheated before being routed to the steam turbine. As illustrated in Figure 3-1, each
pressure section of the HRSG is equipped with a ‘superheater’. The superheater tubes are
physically located in the hot gas flowpath and provide the necessary surface to increase the
steam temperature to a significant value above the corresponding saturation temperature. For
the HP and Reheat superheaters, a steam attemperator (desuperheater) is installed between
the primary and secondary superheaters to control the final steam temperature.
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3.2.2 Steam Generation
Preheated water is supplied to each of the steam drums from the outlet of the respective
economizers/ preheaters. Although the feedwater is preheated, it is still at a somewhat lower
temperature than the water inside the drum. Because the incoming water is cooler than the
drum water, it is more dense and therefore circulates downward. The cooler water ‘falls’
naturally into the downcomer pipes which are vertically routed down the outside of the HRSG
casing away from the gas turbine exhaust. Refer to Figure 3-2 at the right. The downcomers
route the falling water to the lower header of the respective evaporator sections. As illustrated in
Figures 3-1 and 3-2, each steam drum is equipped with an evaporator tube bundle.
Within the evaporator tubes, the water absorbs thermal energy from the gas turbine
exhaust. As the water is heated, it expands, becomes less dense, and flows upward through the
evaporator tubes. Cooler, denser water from the downcomers and the lower headers flows in to
take the place of the rising heated water, creating natural circulation between the steam drum
and evaporator coils. As the water is heated, steam bubbles begin to form resulting in a
steam/water mixture within the evaporator tubes. By the time the mixture reaches the top of the
evaporator, a high percentage of the mixture is saturated steam. Riser tubes carry the
steam/water mixture from the upper evaporator headers to the steam drum.
The rising steam/water mixture enters the bottom of the steam drum, upon which, it’s
passage is confined by the presence of an internal circumferential baffle (Figure 3-3). As the
steam/water mixture flows upward to escape the confined area of the baffle, a spinning or
centrifugal motion is induced on the mixture. Due to the inertia effect, the heavier droplets of
water fall out of the steam flowpath and return to the water within the drum; while the steam
rises to the top of the drum toward the outlet penetrations. Before existing the drum, the steam
passes through a steam separator (chevron drier) where any remaining moisture and impurities
are removed.
As steam is continuously discharged from the top of the drum, a corresponding amount of
feedwater flows into the drum to maintain correct drum level. Makeup water flow into each drum
is controlled by a corresponding level control valve (LCV). During operation, feedwater level in
each drum is maintained near the drum’s horizontal centerline.
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Figure 3-2 Steam Generation
Figure 3-3 Basic Steam Drum Components
3.2.3 Superheated Steam
Superheating of saturated steam has several advantages. First, superheated steam is
much drier than saturated steam and therefore causes relatively little corrosion or erosion of
downstream piping and components. Also, superheated steam does not conduct heat as
rapidly, and therefore does not loose heat as rapidly, as saturated steam. If saturated steam
were sent through the long steam header en route to the steam turbine, much of the steam
would condense into water before it arrived. Superheated steam on the other hand, remains
fairly stable through long piping runs, experiencing very little condensation. The steam
requirements of the steam turbine require that each source contain sufficient superheat such
that the steam does not approach a saturated state at the final stages of the turbine. Doing so
could result in severe water impingement damage to the turbine blading.
3.2.4 Gas Side Flowpath
Steam temperature from any particular section of the HRSG can never be higher than
the gas temperature entering that section. This is because transfer of heat requires a
temperature differential in the direction of heat transfer. The hottest gases flow across the HP
section of the HRSG. Once through the HP section, the gases are still at relatively high
temperatures and can be used to generate more steam, although at a lower pressure. This is
done in the LP and/or IP sections of the HRSG which operate at a lower pressure; yet provide
addition power generation from the steam turbine generator.
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3.3 HRSG Characteristics and Design Considerations
3.3.1 HRSG Geometry
The majority of the heat transfer surfaces within an HRSG use finned tubes (Figure 3-4)
to increase their heat transfer area. If the fuel being burned is clean, high fins with high fin
densities are used. For natural gas, it is normal to use 6 fins per inch, having a height of 0.75
inches (19.05 mm). For less clean fuels like No. 2 oil, it is necessary to reduce the fin height and
density to reduce the possibility of soot buildup and excessive fouling. Higher fins and fin
densities increase the heat flux and tube wall temperatures. This affects the selection of tube
and fin material, and also the circulation design for natural circulation evaporators.
Figure 3-4 Heat Transfer Tubes
One of the principal issues which affects combined cycle efficiency is gas turbine
exhaust pressure. Increasing the pressure against which the gas turbine must operate,
decreases its output and efficiency. Minimum back-pressure at the outlet of the gas turbine
engine promotes maximum efficiency.
The pressure at the gas turbine exhaust is the same as the pressure at the HRSG inlet.
Tube size, tube pitch, and tube orientation are all critical factors which affect the exhaust gas
velocity and pressure drop through the HRSG.
Heat transfer in the HRSG is principally convective heat transfer. The effectiveness of
convective heat transfer is partially dependant on velocity; i.e. higher velocities result in higher
rates of heat transfer. If the turbine exhaust pressure at the inlet of the HRSG were increased,
the velocity of the exhaust gas through the HRSG tube bundles would increase. Thus, HRSG
efficiency can be improved by increasing the gas turbine exhaust pressure. This however, is the
opposite of what is desirable for gas turbine efficiency. Increasing the pressure against which
the gas turbine must operate, decreases its output and efficiency.
Gas side pressure drop is critical for optimum gas turbine performance. If the pressure
drop through the HRSG is higher than expected, gas turbine performance will deteriorate. In
each combined cycle application, the HRSG is matched to the associated gas turbine so that
the relationship between the turbine exhaust pressure and the pressure drop across the HRSG
is balanced.
Instrumentation is generally provided for monitoring the pressure losses through the
HRSG. If a high differential pressure is noted, the gas turbine should be shutdown and the fins
of the heat transfer sections checked for excessive accumulation of carbon and soot deposits.
The fins can be cleaned using a high pressure sprayer, in combination with a cleaning solution
recommended by the HRSG manufacturer. The heat transfer surfaces of some HRSGs are
constructed of stainless steel, and per manufacturer instructions, they can be run dry with no
water/steam flow. Dry running is effective in removing soot buildup.
3.3.2 Exhaust Gas Considerations
In order to optimize the performance of the HRSG for combined cycle applications, it is
essential that each pressure section generate superheated steam. The pressure and
temperature of steam that can be generated is a function of the temperature and quantity of
exhaust gases leaving the gas turbine.
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 Higher pressure steam has a higher saturation temperature, and consequently needs to
be heated up to that temperature to convert to steam. This high pressure steam then needs to
be heated to a higher temperature to have a certain degree of superheat to avoid excessive
moisture formation in the lower stages of the steam turbine. If the steam is not superheated
enough at the turbine throttle, it will start condensing at an early stage and will contain
unacceptable quantities of moisture by the time it exits the last stages of the steam turbine.
The amount of steam that can be generated in the HRSG is a function of the total heat
available in the exhaust gases, which depends on their quantity and temperature. One way of
ensuring that the steam generated in the HRSG has a high enough superheat temperature is to
maximize the temperature of the exhaust gases. This can be accomplished in many different
ways depending on the capabilities and limitations of the gas turbine; however, the simplest
method is to maintain the gas turbine at base load operation. This will achieve maximum
electrical output from the generator, and maximum exhaust gas temperature output from the
gas turbine.
When the gas turbine is operated at partial loads, the exhaust gas temperature will likely
decrease due to the fact that the air flow rate remains the same but fuel input to the turbine is
decreased. Under such conditions, the superheat steam temperature tends to decrease.
Consequently, there is an increased probability of higher moisture content in the lower stages of
the steam turbine.
If the gas turbine is provided with variable inlet guide vanes (VIGV), they can be
modulated during operation to reduce airflow to the compressor at low loads to help alleviate
this problem. By reducing air flow at low loads, the temperature of the gas turbine exhaust gas,
and consequently steam temperature, is maintained at design levels over a greater range.
3.3.3 Duct Firing
Another way of maintaining proper superheat out of an HRSG, is to have a duct burner
installed in the gas turbine exhaust duct. Supplementary firing of a second fuel directly in the
gas turbine exhaust with a duct burner yields important advantages, especially since the
exhaust has enough oxygen to sustain good combustion. With supplemental firing, the
maximum steam temperature from a HRSG can be controlled independently of the gas turbine
exhaust gas temperature. In addition, steam production from the HRSG can be increased.
Duct burners are generally capable of firing the same fuel as the gas turbine, or in some
applications, more than one type of fuel. During periods of low gas turbine load the duct burner
can be fired to raise steam pressure and superheat. Typically, HRSG's with duct fired burners
are not as efficient as unfired HRSG's because the fuel fired in the HRSG duct does not perform
work in the gas turbine.
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3.3.4 Stack Temperature
The effectiveness of a HRSG is highly dependent upon the stack temperature. This is
true, since the amount of heat lost through the stack is considerably higher than from all the
other losses combined. Therefore, the emphasis is to lower the stack temperature as much as
possible. Lowering of stack temperature can be achieved by:
• Increasing the surface area of the heat transfer sections within the HRSG.
• Lowering the temperature difference between the exhaust gas and the last component of heat
transfer surface (LP economizer / preheater) within the HRSG.
• Decreasing the operating steam pressure. However, steam turbine or process steam
requirements may preclude this possibility.
Theoretically, it is possible to reduce the stack temperature to within 20 to 25°F (10-
12°C) of feedwater inlet temperature. A more practical approach is to maintain stack
temperature between 225 and 280°F (107-138°C). Operating with too low of a stack
temperature may have the following detrimental consequences:
• HRSG may require excessive surface area to extract the last BTU's resulting in excessive
capital cost.
• Excessive surface area in the HRSG will increase the gas pressure drop. Additionally, colder
exhaust gas could cause a loss of draft in the stack. The loss of draft will increases the back
pressure on the gas turbine.
Acid Dewpoint Corrosion
In addition to the above, there are practical limits to how much the gas temperature may
be reduced. The most significant of these limits is with respect to the ‘acidic constituents’ of the
fuel.
Most HRSGs built today are equipped with a means (a pump) of re-circulating preheated
makeup water back through the LP economizer/preheater. The purpose of re-circulating water
through the economizer is to protect the external surfaces of the economizer from corrosive
attack. This type of attack can occur when acidic constituents of the turbine exhaust gas are
cooled to a point at which they condense into vapor droplets. The most prevalent acidic
constituents are sulfur oxides (SO
2

/ SO
3

)
which are a combustion product of any sulfur contained in the gas turbine fuel. If the turbine
exhaust is allowed to cool below a certain value, the SO
2

/ SO
3

will combine with water vapor and condense into

tiny droplets of acidic vapor. By keeping the flue gas above a minimum temperature, acidic
condensation of the exhaust gas constituents is prevented; thus protecting the LP economizer
and HRSG exhaust stack from acid dewpoint corrosion.
In some HRSGs, the last heat transfer sections are made of corrosion resistant stainless
steel as a precaution. Stainless steel is used in the construction of these heat transfer sections
since they are the most likely to be subject to condensation and attack by acid.
3.3.5 Bypass Stack And Damper
In some combined cycle arrangements, a bypass stack and damper are provided at the
outlet of the gas turbine, prior to the HRSG. At some facilities, the damper can be modulated to
allow a portion of the turbine exhaust to pass through the HRSG for warm-up purposes. The
installation of a bypass damper has several advantages including the ability to run the gas
turbine in simple cycle mode, and to
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allow the gas turbine to be brought up to load independently and faster than the HRSG or steam
turbine. By allowing the gas turbine to be operated in the simple cycle mode, it becomes
possible to increase the availability of the gas turbine cycle, even if the steam cycle is out of
service for maintenance.
3.3.6 Stress and Fatigue
As steam temperatures and pressures are elevated to maximize combined cycle
efficiency, the HRSG's must be designed to handle these conditions. Thermal stresses are
particularly important because the system must retain its rapid start-stop and load cycling
capabilities. During startup and shutdown of the gas turbine, significant changes occur in both
the mass flow and thermal energy being directed through the HRSG. Also, combined cycle
plants usually operate in the sliding pressure mode, meaning that drum pressure and steam
flow vary (follow) gas turbine load. Over a period of time, the resulting transients can impart
stress and fatigue to the HRSG components resulting in eventual failure.
3.3.7 Blowdown
As steam is produced, any impurities that may be present in the makeup feedwater are
left behind in the steam drums. These impurities are generally concentrated in the upper 4 to 6
inches of the drum water level and must be continuously removed to prevent excessive
accumulation. For this purpose, steam drums are typically equipped with a continuous
blowdown header which extends internally across the length of the drum, just below the normal
water level. The rate of continuous blowdown is controlled by throttling an isolation valve in an
effort to maintain water chemistry requirements.
The continuous removal of blowdown water from a steam drum represents a loss of
thermal energy from the system; and hence, a reduction in cycle efficiency. One way to
minimize theses losses in through the use of a ‘cascading’ continuous blowdown piping
arrangement. That is; blowdown water from the high pressure steam drum passes to the low
pressure steam drum where it flashes and steam is recovered. Once inside the LP drum, all of
the impurities rise to the surface of the water and are then discharged through the LP
continuous blowdown piping to the HRSG blowdown tank.
3.3.8 Selective Catalytic Reduction
SCR involves the injection of ammonia into the flue gas upstream of a catalyst structure. NO
x

i
s catalytically reduced to nitrogen and water. The need for Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
can have a significant effect on the way an HRSG is designed and operated.
To meet the requirements of the catalytic process, the SCR is usually sandwiched in
between the HRSG components. Location depends upon matching the process temperature
window of the catalyst with the proper window in the HRSG. The HRSG temperature profile is a
moving target, however, that depends upon gas turbine load and ambient air conditions. Gas
velocities through the SCR portion of the HRSG need to be adjusted to meet the residence time
requirements for NO
x
reduction reactions.
Other considerations include proper control of ammonia injection and mixing with turbine
exhaust. The ammonia injection grid may have to be located relatively far from the catalyst
structure. Also, if sulphur is present in the fuel, and as SO
3

in the exhaust, it can react with ammonia to form

ammonium bi- sulfate which can promote rapid corrosion of downstream heat transfer tubes.
Provisions for water washing the cold section of an HRSG with SCR should be considered
where this is a problem.
SCR in HRSG's may also limit operational flexibility. Supplemental firing can drastically
change the temperature profile throughout the HRSG and turndown of the gas turbine must be
accomplished while maintaining the exhaust in the correct temperature range. It may be difficult
to meet emissions limits if turbine exhaust is bypassed around the HRSG. Additionally, as
required NO
x

removal
efficiencies go up, it becomes more difficult to optimize the SCR process.
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4.0 STEAM TURBINES
Steam turbines convert the heat energy of steam into rotational mechanical energy. The
mechanical energy of the steam turbine is then used to produce electrical energy from a
generator. The steam turbine-generator is, by itself, a very simple machine with few moving
parts. This is desirable because it allows the steam turbine-generator to have very good
reliability. It is not unusual for a steam turbine-generator to operate continuously for more than a
year without shutdown.
4.1 Turbine Principles
The power plant is often described as an energy conversion factory in which the
chemical energy in the fuel is transformed in a series of steps into electrical energy, with the
turbine-generator as one part of the power plant. The function of the steam turbine is to convert
the energy in superheated high pressure steam from the boiler or HRSG, into mechanical
energy. It is common to refer to the energy conversion that occurs in the turbine as happening in
a single step. The conversion of energy in the turbine actually occurs in two steps. First, the
heat energy in the steam is converted into kinetic energy of a steam jet by nozzles. Second, the
steam jets are used with buckets or blades mounted on a rotor to produce a mechanical force
and torque. This section describes both of these processes.
4.1.1 Nozzles and Their Principles
A steam turbine nozzle is a device that converts heat energy of steam into kinetic energy
(energy of motion) by expanding the steam. A simplified, convergent nozzle of the type most
often used in steam turbines is shown at the right in Figure 4-1.
Assume that steam at temperature T
1

and pressure P
1

enters a convergent nozzle. The higher the pressure and temperature, the more thermal
energy is in the steam. The steam is moving at velocity V
1

before entering the nozzle. The steam leaves the nozzle at a

lower pressure and temperature, T
2

and P
2

but at a higher velocity, V

2

. This is because some of the heat energy in

the steam has been converted into energy of motion, called kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is a
function of the square of velocity; therefore, as the velocity increases, so does the kinetic
energy.
Figure 4-1 - Convergent Nozzle
The ratio of the pressure upstream and downstream of the nozzle is critical in the
efficient operation of the nozzle. It is designed to operate with a constant pressure ratio for best
efficiency in energy conversion. If turbine conditions change the pressure ratio, inefficiency
results. Also, if changes to the nozzle such as erosion occur, the design is upset and
inefficiency results. Common problems with nozzles which occur in operation are erosion from
debris in the steam and deposits from contamination of the steam.
4.1.2 Basic Turbine Types and Principles
The kinetic energy in a jet of steam is not useful as it is. The nozzle by itself cannot
convert the energy in the steam to useful mechanical energy. There are two basic turbine types:
impulse and reaction. Both use nozzles and rotor buckets (also called blades), but in different
ways.
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Impulse Turbine
Figure 4-2 illustrates the basic concept of an impulse turbine. As illustrated, a steady jet
of high velocity steam is directed toward a turbine wheel. The impulse of the steam velocity
acting against the turbine blades causes the wheel to rotate.
Figure 4-3 further illustrates the operating principles of an impulse turbine. Steam enters
an impulse turbine through a stationary nozzle that expands the steam and creates a steam jet.
The steam jet strikes the rotor buckets (blades). Each set of nozzles and rotor buckets is called
a stage. The graph in Figure 4-3 illustrates that all the pressure drop in the stage occurs at the
nozzles, and the velocity and volume of the steam increase in the nozzles.
Within an impulse turbine, the expanded steam strikes the buckets forcing them to rotate
and reducing the velocity of the jet of steam. The force of the steam on the buckets produces
the mechanical energy needed to turn the generator. This mechanical energy comes from the
jet of steam which has its velocity reduced considerably.
In large modern power plants, there is considerable thermal energy in each pound of
steam delivered to the turbine. It is impractical and inefficient to build a single nozzle and rotor
large enough to convert all the steam's thermal energy into useful work. Therefore, large
modern turbines are usually multi-staged, with each stage converting part of the steam's thermal
energy to mechanical energy. In a basic multi-staged steam turbine, steam enters through the
first stage nozzle, which converts part of the thermal energy in the steam into kinetic energy.
The steam jet from the first stage nozzle strikes the first stage rotor buckets. After leaving the
first stage rotor buckets, the steam passes through the second stage nozzle. Some of the
remaining thermal energy is then converted to kinetic energy. The second stage rotor buckets
are forced to rotate by the steam jet leaving the second stage nozzles.
Impulse turbines can be multi-staged in two ways. One of these ways is referred to as
the Rateau (or pressure compounded) stage. A Rateau turbine consists of a series of nozzles
and buckets; with each set of nozzles and buckets making up one stage. The turbine illustrated
in Figure 4-3 is an example of a four stage, pressure compounded, impulse turbine. As shown,
the steam pressure in a series of Rateau stages drops in steps through each set of nozzles.
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Figure 4-2 Impulse Concept
Figure 4-3 Impulse Principles
 The second way that impulse turbine stages may be arranged is the Curtis (or velocity
compounded) stage shown in Figure 4-4. A velocity compounded stage has one set of nozzles
with two or more rows of moving buckets. There are stationary buckets between each row of
moving buckets. Each set of nozzles and buckets makes up one stage.
In passing from the nozzle exit through one set of buckets, the velocity of the steam
decreases because of the work it does on the buckets. The steam then passes through a row of
stationary buckets that change the direction of the steam without changing its pressure or
speed. The new steam direction is approximately parallel to the original steam direction leaving
the nozzles. The steam then strikes a second row of buckets that are attached to the same
wheel as the first row. This process may be repeated through as many as four rows of moving
buckets in one stage. Most Curtis stages, however, are limited to two rows of moving buckets.
Figure 4-4 also shows that in an ideal Curtis stage, the entire pressure drop occurs
through the nozzle, and the pressure remains constant across the buckets. This is a
characteristic of impulse turbines. The velocity, on the other hand, drops in steps as it passes
through the moving buckets.
In a sense, Curtis staging is not multi-staging. This is because, as pointed out above, no
matter how many rows of moving buckets a Curtis stage has, it is still only one stage. It is
possible, however, to have a second Curtis stage behind the first.
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OPERATOR TRAINING MANUAL
Figure 4-4 Curtis Impulse Turbine
 Many old, multistage, impulse turbines consist of both Rateau (pressure compounded)
and Curtis (velocity compounded) stages. Usually, the first stage (and sometimes the second
stage) is a velocity compounded stage with two rows of moving buckets on its wheel. The
remaining stages are then pressure compounded stages as shown in Figure 4-5. Newer
turbines seldom use Curtis staging, however, otherwise the multi-staging is the same. It is not
unusual to have as many as 20 stages in an impulse turbine.
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Figure 4-5 Combination of Curtis and Rateau Stages
OPERATOR TRAINING MANUAL
Reaction Turbines
Figure 4-6 illustrates the basic operating principles of an ideal reaction turbine. The
turbine rotor is forced to turn by the active force of the steam jet leaving the nozzle. In an ideal
reaction turbine, the moving buckets would be the only nozzles. Therefore, all the steam
expansion would occur in the moving buckets. This is impractical in large turbines because it is
difficult to admit steam to moving nozzles. Thus, large turbines use fixed nozzles to admit steam
to moving nozzles. Therefore, practical, large reaction turbines use a combination of impulse
and reaction principles.
The rotary lawn sprinkler is an example of a “pure” reaction turbine. In practice, so called
pure reaction turbines are seldom used, and are never used in practical utility turbines. Practical
reaction turbines are a combination of reaction and impulse. There are stationary nozzles just
as there are for impulse turbines. There are also rotating nozzles, not of the sort one might
expect from the figure of the simple reaction turbine.
The typical reaction turbine has stationary nozzles and moving nozzles. The moving
nozzles are created by varying the cross section of the openings between adjacent buckets
(usually called blades in such turbines) as shown in Figure 4-7. Reaction turbines can be
classified by the percentage of the energy conversion that occurs in the moving nozzles.
Typically, turbines that are called reaction turbines have about 50% reaction and 50% impulse.
Turbines which use a combination of impulse and reaction principles are often referred to simply
as reaction turbines to distinguish them from the impulse turbines.
There are rotating blades (similar to impulse turbine buckets) in the practical reaction
turbine and the profile of the blades is such that the passages between adjacent blades form
nozzles, as shown in Figure 4-7, in which the stationary nozzles are shown at the top and the
moving blades are below.
One practical result of this design is that, unlike impulse turbines, there is a pressure
drop across the moving row of blades by design, that is P2, the pressure between the nozzles
and the blades is higher than the pressure downstream of the blades, P3. This results in a force
being imposed upon the rotor in the downstream direction, unlike the impulse turbine.
Accordingly, one characteristic of reaction turbines is high thrust loading that requires special
design features to make reasonable sized thrust bearings practical.
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Figure 4-7 Reaction Turbine Stage
Figure 4-6 Reaction Nozzles
 Figure 4-8 shows a series of reaction turbine stages. Each stage consists of a set of
fixed nozzles and a set of moving nozzles. The pressure drop occurs over both the fixed and
moving nozzles. Reaction turbines are multi-staged by alternating sets of fixed and moving
nozzles. Each pair of fixed and moving nozzles makes up one stage.
Figure 4-9 Combination; Curtis and Reaction Turbine
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Figure 4-8 Reaction Turbine Characteristics
OPERATOR TRAINING MANUAL
4.1.3 Classification of Turbines
In the previous section, turbine theory and the two basic turbine types were described.
Impulse and reaction turbines can be further divided into a large variety of types using important
characteristics. Each of the six characteristics discussed below is applicable to both impulse
and reaction turbines. These characteristics are:
• Condensing vs. Non-Condensing
• Extraction vs. Non-Extraction
• Single Pressure vs. Multiple Pressure
• Reheat vs. Non-Reheat
Condensing vs. Non-Condensing
One characteristic for classifying steam turbines is whether they are condensing or non-
condensing. In a condensing turbine, the steam is exhausted into a condenser. By condensing
the steam, the turbine exhaust pressure and temperatures can be very low. Low exhaust
pressure allows the turbine to make maximum use of the thermal energy in the steam and
makes the power plant more efficient. Nearly all large steam turbines are of the condensing
type.
In non-condensing turbines, the exhaust steam is not condensed. Instead, the exhaust
steam is often collected in a piping system and used for another process. In this application, the
steam turbine can provide an efficient method of reducing high pressure steam to low pressure
steam; i.e, pressure letdown device. If a non-condensing turbine exhausts to a pressure greater
than atmospheric pressure, it is referred to as a backpressure unit. The implementation of this
type of turbine is becoming common at larger cogeneration facilities which provide low/medium
pressure steam to a steam host.
Extraction vs. Non-Extraction
A second way turbines can be classified is by extraction or non-extraction. Extraction
turbines are sometimes called "bleeder" turbines. An extraction turbine is a multi-stage turbine
where some of the steam is exhausted from, or bled, between turbine stages at extraction
points. This extraction steam may be used for feedwater heating, or as an alternate source of
LP steam to the plant, or many other purposes.
Single Pressure vs. Multiple Pressure
Most turbines have steam admitted to the first stage from a single source. Some turbines
have steam at a lower pressure admitted to the steam path at some point after the first stage.
This arrangement is common in steam turbines used in combined cycle plants because it is
common to have Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HRSG's) that operate with more than one
pressure.
Reheat vs. Non-Reheat
A third way that turbines can be classified is reheat or non-reheat. A reheat turbine is a
multistage turbine in which the steam is directed from some intermediate stage of the turbine
back to the boiler. In the boiler, the steam is reheated and then piped back to the turbine. Some
large turbines return the steam to the boiler to be reheated a second time. This is called a
double reheat turbine. There are two advantages to reheating steam. First it makes the power
plant more efficient thermodynamically. Second, it delays the start of steam condensation in the
turbine. Nearly all modern large steam turbines use reheat.
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5.0 INTEGRATED COMBINED CYCLE OPERATION
Combined cycle plant operations vary significantly from traditional Rankine Cycle power
plants. Although standard operational considerations are given to the balance of plant support
systems, specific considerations must be given to the combustion turbine, heat recovery steam
generator (HRSG), and steam turbine.
5.1 Normal Startup
Prior to unit startup, all support systems, power sources, and control devices must be
checked and aligned for operation. Typically, these checks depend on individual station
operating procedures and requirements, but may include such areas as correct valve alignment,
correct power supply breaker positions, returning tagged out equipment to service, aligning
control systems for startup/operation, and ensuring all safety equipment is in place and
functional.
Upon successful completion of the necessary pre-start checks, the unit can be started
and brought up to base load operation. The operational sequence for a combined cycle plant
startup consists of the following major steps:
1. Placing the necessary balance of plant support systems in operation such as compressed air,
circulating water, condensate, boiler feed, etc.
2. Starting the combustion turbine/HRSG.
3. Generating steam.
4. Starting the steam turbine.
5. Increasing unit load.
5.1.1 Combustion Turbine Startup
Combustion turbine generators are provided with digital control systems which are
programmed to sequentially start the unit and place it in service; generally at the push of a
button. The control system also starts and stops base mounted and auxiliary equipment which
supplies cooling, lubrication, fuel and protection for the combustion turbine and the associated
generator. Once a start command is initiated, the control system progresses through an
automatic sequence to bring the combustion turbine generator from a standstill condition to a
pre-selected point of operation, i.e. synchronized and electrically loaded.
Although each combustion turbine manufacturer provides control systems programmed
with full automatic start capabilities, it is extremely important for operating personnel to be
familiar with the start sequence and to be aware of the key operating parameters. Once a start
command is initiated, the combustion turbine starting device will spin the turbine to a specified
speed to purge the HRSG of combustible gases. The combustion turbine is maintained at the
purge speed for a specified length of time to allow 3 to 4 exchanges of air in the HRSG casing
structure. Upon completion of the purge, the starting device will de-energize/disengage allowing
the combustion turbine to coast down in preparation for the startup sequence, i.e. ignition,
acceleration, synchronization, and loading.
During the startup sequence, once the turbine increases to ignition speed, the Operator
should closely monitor flame presence, rate of acceleration, and combustion temperature.
Combustion temperature is typically monitored as either the turbine inlet temperature, turbine
outlet temperature, or both. Combustion turbine control systems are programmed to control fuel
flow to the combustor to continuously accelerate the turbine without exceeding a specific turbine
inlet or exhaust gas temperature.
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 During a normal startup, the combustion temperature will increase at a somewhat
gradual rate. If, however, the combustion temperature increases at an extremely accelerated
rate, the Operator should not hesitate to trip turbine. This may indicate a control system
malfunction or a malfunction within the regulation of fuel flow to the turbine. As an overall
protective function, the control system will trip the turbine if the turbine inlet or exhaust
temperature exceeds a specific setpoint.
During the acceleration period of the startup, the turbine inlet and exhaust temperatures
will be much greater than when the unit is at idle speed. In particular, a critical period in which
over-temperature damage can occur during the startup phase is before the turbine reaches
governing speed. During this period of the startup, air flow through the turbine has not yet
increased to a point where the turbine is able to accelerate away from excess fuel. As the
turbine approaches idle speed, i.e. the increased rotational speed results in the compressor
forcing more air through the turbine, the turbine inlet and exhaust gas temperature will decrease
to a normal operating value. Because an excess amount of heat is required to accelerate
combustion turbines to idle speed, one start deteriorates the equivalent of 20 - 30 hours of
normal operational life to the hot gas path components.
Once the combustion turbine reaches idle speed, the generator may be synchronized to
the grid. With automatic generator synchronization selected, the control system will read,
compare, and adjust turbine-generator speed and generator voltage to match system
requirements. The generator is then connected to the system by closure of the generator
breaker. Synchronization of the turbine-generator unit to the distribution system can be
automatic, as stated above, or manual. In either case, relaying and control components
compare and display on the control panel, critical information useful in the proper connection of
the generator to the system.
In the manual synchronization mode, the Operator adjusts turbine-generator speed and
generator voltage before closing the breaker. Manual loading can be accomplished by gradually
increasing the speed setpoint from either the control system CRT, or from the generator control
panel. Manufacturers generally deliver "maximum loading rate" specifications with each
combustion turbine generator. At a maximum, combustion turbine load should never be
changed more than 25% of full load in any one minute period.
5.1.2 HRSG Startup
The HRSG, located at the exhaust end of the combustion turbine, efficiently utilizes the
excess thermal energy in the combustion turbine exhaust gases to generate high pressure,
superheated steam. Because of its location, the HRSG is automatically placed in operation in
conjunction with the combustion turbine.
In some combined cycle plants, a bypass stack and damper is installed between the
combustion turbine and the HRSG. In the bypass configuration, exhaust gases from the turbine
can be diverted directly to the atmosphere instead of passing through the HRSG. Regardless of
the specific combustion turbine/HRSG arrangement, similar considerations are applicable the
startup and operation of all HRSGs.
The HRSG must be prepared for operation prior to initiating a start of the combustion
turbine. Preparing the HRSG for operation consists of following evolutions:
• Filling and venting the feedwater heater
• Establishing deaerator water level and steam pressure
• Filling and venting the economizers
• Establishing steam drum water level
• Opening the superheater and reheater vents and drains
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 When starting the combustion turbine and HRSG from cold conditions, a focus of
primary concern must be placed on the operation of the HRSG and its limited physical ability to
withstand a rapid increase of temperature. If combustion turbine load, i.e. exhaust gas
temperature, is increased at an accelerated rate, excessive thermal stress is induced on the
pressure sections of the HRSG. If the combustion turbine exhaust gas temperature is increased
significantly above the HRSG tube metal temperatures, steam/water hammering and metal
fatigue will result. Therefore, upon synchronization to the electrical grid, the combustion turbine
must be maintained at a minimum megawatt load until the HRSG is sufficiently warmed and the
temperatures of each pressure section have stabilized.
A simplified schematic of a single pressure, reheat HRSG is illustrated in Figure 5-1. As
illustrated, the HRSG feedwater heater is located at the back of the casing structure, near the
exhaust gas exit to the stack. This location is ideal for the intended purpose of the feedwater
heater, which is to utilize the remaining thermal energy from the combustion turbine exhaust to
preheat feedwater en route to the deaerator. When designing a HRSG, the manufacturer
calculates, constructs, and locates each bank of tubes to absorb a specific amount of thermal
energy from the exhaust gas flowpath when the combustion turbine is operating at "base load".
As a result of these calculations, the amount of available thermal energy at each progressive
location, from the inlet to the outlet of the HRSG, can be determined. The heat exchanger
segments of each pressure section are arranged, respective of each other, to take maximum
advantage of the temperature difference between the exhaust gas and tube side temperatures.
Figure 5-1 - Simplified Schematic of HRSG
A basic law of thermodynamics states that the rate of heat transfer from hot to cold is
dependant upon the temperature difference between the objects. HRSGs are designed on the
basis of this thermodynamic principle. During base load operation, with steam and water flowing
through the respective boiler tubes, the temperature of the combustion turbine exhaust
decreases as it progresses through the HRSG. By the time the exhaust gas reaches the
feedwater heater, the exhaust gas temperature has been reduced to less than 300ΕF (149°C).
As per design calculations, the feedwater heater is sized with the appropriate heat transfer
surface to obtain a specific water outlet temperature when the unit is operating at base load. As
illustrated in Figure 5-1, the pre-heated water is routed to the deaerator.
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OPERATOR TRAINING MANUAL
 Upon initial startup of the combustion turbine, the hot exhaust gases pass through the
HRSG without a significant reduction in temperature. Even though each pressure section
absorbs "some" heat from the exhaust gases during startup, none of the absorbed heat is
removed from the HRSG in the form of steam. Upon combustion turbine startup, the
temperature of the gases at the exhaust stack is nearly equal to the temperature of the gases at
the combustion turbine exhaust. Therefore, the startup period can be basically considered a
"preheat stage" in which the temperature difference between the exhaust gas and the boiler
tubes decreases, i.e. they equalize. Although this preheat stage is required in order to prevent
excessive thermal stress to the boiler tubes and steam drum, the feedwater heater temperature
eventually increases to well above its designed, base load, inlet temperature of 300°F (149°C).
Throughout the preheat stage, the "high exhaust stack temperature" condition remains
present even as combustion turbine generator load is increased and the HRSG begins to
generate steam. Until the steam drum begins to develop significant steam flow, the removal of
thermal energy (steam flow) from the HRSG is inappreciable. Likewise, feedwater makeup to
the steam drum is at a minimum during this period and therefore, the economizer is absorbing
very little thermal energy from the exhaust gas flowpath. During this period, makeup water to the
deaerator is bypassed around the feedwater heater to prevent exposing the water to the higher
than normal gas temperatures at the exhaust stack. If the water were allowed to pass through
the feedwater heater, it would absorb so much heat that some of the water would flash into
steam upon entering the deaerator. Not only would this condition result in excess pressure
within the deaerator, but the "design" temperature limitations of the boiler feed pumps would be
exceeded resulting in accelerated wear and damage to the pump internals.
Once the HRSG begins to generate steam, the load on the combustion turbine generator
can be gradually increased at the programmed rate of approximately 3 to 10 megawatts per
minute. As more load is placed on the combustion turbine generator, the exhaust gas
temperature increases proportionately, and the result is increased steam production. When the
combustion turbine generator reaches 40-50% of base load, the transfer of thermal energy
through the HRSG will have increased to a point where the exhaust gas temperature at the
feedwater heater is near its normal operating value. At this point, the feedwater heater inlet
isolation valve can be opened, and the bypass closed.
When increasing combustion turbine load, and consequently HRSG steam production,
the rate of temperature rise (ΕF per minute) with the steam drums should be closely monitored.
HRSG manufacturers often provide specific limitations. Accelerating the temperature rise
beyond the manufacturers recommendations will cause undue stress to the steam drums and
heat transfer components. If an excessive temperature difference is noted, changes in
combustion turbine load should cease until the temperatures stabilize.
Superheated Steam
Each pressure section of the HRSG is equipped with a superheater. Superheating of
saturated steam has several advantages. First, superheated steam is much drier than saturated
steam and therefore causes relatively little corrosion or erosion of downstream piping and
components. Also, superheated steam does not conduct heat as rapidly, and therefore does not
loose heat as rapidly, as saturated steam. If saturated steam were sent through the long steam
header en route to the steam turbine, much of the steam would condense into water before it
arrived. Superheated steam on the other hand, remains fairly stable through long piping runs,
experiencing very little condensation. The steam requirements of the steam turbine require that
each source contain sufficient superheat such that the steam does not approach a saturated
state at the final stages of the turbine. Doing so could result in severe water impingement
damage to the turbine blading.
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Superheater Fundamentals
During HRSG operation, steam flows continuously through the superheater tube bundles
to absorb thermal energy from the gas turbine exhaust. If steam flow through the tubes were
significantly decreased or depleted, the exhaust gas would heat the tube above its design point
causing severe thermal stress and possible tube failure. For this reason, it is very important to
maintain steam flow through the superheaters (and reheaters) whenever the gas turbine is in
operation.
During normal plant operation, steam generated by the HRSG is directed to the steam
headers for distribution the steam turbine generator and/or to the steam host. However, there
are specific periods of plant operation during which steam generated by the HRSG cannot be
admitted to the Steam System or bypassed to the steam turbine surface condenser. For
example, during unit startup or shutdown. To accommodate this, the superheaters and
reheaters are often equipped with high flow vent valves capable of discharging all generated
steam to the atmosphere. Although this mode of operation is wasteful and inefficient, it is very
important that steam flow be maintained through the superheaters at all times. Once condenser
vacuum is established, the generated steam can be bypassed to the condenser until the steam
turbine is ready to accept steam flow.
Steam Distribution
Steam from the HRSG superheater is supplied to the steam header for use by the steam
supply systems and the steam turbine. The control of steam flow from the superheater outlet is
generally through a motor-operated stop check valve and steam stop valve; such as the
example illustrated in Figure 5-1. The position of the valve motor operators is typically controlled
from the Operator Keyboard at the DCS.
During startup of the HRSG, the motor operators for the stop check valve and the steam
stop valve are moved to the OPEN position before the steam drum begins to develop steam
pressure. As the HRSG heats up, steam will flow through stop check valve and begin to warm
the steam header. During this period of the startup, the combustion turbine is maintained at
minimum load. Once the HRSG and the steam system piping are completely heated and
pressurized, the combustion turbine load can be increased to meet the prestart steam
requirements of the steam turbine.
In multiple unit applications, if the steam header is already pressurized prior to HRSG
startup, the disk of the stop check valve remains seated due to the already pressurized steam
header. Once the steam drum increases to a pressure equal to the steam header, the check
valve will slowly open and steam will begin to flow through the superheater from the drum. Once
steam flow through the superheater and reheaters is sufficient, the applicable vent and drain
valves are closed. It is very important that the drum water level be closely monitored during the
transition period when steam is initially delivered to the system.
HRSG Drum Level Control
Maintaining proper steam drum level is a critical function and cannot be over stressed.
An excessively high drum level will flood the moisture separators located within the steam drum,
resulting in moisture carry over to the superheater and a steam turbine trip. An excessively low
drum level will result in decreased steam output, overheating of the economizer, evaporator,
and superheater tubes and a combustion turbine trip.
Drum pressure is a result of drum level combined with the generation of steam in the
evaporator tubes. The drum pressure will fluctuate with changes of load demands on the steam
system. During a sudden steam load increase, drum pressure will decrease. This will result in a
false high level condition known as "swell." During a sudden decrease of steam demand, steam
drum pressure will increase and
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result in a false low level condition known as "shrink." In some situations, the tuning of the
steam drum level control loop may not respond quick enough to maintain proper drum level
during such abnormal conditions. In this event, the Operator may be required to take MANUAL
control of the level control valves.
During unit operation, a constant flow of makeup feedwater must be supplied to the
steam drums to compensate for the amount of steam exiting the drum. In the simplest feedwater
control scheme, referred to as single element control, water is added to maintain the drum level
at or near the centerline. As the level of water in the steam drum decreases, it is sensed by a
level controller which opens the feedwater control valve. As the drum level increases back to
normal, the feedwater control valve is modulated toward close until the amount of water being
added is equal to the amount of steam being used. If steam usage is reduced, the drum water
level will tend to increase slightly, and the feedwater supply valve will again modulate toward
close.
Steam drum pressure is the result of drum level combined with the generation of steam
in the evaporator tubes. During unit operation, steam is generated inside the evaporator tubes
which contain water and steam bubbles. If drum pressure decreases due to a sudden demand
in the steam header, the steam bubbles will ‘swell’ due to the decreased pressure in the drum.
Likewise, when the quantity of steam being used by the loads on the steam header decreases,
the drum pressure will momentarily increase and the steam bubbles will ‘shrink’. Because of the
huge number of bubbles within the boiler water side, this change in bubble size results in the
lifting/falling of the water level in the evaporator tubes and in the steam drum. Refer to Figure 5-
2 below.
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Figure 5-2 Steam Drum Level Shrink and Swell
OPERATOR TRAINING MANUAL
 As illustrated in Figure 5-2, this lifting and falling of water in the tubes can cause a major
level change in the steam drum. It must be noted, this change in level is not due to a change in
quantity of water in the boiler; it is due to a momentary change in the balance among pressure,
flow, and steam bubble diameter. While this may not at first appear important, it must be
remembered that when a single element feedwater control loop senses a falling level in the
steam drum, it adds water. In the case of shrinkage, the level fell because of a reduction in
steam (and water) usage. Thus, there is no reason to add more water. In fact, to keep
everything in balance, the quantity of water being added should be reduced.
The same is true during a load increase; e.g., the bubbles will swell and the drum level
will rise. A single element feedwater control will close the valve (when it should be opened) to
respond to the higher steam (and water) usage. To aggravate the situation, when ‘cold’
feedwater is added to the drum it causes an incremental shrinkage of its own because some of
the heat in the boiler water (primarily from the steam bubbles) is used to heat the cold water up
to the temperature of the water already in the boiler. This will cause the steam bubbles to
become smaller or actually disappear. If the Operator is controlling feedwater (drum level)
manually or in single element mode, he must consider what is going on in the plant as a whole
to determine if the change in drum level results from a real change in inventory, or whether it
was caused by ‘shrink’ or ‘swell’.
To minimize the effects of shrink and swell, the drum level control is maintained by a
‘three element’ control loop. A three element loop controls the makeup flowrate to match steam
consumed, and uses high and low drum level to trim the mass balance matching signal. In this
way, on an increase in steam usage, the control system will see that more water is needed to
match the steam flow and will momentarily “disregard” the high drum level resulting from swell.
If the drum level gets too high, the drum level signal will override the mass balance signal to
prevent water carry-over. In the same way, on reduction in steam usage, the feedwater will be
reduced to match the steam flow even though the drum level is falling. Should the drum level
get too low, the level signal will again override the mass balance signal to prevent running the
boiler dry.
In some situations, the tuning of the steam drum level control loop may not respond
quick enough to maintain proper drum level during such abnormal conditions. In this event, the
Operator may be required to take MANUAL control of the level control valve. In particular, if a
sudden change in steam demand is anticipated, increasing or decreasing drum level prior to the
pressure swing may prevent a potential trip of the unit.
Maintaining proper steam drum level is a critical function and cannot be over stressed.
An excessively low drum level will result in decreased steam output, overheating of the
economizer, evaporator, and superheater tubes and a combustion turbine trip. An excessively
high drum level will flood the moisture separators located within the steam drum, resulting in
moisture carry over and leaving deposits in the superheater tubes. Of even more concern,
carryover of water droplets through the superheater can result in water impingement damage to
the steam turbine blading.
5.1.3 Steam Turbine Startup
The next progressive step of bringing a combined cycle plant up to base load operation,
is to preheat and start the steam turbine. In general, proper warmup of the steam turbine may
take up to several hours. If an external source of steam is available, preheating of the steam
turbine can begin prior to startup of the combustion turbine to facilitate the overall startup
process. In some applications however, the HRSG may be the only means of producing steam
at the plant.
Upon startup of the combustion turbine and HRSG, the steam generated by the HRSG is
routed to the condenser through the steam turbine bypass valve(s). The bypass valve is
modulated to control steam flow to the condenser and consequently, HRSG steam drum
pressure.
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Steam Turbine Pre-Warming
One of the primary concerns of steam turbine operation is the gradual and uniform
heating and cooling of the rotors, shells, and valves. Controlling the rate of metal temperature
change is necessary to ensure excessive thermal stresses do not occur in any portion of the
turbine metal. Each steam turbine manufacturer provides starting and loading instructions for
each specific steam turbine application. These instructions are designed primarily to minimize
cyclic damage to the turbine rotor, but they also have the effect of limiting cyclic damage to the
turbine shell. In general, the starting and loading instructions contain recommended temperature
ramp rates, acceleration rates, soak periods at different holds, and generator loading rates. If
properly followed, the starting and loading instructions will increase the availability and reliability
of the turbine components.
During steam turbine pre-warming and startup, the Operator must be aware of the
following limitations:
• Thermal stress and distortion
• Vibration
• Rotor and shell differential expansion
Any of the above limitations may be introduced by subjecting the turbine metal to
excessive temperature mismatches and/or rates of temperature change. One of the above
limitations is likely to be reached before the others, depending on the turbine design and
configuration, although the other two may be present to a significant degree.
Ramp rates are maintained during steam turbine startup by careful matching of the first
stage and reheat steam temperatures to the corresponding metal temperatures. The steam-to-
metal temperature difference should be maintained as small as possible. The main steam
pressure and temperature should be controlled in such a way to produce a steam-to-metal
temperature difference of 50 to 100°F. This match, or slightly positive mismatch, is an important
factor is establishing and maintaining the desired ramp rate. Proper control of the thermal ramp
is primarily achieved by controlling the main and reheat steam temperature, and by controlling
generator load upon synchronization to the grid.
First-stage steam temperature is affected not only by throttle steam temperature, but by
boiler pressure and temperature, and the resultant throttling at the turbine admission. Lower
pressures result in a higher first-stage steam temperature at the same initial steam temperature.
Maintaining Steam Temperature and Pressure
During the steam turbine warmup process, the steam seals can be placed in service
followed by the application of the condenser vacuum system. Once the steam flow and
temperature from the HRSG has stabilized, the combustion turbine generator load can be
gradually increased to meet the steam turbine prestart requirements, i.e. steam flow, pressure,
and superheat. With all requirements met, the steam turbine is rolled off the turning gear and
brought up to synchronizing speed.
As previously illustrated in Figure 5-1, steam from the HRSG steam drum must be
superheated to a controlled temperature before entering the steam turbine. To accomplish this,
steam from the drum is routed through a superheater, where its temperature is increased above
the saturation point. This initial superheating of the steam brings the steam temperature and
pressure to the correct conditions before the admission of spray water (attemperation) which
provides downstream temperature control. Spray water is admitted into the attemperator based
on the steam outlet temperature from the superheater. Typically, a pneumatically operated
temperature control valve is provided to modulate spray water flow into the attemperator in a
effort to maintain the correct steam temperature to the steam turbine.
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 Prior to steam turbine operation, HRSG drum pressure is controlled through the throttled
position of the steam turbine bypass valves. However, once the steam turbine generator is
synchronized and electrically loaded, the bypass valves are modulated closed to provide full
steam flow to both the steam turbine and the steam host. At this point of the plant startup, steam
pressure and flow is controlled by increasing the electrical load on the combustion turbine
generator, i.e. increased exhaust gas temperatures result in increased steam production and
steam superheat.
In a combined cycle power plant arrangement, the HRSG and consequently the steam
turbine is totally dependent upon the gas turbine for its energy input. It is quite common to
operate such units with the steam turbine valves wide open under all operating conditions, and
allow steam turbine generator load to vary as a function of the steam pressure available from
the HRSG. This arrangement is called sliding (or variable) pressure operation. An advantage of
sliding pressure operation is that it reduces thermal stress on turbine components as the steam
temperature remains relatively constant over a wide load range. This mode of operation is also
more efficient since there is minor energy loss across the control valves since they are left wide
open. In other words, the steam turbine operates in the turbine follow mode with regard to the
gas turbine.
5.1.4 Fast Starts
As previously discussed, there are specific points of a combined cycle plant startup
where proper warmup of components must take place; i.e. the HRSG and steam turbine. These
warmup periods are critical to the life expectancy of the plant equipment and must never be
ignored or bypassed. However, upon a plant shutdown or trip, the HRSG, steam turbine, and
the associated piping and components will already be at or near operating temperature. Only
under these circumstances, can a fast start be performed. By definition, a hot restart of a steam
turbine is one in which the first-stage shell inner metal temperature is greater than 700ΕF
(371°C).
In terms of combustion turbine combined cycle operation, a fast start refers to the
increased rate at which the plant load is increased upon a successful start and synchronization
of the combustion turbine. It must be noted, there is not a means of bypassing or accelerating
the "programmed start sequence" of the combustion turbine. The limiting factor during a fast
start is the ability of the HRSG to accept a large mass of thermal energy at an accelerated rate.
However, if the HRSG is already "hot" from recent operation, combustion turbine load can be
safely increased.
During a fast start, once the combustion turbine generator is synchronized and
electrically loaded, the Operator may load the unit to either a preselected load value or allow the
unit to assume base load. The actual loading rate is often programmed by the manufacturer to
protect the combustion turbine and HRSG from thermal damage. For example, a loading rate of
5 megawatts per minute is not uncommon for an industrial (frame) combustion turbine. Aero-
derivative units are generally capable of faster loading rates since the overall mass of their
components is a fraction of the larger frame units. When determining loading rates, each
combustion turbine manufacturer takes the following parameters into consideration:
• Vital clearances between rotating parts.
• Thermal fatigue of metal parts.
• The rate of differential expansion; not only between parts of different materials, but between
parts of different thickness.
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5.2 Operating Modes
The purpose of any combined cycle power plant with a QF Status (qualified facility) is to;
1) supply steam to a thermal host, and 2) generate electricity. The requirement of supplying
steam to a thermal host is the primary variable in obtaining a QF status. As such, once the plant
is operating, the steam requirements of the thermal host must be continuously met in order to
maintain the QF status.
Although the steam demands of the thermal host are generally within specified limits, the
actual steam demand may change at any given time. To facilitate this variable, the steam
turbine stop/control valve is typically operated in a sliding header pressure mode; i.e. it serves
as a back-pressure regulator. In this configuration, the production of steam from the HRSG can
remain constant regardless of the steam demands by the thermal host. Then, as the steam
demands of the thermal host change, the steam turbine stop/control valve modulates to
maintain header pressure at a predetermined setpoint with the excess steam flowing to the
steam turbine.
5.2.1 Base Load
Manufacturers publish the rated output of their combustion turbine generator sets based
on industrial standard operating (ISO) conditions. Two of the major factors defined in an ISO
rating are a compressor inlet temperature of 59°F (15°C) and the specific altitude, with respect
to sea level, which the unit in installed. Since the power output of a combustion turbine is very
sensitive to changes in ambient temperature, the use of ISO conditions have been standardized
throughout the industry to insure uniform methods of rating combustion turbine shaft
horsepower and generator output.
As air cools, it's density increases. Likewise, warmer air decreases in density. Cool,
dense air at the inlet of the combustion turbine compressor results in increased mass air flow
through the turbine and an increased cooling of the combustor and turbine sections. As a result,
during cool ambient conditions, increasing fuel flow to the combustion section can be
accomplished without exceeding the maximum allowable turbine inlet temperature. The
combined effect of increased mass air flow and increased fuel flow (Btu's) through the turbine
section, results in an increase of combustion turbine shaft horsepower. Consequently, as
ambient temperatures increase, a decrease of shaft horsepower occurs even when the turbine
inlet temperature is maintained at maximum allowable value.
The most critical area of a combustion turbine is the hot gas flowpath through the turbine
section. Experience has shown that wear in this area is directly related to the combustion gas
temperature at the turbine inlet. Since combustion turbine generators operate at a continuous
synchronized speed, the combustion gas temperature at the turbine inlet is a function of; 1) the
amount of fuel burned, or level of power, and 2) ambient temperature.
Base load operation of a combustion turbine generator is not based on maintaining a
constant power output, but on maintaining a constant turbine inlet temperature and allowing
shaft horsepower to vary as changes in ambient temperature occur. When base load operation
is selected, the combustion turbine control system increases or decreases fuel flow to the
combustor in an effort to maintain the maximum allowable turbine inlet temperature regardless
of ambient conditions. Consequently, the change of fuel flow, and thereby shaft horsepower,
results in a corresponding change in generator megawatt output.
The highest temperature attained in the combustion turbine occurs in the combustion
chambers and at the turbine inlet. This temperature must be limited by the control system to
prevent thermal damage to the turbine section. Some combustion turbine control systems are
designed to measure and control turbine exhaust temperature because it may be impractical to
measure temperatures in the combustion chambers or at the turbine inlet directly. The indirect
control of turbine inlet temperature, called firing temperature, is possible through known turbine
performance relationships. For example, the
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:

exhaust temperature alone does not fully determine firing temperature; the measured
compressor discharge pressure is also required.
In addition to exhaust temperature control, there are several other control and protective
functions incorporated into the combustion turbine controls to ensure safe operation of the unit.
These include such variables as shaft vibration, bearing temperatures, oil pressures, etc.
Although each of these variables are equally important and critical to the operation of the
combustion turbine, exhaust temperature is of primary concern when operating the unit at base
and peak load. It must be noted; excessive firing temperature can damage the turbines hot gas
path components.
When operating the combustion turbine at base load, the control system compares the
exhaust temperature control setpoint with the actual combustion turbine exhaust temperature as
measured from thermocouples mounted in the exhaust plenum. These thermocouples are
located on the circumference of the turbine exhaust and provide representative input signals to
the control system. In addition, some combustion turbines are equipped with thermocouples
which sense the wheelspace temperatures between each turbine stage.
Daily reading of the turbine exhaust and wheelspace temperatures aid in monitoring the
turbine's combustion characteristics and in detecting faulty thermocouples. Aside from the
actual temperature indications, the "temperature spread" between the highest and lowest
temperatures around the circumference of the turbine exhaust must be closely monitored.
Throughout the life of the combustion turbine, it is important to define a "baseline value"
of exhaust temperature spreads with which to compare future data. This baseline data is
established during steady state operation after each of the following conditions:
• Initial startup of unit
• Before and after a planned shutdown
• Before and after scheduled maintenance
An important point regarding the evaluation of an exhaust temperature spread is not
necessarily the magnitude of the spread, but changes in the spread over a period of time.
Accurate recording and plotting of exhaust temperatures on a daily basis can indicate a
developing problem. Such problems may be the result of faulty thermocouples,
deteriorated/damaged turbine blades, deteriorated/damaged combustion liners, or a blockage in
the cooling and sealing air flowpath. Each combustion turbine manufacturer specifies maximum
allowable temperature spreads and wheelspace temperature operating limits which can be
found in the technical reference materials delivered with the unit. In general, an allowable
temperature spread may be between 30°F and 105°F (15-50°C).
It is important when reviewing exhaust temperature readings to observe any trend which
may indicate deterioration of the combustion system. Gradual and/or sudden temperature
excursions should be investigated as soon as possible to determine the validity of readings.
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5.3 Shutdown of Combined Cycle Plants
5.3.1 Normal Shutdown
Similar to a startup, the combustion turbine control system decreases generator load at
a programmed rate during the shutdown sequence. The rate of load reduction is typically the
same as the programmed loading rate, i.e. 3 to 10 megawatts per minute. As combustion
turbine load decreases, HRSG steam production decreases proportionately.
With respect to the thermal limitations of the combustion turbine and HRSG, a load
reduction of 3 to 10 megawatts per minute can be safely performed. However, in combined
cycle applications, the steam turbine temperature ramp rates are the limiting factor during the
shutdown sequence. When decreasing steam turbine load, steam flow and temperature must be
gradually reduced in accordance with manufacturer recommendations. Consequently,
combustion turbine load, and therefore steam production, must be gradually decreased to
accommodate the temperature ramp rates of the steam turbine.
Once the steam turbine is at minimum operating load, it will trip on reverse power. Upon
coasting down, the steam turbine is immediately placed on turning gear to prevent shaft bowing.
With the steam turbine removed from service, the combustion turbine is shutdown by
initiating a stop signal at the operator control interface. Once initiated, an automatic shutdown
sequence will decrease generator load at a programmed rate. Once the generator load has
decreased to a minimum value, the generator breaker is tripped open and fuel to the turbine is
decreased until flame can no longer be maintained in the combustion chambers. When the
turbine speed decreases to a standstill, the rotor turning device is automatically initiated.
Throughout the shutdown sequence, combustion turbine support systems will be activated or
shutdown as required.
Immediately following a shutdown, the combustion turbine rotor must be turned to
provide uniform cooling. Uniform cooling of the turbine rotor prevents rotor bowing, resultant
rubbing and imbalance, and related damage that might otherwise occur when subsequent starts
are attempted without cooldown. Typically, a combustion turbine can be started and loaded at
any time during the cooldown cycle.
After the combustion turbine is shutdown, the HRSG steam pressure should be allowed
to decrease naturally without opening vents or other intentional means of taking steam from the
unit to accelerate the lowering of steam pressure. A cooling rate exceeding 100°F (47°C) per
hour to 150°F (70°C) per hour by excessive opening of vents should be avoided to limit drum
distortion and the resulting strain on the boiler tube joints. Rapid heating or quenching can
cause leaking tube joints in the steam and mud drums.
Throttled opening of the superheater vent valves permits steam flow through the
superheater and permits a modest pressure reduction within the above stated temperature
limits. Superheater vents can be fully opened when the steam pressure decreases to 15-20 psig
(1-1.37 bar). Simultaneously, the steam drum vent must be opened to prevent a vacuum from
forming within the HRSG pressure sections. If it is required to drain the boiler for maintenance,
the water temperature must be allowed to cool below 200°F (93°C).
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5.3.2 Emergency Shutdown
Emergency shutdowns are the least desirable method of shutting down any power plant.
An EMERGENCY STOP or TRIP pushbutton is generally provided to simultaneously trip both
the combustion turbine and steam turbine. However, a unit trip should only be performed if an
emergency condition exist which requires an immediate shutdown. If time permits, the electrical
load on both generators should be removed over a period of approximately 3 minutes prior to
tripping the unit. Although this type of a shutdown is still considered highly undesirable, it is
preferred over a high load trip.
Upon performing an emergency shutdown, both turbines must be placed on turning gear
to prevent shaft bowing. Similar to a normal shutdown, the steam turbine bypass valves will
open to route excess steam to the condenser.
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6.0 COMBINED CYCLE PERFORMANCE MONITORING
6.1 Introduction
The primary purpose of any power plant installation is to profit monetarily from the
generation of electricity. The profitability of a power plant is directly proportional to the efficiency
and performance of the plant and the manner is which is it operated. It is the responsibility of the
operating staff to continuously monitor and control the operation of the plant to achieve optimum
performance and efficiency, while minimizing losses. Being conscientious of the plant’s
performance not only increases profitability, but will pay back great dividends in extended
equipment life and equipment reliability.
Maximum plant performance requires awareness on behalf of the Operators, of the
conditions which can lead to reduced plant efficiency and output. This awareness demands
strict attention to detail, combined with the ability to identify and correct performance related
problems as they occur. Upon completion of this course, the Operator will be aware of the
factors that affect plant performance and reliability, and the actions that can be taken to ensure
the plant is operated in an efficient and reliable manner.
Before a performance related problem can be solved, the ‘root cause’ of the problem
must be precisely identified. This module provides plant personnel with the required knowledge
to identify performance related problems associated with each major component of the
combined cycle power plant. The information conveyed in this section is broken down into
individual sections, each pertaining to the following objectives:
▪ Identify the plant’s energy conversion cycle.
▪ Define the term ‘Plant Performance’ and how it is measured.
▪ Identify the major components of the energy conversion cycle and how their operation affects
plant performance.
6.2 Energy Conversion Cycle
The energy conversion cycle consists of those components which are responsible for
converting one form of energy into another. For example; converting water into superheated
steam. In general terms, a power plant can be thought of as a large energy transfer system
made up of several smaller energy transfer systems. Figure 6-1 is a simplified diagram of the
energy conversion cycle of a typical combined cycle power plant.
6.2.1 Energy Conversion
As illustrated in Figure 6-1, natural gas or fuel oil is provided as the fuel source to the
gas turbine. The fuel provides chemical energy to the plant which must undergo several
conversions to produce electrical energy to the grid:
• Within the gas turbine, the chemical energy of the fuel is converted to thermal energy (heat).
The majority of this heat is converted to mechanical energy as it causes the gas turbine shaft to
rotate.
• The mechanical energy of the gas turbine is transmitted to the associated generator through a
drive shaft. Within the generator, mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.
• Exhaust heat from the gas turbine passes through the HRSG. Within the HRSG, the thermal
energy from the gas turbine exhaust is used to convert water into superheated steam.
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• Superheated steam is routed to the steam turbine, where it expands through the turbine
stages causing the shaft rotate. The steam turbine converts thermal and kinetic energy into
mechanical energy.
• The mechanical energy of the steam turbine is transmitted to the associated generator through
a drive shaft. Within the generator, mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.
• The steam exhausted from the steam turbine is cooled and condensed. The
condensate/feedwater is reintroduced into the HRSG to repeat the process.
Figure 6-1 - Energy Conversion Cycle through a Combined Cycle Power Plant
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6.2.2 Energy Leaving the Plant
As energy is converted through each stage of the power plant process, losses occur due
to the impossibility of the systems and the individual components to be 100% efficient. These
losses are inherent to the design of the plant and occur continuously while the plant is in
operation. Although these losses cannot be avoided, it is important to realize where these
losses occur so that they can be monitored and kept to a minimum.
In thinking of the power plant as an energy transfer system, it is important to realize that
most of the energy which enters the plant as fuel is not converted to a usable energy form such
as electricity. A typical combined cycle power plant converts less than 60% of the energy in the
fuel into electrical energy. The rest of the energy is used within the plant for running auxiliary
equipment or is lost from the plant cycle at various stages in the conversion process. Since
energy cannot be destroyed, the fuel energy that is not converted to electrical energy must
leave the power plant in some other form. The major areas of energy loss in a power plant cycle
are as follows:
• Heat rejected to the circulating water
• Heat rejected through the flue gas stack
• Unburned combustibles in the flue gas
• Heat losses to the surrounding atmosphere by radiation
• Inefficient equipment performance due to improper operation and/or maintenance
From the above list of items, the primary way in which energy is lost from the power
plant is as heat in the circulating water leaving the condensers. Once the steam has given up
it’s energy to the turbine, it must be returned to the boiler to complete it’s cycle and start over.
Since the steam is at a very low pressure and will not flow back to the boiler, it needs to be
condensed and pumped to the boiler as feedwater. The steam is condensed by transferring it’s
latent heat of vaporization to the circulating water passing through the condenser tubes. The
heat contained in the circulating water is discharged to the atmosphere and thus, is lost from the
plant cycle.
Another major loss of energy from the plant occurs within the HRSG. Although most of
the thermal energy inside the HRSG is transferred to the steam/water cycle, a portion of the
heat contained in the flue gas is discharged directly through the stack. This discharge of heat to
the atmosphere takes place in accordance with the thermodynamic design of the boiler by the
manufacturer; i.e., a certain amount of heat rejection must occur in order to achieve reliable
HRSG operation. Reducing the flue gas temperature below the design point can lead to
problems with corrosion in the ductwork and decrease the thermal lift (natural draft) of the flue
gas through the stack. Therefore, it is necessary that the flue gas temperature exiting the boiler
is above a defined minimum value; generally between 240-280°F depending on duct firing.
Although this temperature value seems insignificant, it quickly becomes a major factor when a
quantitative measurement of the rejected flue gas mass flow is taken into account.
In addition to the above heat losses, a very small amount of energy is lost due to
incomplete burning of fuel within the gas turbine. Although the gas turbine is extremely efficient,
a measurable amount of the injected fuel is not burned completely. Incomplete combustion of
fuel appears as carbon monoxide in the flue gas. Unburned combustibles indicate that all of the
chemical energy in the fuel is not converted to heat, and therefore energy is also lost from the
plant cycle.
The last form of energy loss is heat which is lost to the ambient environment. These
losses result from the radiation of heat from plant equipment, motors, electrical busses, and
piping. Additional losses may be present in the form of gas, steam, or water leaks. These types
of losses can be minimized through the use of insulation on piping and equipment, and by
proper maintenance to prevent leaks. However, no matter what measures are taken, a
significant portion of energy losses will occur due to radiation.
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6.3 Plant Heat Rate
Plant heat rate is a method of showing the performance of a power plant. It is a measure
of the amount of heat energy needed to produce one unit of electrical energy. The heat rate of a
power plant is generally regarded as a symbol of pride as it is a measure of the plants operating
efficiency and is directly representative of the hard work, knowledge, and dedication of the plant
personnel to maintain optimum plant performance.
The plant heat rate accounts for all inefficiencies of the plant in transferring the heat of
combustion into electricity. There are two kinds of plant heat rate; (1) gross plant heat rate and,
(2) net plant heat rate:
• Gross Plant Heat Rate is defined as the amount of heat energy in the fuel needed to produce 1
kilowatt-hour of electricity at the generator output terminals.
• Net Plant Heat Rate is defined as the amount of heat energy in the fuel needed to produce 1
kilowatt-hour of electricity delivered to the transmission system for sale to users. The net plant
heat rate is most often used as a benchmark of the plant’s performance.
6.3.1 Gross Plant Heat Rate
The gross plant heat rate is determined by measuring the kilowatts generated at the
generator terminals for a given period of time (usually one month). During this time the amount
of fuel burned in the gas turbine and duct burners is also measured. The heat energy of the fuel
is found by determining its heating value (HV) in BTU’s. Natural gas has a nominal heating
value of 1,000 BTU’s. The amount of fuel used, multiplied by the heating value, determines the
number of BTU’s needed to generate the measured kilowatt-hours. The ratio of BTU’s to KWH’s
is gross plant heat rate. The formula is illustrated below:
(BTU per cu/ft of fuel) x (cu/ft of fuel per hour) x (number of hours)
BTU
(KW electrical output) x (number of hours)
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KWHR
6.3.2 Net Plant Heat Rate
A portion of the electrical energy generated by the plant is needed to drive auxiliary plant
equipment such as circulating water pumps, boiler feed pumps, gas turbine auxiliaries, etc.
Therefore, not all of the electrical energy generated is delivered to the switchyard for
transmission to the grid. The auxiliary electrical load may be as much as 6% of the total
generator output. If the sum auxiliary load is subtracted from generator output, the result is net
plant heat rate.
One kilowatt-hour of electrical energy is equivalent to 3,413 Btu’s of heat energy. If a
power plant were 100% efficient, it would have a net plant heat rate of 3,413 Btu per KWH. A
very efficient, modern coal fired power plant uses 8,500 Btu of heat energy to produce one
kilowatt-hour of electrical energy. Early power plants were very inefficient and some used more
than 30,000 Btu to produce 1 kilowatt-hour of electrical energy. The lower the plant heat rate,
the more efficient the plant.
6.4 Factors Affecting Plant Performance
Modern distributed control systems (DCS) continuously calculate the net plant heat rate
and provides the information to the Control Room Operator. Since changes in ambient
conditions have a direct affect on the performance output of the gas turbine, the net plant heat
rate will change accordingly based on that premise alone. Over a period of time, these changes
will be realized as baseline values to an experienced Operator. However, significant changes in
the net plant heat rate during base load steady-state operation should be investigated
immediately. A numerically higher than normal heat rate value indicates an unnecessary loss of
energy from the power plant cycle; thus indicating a reduction in plant efficiency and
performance.
As previously illustrated in Figure 6-1, each major component of the energy conversion
cycle plays a key role in the overall performance of the plant; e.g., the gas turbine, HRSG,
steam turbines, etc. A malfunction or abnormal condition associated with any of these
components has a direct impact on the overall plant performance. It is the Operators
responsibility to be aware of these potential conditions and how to identify them. The following
subsections discuss the operation and purpose of each major component and the abnormal
conditions or malfunctions would can lead to reduced plant performance.
6.4.1 Gas Turbine
Gas turbine units are equipped with a programmed control system designed to maintain
the turbine at maximum efficiency during all modes of operation. Unlike traditional coal or oil
fired boilers which require constant Operator attention to fuel and air ratios, combustion
temperatures, and so forth; the gas turbine control system maintains peak operation of the unit
and does not allow for Operator interaction on specific functions. This method of control is
necessary to ensure emission parameters (NOx) are continuously met and the integrity of the
gas turbine is not jeopardized or damaged.
For example; during startup and operation of the gas turbine unit, the control system
modulates the position of the fuel valves, controls the operation of the blow-off dampers, and
controls the position of the inlet guide vanes. Precise control of these components is extremely
vital to the operation of the unit, and thus these components are controlled by the gas turbine
control logic. Human interaction to these controls would invariably result in unnecessary thermal
stress and damage to the gas turbine unit, and possibly an explosion or flame out.
Although the control system has primary control over the gas turbine, there are
conditions which the Operator must monitor to ensure peak efficiency and performance. The
following can affect the performance of the gas turbine and should be periodically monitored:
• Compressor Fouling
• Dirty Inlet Air Filters
• Evaporative Cooler Malfunction
• Interstage Bleed Valve Malfunction
Compressor Fouling
The most common area of performance degradation for any gas turbine is the
cleanliness of the compressor. Over a period of time, traces of dirt particles accumulate on the
surface of the compressor blades resulting in reduced efficiency and compressor output. As the
performance of the compressor deteriorates, the overall reduction in performance of the gas
turbine unit is very significant. In general terms, a one percent decrease in compressor
efficiency results in a two percent decrease in turbine output.
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 Even with the gas turbine intake filters functioning properly, compressor fouling will
undoubtedly occur over an extended period of time. In an ideal situation, it would be desirable to
keep the gas turbine compressor extremely clean at all times. However, in real life terms it is not
feasible to continuously wash the compressor in an effort to maintain peak performance from
the unit. The most common method of determining when an offline water wash of the
compressor is required, is by monitoring the performance output of the unit with respect to
ambient conditions. When a 5% decrease in unit performance is noted, a water wash should be
performed during the next unit shutdown, or an online water wash performed.
Dirty Inlet Air Filters
An obstruction of air flow to the gas turbine will undoubtedly result in decreased
performance. The gas turbine inlet air filters are equipped with a self-cleaning feature which
operates automatically to prevent an excessive pressure drop across the filter elements.
Although this is an automatic function, the operation of the cleaning sequence and the condition
of the filters should be periodically checked to ensure proper operation. Failure of the self-
cleaning system or the high differential pressure alarm could result in reduced performance of
the gas turbine unit.
Evaporative Cooler Malfunction
The largest single factor affecting the output of a gas turbine unit is the ambient air
temperature. As the temperature of air increases, it expands in volume; thus decreasing in
density. As a result, gas turbine output and efficiency are decreased due to the reduction in
mass air flow through the compressor. This reduction of air flow results in less effective cooling
in the high temperature areas of the turbine; thus fuel flow to the unit must be decreased to
prevent overheating of the turbine above the maximum firing temperature. To finalize this chain
of events, the reduction of fuel flow results in a corresponding reduction in shaft horsepower;
thus the generator megawatt output is reduced. In summary, unit output decreases as ambient
temperatures increase.
Gas turbines installed in seasonally warmer climates are sometimes equipped with an
evaporative cooler to offset the impact that high ambient temperatures have on unit
performance. The evaporative cooler consists of a water soaked cellulose media through which
all air to the inlet of the gas turbine compressor must pass. The evaporative cooler converts
sensible heat into latent heat without changing the total heat content of the mixture. This
increases the moisture content and density of the air flow; thus reducing the impact of high
ambient temperatures on the performance and efficiency of the unit.
During unit operation, the evaporative cooler operates automatically and cannot be
visually inspected due to its installed location. However, it is the Operator’s responsibility to
monitor unit performance from the gas turbine control system and ensure the evaporative cooler
is functioning properly. Secondly, the source of makeup water to the cooler must be periodically
checked to ensure it is continuously available. A malfunction or failure of the evaporative cooler
will result in an immediate reduction in unit output and efficiency.
The entire evaporative cooler system should be periodically inspected during unit
shutdown to ensure proper operation and to verify that the cellulose media is in tact and free of
obstructions or damage. A tear or hole in the media will reduce the effectiveness of the system;
thus resulting in a reduction in unit output and efficiency.
Interstage Bleed Valve Malfunction
Most gas turbine compressors are equipped with interstage bleed valves used to purge
excess air from the compressor during startup and shutdown; i.e. to prevent a compressor stall
or surge. The bleed valves remain closed while the turbine is in operation and are not
sequenced to open until a shutdown signal is generated.
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 If any one of the interstage bleed valves are wholly or partially open during unit
operation, the performance and efficiency of the gas turbine will decrease. For monitoring
purposes, open/close indications are often provided at the gas turbine control system display.
However, the bleed valves should be visually checked on a periodic basis to ensure they are
fully closed or are not leaking by. One method of checking valve position is by observing the
local position indications on the valve actuator. A second method involves temperature. If the
body and discharge piping of one bleed valve is significantly warmer than the other two,
chances are that the valve is passing air due to leakage or failure to close completely. Any
suspected leakage should be investigated at the earliest opportunity.
6.4.2 Heat Recovery Steam Generator
The HRSG is an important factor in the energy conversion cycle of any combined cycle
power plant. In effect, the HRSG is large heat exchanger which utilizes hot flue gas from the gas
turbine exhaust to convert feedwater into superheated steam. The installation of an HRSG on
the exhaust end of a gas turbine provides a means of capturing waste heat, and utilizing this
heat to produce additional electrical energy. Hence the term; combined cycle. Depending on the
plant, the HRSG may be equipped with two unique features; (1) a bypass damper, and (2) a
duct burner.
Bypass Damper
As previously illustrated in Figure 6-1, the bypass damper is installed between the gas
turbine and the HRSG. In the combined cycle mode, the damper is positioned such that it
directs the gas turbine exhaust through the HRSG. This represents the most efficient mode of
plant operation. In the simple cycle mode, the damper is positioned such that it directs the gas
turbine exhaust directly to the atmosphere, bypassing the HRSG. This by far, is the most
inefficient mode of plant operation. Directing the turbine exhaust to the atmosphere eliminates
the HRSG and the steam turbine generator from the plants energy conversion cycle. This mode
of operation results in an enormous reduction in overall plant efficiency and a corresponding
increase in the net plant heat rate. The simple cycle mode of operation should only be used
during extreme circumstances.
Duct Burner
The duct burner is installed in the flue gas stream at the inlet of the HRSG. The duct
burner provides a means of increasing steam production and superheat within the HRSG
through the introduction of additional thermal energy. When placed in operation, the duct burner
is supplied with natural gas which is combusted inside the HRSG duct work and the resultant
thermal energy is released to the boiler tube heat transfer surfaces.
The duct burner is generally placed in service while the gas turbine is operating at base
load. Particularly during warm weather conditions, the duct burner provides a means of
increasing the electrical output of the plant by increasing steam production to the steam turbine
generator.
As a stand alone item, the duct burner is not an efficient component of the energy
conversion cycle. In general terms, HRSG's with duct fired burners are not as efficient as unfired
HRSG's because the fuel burned in the HRSG duct does not perform any work in the gas
turbine. The overall efficiency of energy conversion in unfired HRSG's is therefore higher than in
HRSG's with duct firing. However; as long as the amount of revenue ($) resulting from the
increased output of the turbine/generator, more than offsets the cost of fuel to the duct burner,
it’s use is considered an asset even though the overall net plant heat rate is reduced.
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HRSG Efficiency
The most significant performance related factor associated with the HRSG is the
efficiency of heat transfer across tubes. Placing all design characteristics and other fixed
variables aside, the primary interaction that an Operator has with the performance of the HRSG
is to ensure the water chemistry is maintained within limits. Proper water chemistry ensures
internal cleanliness of the boiler tubes, thus promoting optimum heat transfer.
The two most important impurities which need to be controlled within the HRSG
feedwater are; (1) oxygen and (2) dissolved solids. Oxygen causes corrosion attack on the
internal tube surfaces resulting in pitting and eventual tube failure. Oxygen corrosion is not only
damaging to the tubes, but it reduces the heat transfer efficiency of the tubes while it is
occurring. Therefore, it is very important to the overall efficiency of the plant to ensure proper
operation of the deaerators and the oxygen scavenger injection system.
Dissolved solids are particles of material which readily dissolve in water. Dissolved
solids have two detrimental effects on the HRSG. First, they affect the acidity of the water, thus
controlling the tendency of the water to chemically attack pipe and tube surfaces. Secondly,
dissolved solids leave behind a formation of deposits on the internal tube surfaces after the
water is boiled-off and converted to steam. When this occurs, two undesirable effects can result:
1. When the deposits adhere to the inside of boiler tubes, they form a layer of scale which
retards the transfer of heat from the combustion gasses through the tube metal to the boiler
water. Thus, overheating and failure of the tubes results. Shutdowns are then required to
replace failed tubes and possibly to clean the boiler. Figure 2 illustrates the obstruction of heat
transfer across fouled tubes.
2. If the deposits are carried over in the steam, they can become lodged inside the superheater
or transported to the steam turbine blades. If the former occurs, overheating and failure of the
superheater tubes can result. If the latter occurs, the deposits can greatly reduce turbine
efficiency as well as erode the blade surfaces.
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Figure 6-2 Effects of Scale on Boiler Tube Efficiency
OPERATOR TRAINING MANUAL
 Because dissolved solids have such a high impact on the overall efficiency of the HRSG,
it is pertinent that the Operator maintain correct operation of the water treatment system and
control the accumulation of solids in the boiler through correct chemical injections and
blowdowns. Proper water treatment in a power plant is just as important as proper maintenance
and operating procedures.
6.4.3 Steam Turbine
Within the steam turbine, heat energy stored in the steam is converted to mechanical
energy. As the steam expands through the turbine, it causes the turbine shaft to rotate. This
rotation is transmitted to the generator, where the mechanical energy is converted to electrical
energy. The heat energy lost from the steam (equal to the work performed by the steam)
appears as a drop in steam pressure and temperature (an enthalpy drop) as the steam passes
through the turbine. The steam inlet pressure and temperature plus the turbine backpressure
(condenser vacuum) are all factors that affect the enthalpy drop through the turbine to perform
work.
Although the operation of a steam turbine is very straight forward, there are several
factors which affect the efficiency of the turbine in converting the thermal energy of the steam
into mechanical energy to the turbine shaft. The following subsections discuss these
performance related factors and how they affect steam turbine efficiency.
Condenser Backpressure
Condenser backpressure is the most significant factor that affects the cycle efficiency of
a steam turbine. Because the steam turbine exhausts into the condenser, it is desirable to
reduce the pressure in the condenser as much as possible, thus reducing the backpressure
against which the turbine must operate. As backpressure is decreased, the pressure drop
across the steam turbine increases and a corresponding increase of steam flow through the
turbine results. A decrease in backpressure increases the enthalpy drop across the turbine; thus
improving the work performed by the steam as it passes through toward the exhaust end.
The two primary factors which affect condenser backpressure are the operation of the
steam jet air ejectors and the temperature of the circulating water. It is very important that the
Operator monitor these two factors closely to ensure peak performance of the unit. Once placed
in service, the air ejectors will operate as needed to withdraw air and non-condensable gases
from the condenser shell. The primary variable in maintaining condenser vacuum is the
temperature of circulating water. Very cool circulating water will increase the ‘quench’ effect that
the condenser has on the condensing steam; thus resulting in increased vacuum inside the
condenser. Warm circulating water reduces the quench effect; thus reducing the ability to
achieve a high level of vacuum in the condenser. Controlling the flow and temperature of
circulating water to the condensers, as well as other variables that affect condenser
performance, are discussed in Section 6.4.4.
Leakage
There are two types of leakage that can affect the operating efficiency of a steam
turbine; (1) steam leaking out, and (2) air leaking in. Every seam, joint, and seal on the steam
turbine casing has the potential to develop a leak. Periodic inspection by the Operator during
steam turbine operation will aid in detecting any leaks and prevent reduced performance of the
unit.
One area of specific concern is the high pressure section of the steam turbine.
Excessive steam leakage along the shaft of the turbine can escape to the gland seal exhauster,
taking its heat energy with it. This leakage reduces steam flow through the turbine, thus
reducing turbine work and efficiency.
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 Air in-leakage can occur at the shaft sealing area of a low pressure turbine. A leak of this
nature draws air into the condenser by virtue of the condenser vacuum. The in-leakage of air
interferes with condenser performance causing an increase in condenser backpressure.
Consequently, turbine work and efficiency are reduced.
Finally, leakage can occur internally inside the steam turbine. Steam can leak from a
high pressure stage, past the interstage packing, to a low pressure stage. This leakage will not
affect flow to the turbine, but the work produced by the turbine will decrease. Once again,
turbine efficiency is reduced.
Blade Fouling
The internal components of a steam turbine are precisely machined and assembled with
close tolerances. The accuracy of these tolerances has a great impact on the performance and
efficiency of the machine. The most common cause of lost efficiency is fouling and erosion of
the turbine blades and nozzles. Any damage to the turbine nozzles which affects their shape or
cross-sectional area will result in lost turbine efficiency.
Tests have shown that a 0.003 inch (0.0762 mm) thick deposit, uniformly distributed over
the steam path of a turbine, can decrease flow through the turbine by 1% and cause a reduced
turbine efficiency of 3%. Deposits of this type are most commonly caused by poor water
chemistry in the boiler. The most prevalent constituent which causes scaling and deposits inside
a steam turbine is silica.
Silica is a crystalline substance similar to glass and sand. Next to oxygen, silica is the
most common substance found in the earth’s crust. Water taken from wells contain high
concentrations of silica. Proper treatment of the water through the cation and anion vessels is
extremely important to the performance and efficiency of the steam turbines. In general, turbine
scaling can be avoided when the feedwater silica is less that 0.07 ppm. A secondary measure of
reducing silica is by controlling the boiler feedwater pH. The concentration of silica in the steam
will decrease when the boiler water pH is increased.
During unit operation, silica vaporizes in the boiler at high pressure and temperature.
When the vaporous silica comes in contact with the cooler, low pressure surfaces of the turbine,
it ‘plates out’ forming a shiny glass-like layer. Silica deposits on the turbine blading can restrict
flow through the turbine and cause a higher than normal first stage shell pressure. This is
opposite of the normal trend for first stage pressure to vary directly with flow.
Erosion
Blade erosion is primarily caused by excessive moisture in the steam due to insufficient
superheating. As steam passes through each stage of the turbine, it reduces in pressure and
expands. If the steam is not sufficiently superheated, it will begin to condense in the later stages
of the turbine. The condensed droplets of steam impinge on the nozzle and blade surfaces,
resulting in erosion. Erosion can actually increase steam flow through the turbine because of the
increased nozzle area, but will reduce turbine efficiency because of its effect on the nozzle
pressure ratio.
A secondary form of erosion can occur from the existence of debris or solids suspended
in the steam. This type of steam contamination can result from the breaking loose of slag or
deposits in the main steam piping, or from tube exfoliation in the HRSG. Exfoliation is the
process in which the protective iron oxide film on the interior surface of the HRSG superheater
tubes flakes off. No matter how clean a steam system is, a certain amount of erosion will occur
over an extended period of time due to steam contamination.
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Generator Hydrogen Pressure
Some steam turbine generators utilizes a hydrogen atmosphere for heat transfer and
cooling. Turbine/generator manufacturers utilize hydrogen as a cooling medium because it has
a higher heat transfer coefficient than air, and it is also less dense than air. The thin density of
hydrogen minimizes windage losses inside the generator, and thus the amount shaft
horsepower required by the steam turbine to maintain a defined electrical load. With all other
factors being equal, the use of hydrogen cooling in a generator increases the efficiency of the
turbine/generator unit.
The hydrogen pressure in the generator has a slight impact on the overall plant
efficiency and a major impact on plant load. The heat transfer ability of the hydrogen is directly
related it’s pressure inside the generator. If pressure decreases, heat transfer decreases and
generator cooling will be reduced. If this occurs, the generator output must then be decreased to
prevent overheating of generator components. For this reason, it is very important that the
Operator maintain the generator hydrogen pressure at the manufacturer’s design setpoint.
6.4.4 Main Condensers
The Rankin Cycle portion of a combined cycle plant, consists of the steam/water cycle
components; to include the HRSG, the steam turbine generators, and the condensers. There is
no single component in the Rankine Cycle with a greater impact on the cycle efficiency than the
condenser. Accordingly, the plant Operators must have a good understanding of how the
condensers work and the factors which affect their efficiency.
The primary function of a condenser is to condense the turbine exhaust steam into
condensate. In this respect, the condenser serves as the heat sink for the Rankine Cycle and
consequently, the point of heat reject and heat loss from the cycle. The more efficient the
condenser is, the less heat that is dumped out of the cycle, and thus overall plant efficiency is
increased.
The difference in volume between steam and water at condenser operating temperature
is roughly twenty five thousand to one; i.e. at 95°F (35°C) a pound of water occupies 0.016113
ft3 (0.00156 m3) while steam occupies about 404.484620 ft3 (11.454 m3). This reduction in
volume creates a ‘quench effect’ in the condenser when the steam is converted from a vapor to
a liquid. The quench effect (pressure reduction) at the turbine exhaust increases turbine
efficiency and is very much responsible for maintaining condenser vacuum.
During unit operation, the steam jet air ejectors are responsible for removing air and
non- condensable gases introduced into the condenser shell by the exhaust steam, while the
quenching effect of the circulating water is the primary action which maintains condenser
vacuum. Improper operation of the air ejectors can result in an accumulation of air and non-
condensable gases inside the condenser shell. If not removed, these gases will tend to ‘blanket’
the condenser tubes, resulting in reduced heat transfer efficiency. Continued operation under
these conditions will result in diminished vacuum and a unit trip. For these reasons, it is very
important that the Operator maintain correct operation of the circulating water system and the
steam jet air ejectors.
Condenser performance has a significant impact on the overall efficiency of the plant.
The following factors directly affect condenser performance and must be continuously monitored
by the Operator:
• Sub-Cooling
• Tube Cleanliness and Fouling
• Air In-Leakage
• Water Box Priming
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Sub-Cooling
Efficient operation of the condenser requires that the exhaust steam be cooled only
enough to remove it’s latent heat, leaving the resultant condensate at the saturation
temperature. It must be kept in mind, that all of the thermal energy removed from the exhaust
steam by the condenser is dumped from the cycle by action of the circulating water. Additional
cooling of the condensate below the saturation value is not necessary and only serves to
decrease the efficiency of the cycle. Any unnecessary heat removed from the cycle must be
replaced before the condensate is reintroduced into the HRSG as feedwater.
The reduction of the condensate temperature below the saturation point is referred to as
sub- cooling. Some sub-cooling is necessary to provide sufficient suction head to the
condensate pumps; however, excessive sub-cooling reduces cycle efficiency and should be
avoided. The primary factors which affect condenser sub-cooling are circulating water flow and
temperature. From an operating standpoint, whatever the circulating water temperature is, there
will always be a certain point at which the condenser vacuum will not increase any further, no
matter how much the circulating water flow is increased. In this respect, condenser vacuum
varies with seasonal conditions; i.e., the coldness of circulating water.
The best method to avoid excess sub-cooling is by controlling the circulating water flow
and temperature in an effort to maintain the hotwell at the highest temperature attainable,
without experiencing a reduction of condenser vacuum. An excess of circulating water flow
beyond this point results in sub-cooling of the hotwell condensate. In other words, increasing the
circulating water flow after the maximum vacuum is attained, only reduces the condensate
temperature as it falls downward into the hotwell and does nothing toward further reducing
vacuum.
In general, it is desirable to maintain hotwell temperature equal to, or as near to the
turbine exhaust steam temperature as possible. In practical terms, it is not possible to have
temperatures of turbine exhaust steam and condenser hotwell condensate. However, a good
rule of thumb is no more than 10°F between steam and condensate temperatures.
If an excessive temperature difference exists between the exhaust steam and the
hotwell, the circulating water flow through the condenser should be reduced by the amount
necessary to equalize the temperatures. This may be done by either throttling the condenser
circulating water outlet valves or reducing the number of circulating water pumps. Reducing the
circulating water flow to equalize the temperatures not only helps to retain heat in the
condensate, but also reduces the circulating water pump electrical consumption.
Tube Cleanliness and Fouling
The internal cleanliness of the condenser tubes has a direct impact on the operating
efficiency of the condenser. Any fouling or build-up of material inside the tubes acts as an
insulating layer which reduces the rate of heat transfer between the turbine exhaust steam and
the circulating water. When fouling exists, optimum condenser vacuum is not attainable due to
the inhibited ability of the circulating water to efficiently condense the turbine exhaust steam and
produce the desired ‘quench’ effect needed for maximum vacuum. The net result of fouled tubes
is reduced condenser vacuum and reduced steam turbine generator output.
 Proper water treatment is essential in maintaining efficient and reliable operation of the
condenser. This holds true whether the system is being operated in the closed-loop mode using
the cooling tower, or when recirculating water out of a nearby lake or river. The purpose of
injecting chemicals into the circulating water is prevent internal scaling and corrosion from
occurring inside the system components and to control the growth of bacterial slime and algae.
Not only are the chemicals used to keep the
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condenser tubes clean, but also the heat transfer surfaces of the cooling tower and all other
components served by the system. For example, the growth of micro-organisms in the
circulating water system can impair flow distribution at the cooling tower and cause deterioration
of the cooling tower materials. In summary, circulating water treatment must be closely
monitored and tested to ensure the injected chemicals are effective.
Air In-Leakage
Because the condenser operates under a vacuum, the presence of a leak results in air
being drawn into the condenser. The in-leakage of air results in reduced condenser vacuum,
increased steam turbine backpressure, and decreased unit efficiency.
If a reduction of condenser vacuum is noted during unit operation, the Operator can
determine the cause of the problem by checking the discharge air flow from the steam jet air
ejectors. If the air flow is normal, the cause of reduced vacuum can be traced to the operation of
the circulating water system. As previously discussed, inadequate circulating water flow or high
water temperature can result in reduced condenser vacuum. If the discharge flow rate from the
ejectors is abnormally high, an air in-leakage condition exists.
Determining the location of an air leak on a system which is under a vacuum presents a
unique problem. If the leak is of significant size, it can be located by listening for an in-rush of
air. However, most leaks are small enough that a more sophisticated detection method must be
used. One common method is to admit non-flammable gas, such as Freon into the atmosphere
around the suspected area while monitoring the air ejector discharge with a gas detector. When
gas is detected, the point where gas was released is identified as having a leak. Once a leak is
located, temporary repairs should be made so the turbine backpressure is reduced, and steps
should be taken to initiate permanent repairs.
The in-leakage of air through the steam turbine casing and related components was
previously discussed in Section 6.4.3. Inadequate seal steam to the steam turbine shaft seals is
the most likely cause of an air in-leakage problem and should be one the first items checked by
the Operator. If the steam seals are functioning properly, the Operator must consider the
probability of a leak at the condenser shell and all components and piping connected to it. Leaks
can originate from any one of the following:
• Condenser or Hotwell Instrumentation
• All Condensate Drain Piping to the Condenser
• Condensate Pump Shaft Seals
• Vacuum Breaker Leakage
• Hogger Valve Not Completely Closed
• Expansion Joint Leakage Due to Cracks or Gasket Failure
Water Box Priming
During unit operation, circulating water flow through the condenser tube bundle passes
through water boxes mounted on each end of the condenser shell. The churning and continuous
flow of water through the condenser water boxes and tubes promotes the liberation of entrained
air from the water. As the small bubbles of air are released, they rise to the surface and form an
air pocket inside the water boxes. Over a period of time, continued releases of air from the
water will increase the size of the air pocket to the extent that the upper row of tubes becomes
air bound. When this occurs, circulating water can not flow through the affected tubes due to the
presence of the air pocket.
As with any shell and tube heat exchanger, the amount of heat transfer is directly related
to the size of the heat transfer area. In the condenser, the heat transfer area is the combined
area of all the
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condenser tube surfaces. If a portion of these tubes do not have circulating water flowing
through them, they can not transfer heat and thus the rate of heat transfer through the
condenser is decreased. The end result is less effective cooling of the steam turbine exhaust,
leading to a reduction of condenser vacuum and reduced unit performance and efficiency.
To prevent the above scenario from occurring, the condenser is equipped with a Water
Box Priming System which continuously evacuates any entrained air from the upper section of
the water boxes. It is very important that the Operator maintain correct operation of the system,
thus ensuring optimum condenser performance. Sight glasses are generally provided on the
upper portion of the water boxes and they should be periodically checked by the Operator to
ensure an air pocket is not present.
6.4.5 Deaerator
When referring to plant performance and efficiency, one component of the heat transfer
cycle that is often over-looked is the deaerator. The life and reliability of the HRSG is very much
dependant on the operation and effectiveness of the deaerator. It is very important that the
deaerator function properly in order to prevent oxygen-based corrosion from attacking the water
side heat transfer surfaces of the HRSG. This type of corrosion reduces heat transfer efficiency
while it is occurring and can lead to eventual tube failure and unit shutdown.
The primary function of the deaerator is to remove non-condensable gases from the
feedwater entering the HRSG. The efficiency of the deaerator in performing this function is
partially dependent on the temperature of the incoming feedwater. If the inlet water temperature
is abnormally low, proper deaeration cannot take place. This creates the need for additional
chemical injection to control feedwater dissolved oxygen content; and thus wasted chemicals
and money are expended. The Operator must ensure that the feedwater heater to the deaerator
is in service and operating properly, and that it is not bypassed for any reason.
To efficiently perform the task of deaeration, the deaerator requires an adequate supply
of steam at the design flow and pressure requirements. If the pressure of the steam supply
deteriorates, deaeration efficiency and heating decreases; again creating the need for additional
chemical injection. To alleviate this, the Operator must ensure that the steam supply to the
deaerator is continuous and adequate, and that the pressure regulator is functioning properly.
Deaerators must be properly vented to carry off the non-condensable gases which are
"driven off" from the feedwater. However, the continuous venting of the deaerator can be a
source of considerable lost energy and is often the single largest contributor to poor feedwater
system efficiency. To minimize these losses, the deaerator should be vented only enough to
meet the unit’s dissolved oxygen removal requirements. The Operator should observe the flow
of steam from the deaerator vent to ensure obstruction or pluggage is not present.
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