Chapter 14

Process Design in
Impression Die Forging
T. Altan and M. Shirgaokar, ERC/NSM, NSM Laboratory, Ohio State University

FORGING is a process by which a billet of ment to be used, the number of parts to be forged, blocker dies are designed, and the initial billet
simple cross section is plastically deformed by the application of the part, and the overall economy geometry is determined. In making these selec-
applying compressive forces through dies or tools of the process being designed. The finisher die is tions, the forging designer considers design param-
to obtain a more complex shape. In impression then designed with allowances added for flash, eters such as grain flow, parting line, flash dimen-
die forging, two or more dies are moved toward draft, shrinkage, fillet and corner radii, and posi- sions, draft angles, and fillet and corner radii.
each other to form a metal billet that is heated to tioning of the parting line. When using multistage The terminology used to describe the flash
the appropriate forging temperature. This process forging, the shapes of the preforms are selected, the zone in impression and closed-die forging can
is capable of producing components of high qual-
ity at moderate cost. It offers a high strength-to-
weight ratio, toughness, and resistance to impact
Functional requirements
and fatigue. Forged components find application
in the automobile/automotive industry and in air-
craft, railroad, and mining equipment.
Some parts can be forged in a single set of Part geometry (assembly ready)
dies, while others, due to shape complexity and
material flow limitations, must be shaped in mul-
tiple sets of dies. In a common multistage forging Part design for process
process, the part is first forged in a set of busting (based on experience/rules)
dies, then moved to one or more sets of blocking
dies, and finally, forged in finisher dies. Finisher
dies are used to enhance geometrical details Preliminary die design
without significant material flow. The quality of (based on experience/rules)
the finished part depends greatly on the design of
the previous stages. If the material has been dis-
Modify die/part
tributed improperly during the blocking stage, design
Select process/machine variables
defects may appear in the finishing stage. In a
good-quality forging, all sections of the die cav-
ity must be filled, and the part must not contain Verify die design and process FEM program
flow defects, such as laps, cold shuts, or folds. variables/simulate metal flow for metal
forming
Before being used in production, forging dies
are tested to verify proper filling of the die cavi-
ties. The most commonly used method of Database with
No Die design and die/material
process verification is die tryout, in which full- process variables properties
scale dies are manufactured and prototype parts acceptable?
are forged to determine metal flow patterns and
the possible occurrence of defects. This method Yes
often takes several iterations and is very costly Analyze die design for stresses,
in terms of time, materials, facilities, and labor. shrinkage, and process conditions
Alternatively, two other methods for modeling
metal flow, namely, physical modeling and
process simulation using finite-element method Prepare drawings and
machine dies (CNC)
(FEM)-based software, can be used to obtain in-
formation about the effects of die design and
process variables on the forging process. Install dies,
The design of any forging process begins with select machine parameters,
the geometry of the finished part (Fig. 1). start forming process
Consideration is given to the shape of the part, the
material to be forged, the type of forging equip- Fig. 1 A flow chart illustrating forging process design. CNC, computer numerical control; FEM, finite-element method
2 / Process Design and Workability

be seen in Fig. 2. The flash dimensions and bil- ● The forging load, energy, and center of forging difficulty (Ref 2). The forging material
let dimensions influence: loading for each of the forging operations influences the design of the forging itself as well
as the details of the entire forging process. For
● Flash allowance, that is, the material that example, Fig. 4 shows that, owing to difficulties
flows into the flash zone Forging Process Variables in forging, nickel alloys allow for less shape def-
● Forging load inition than do aluminum alloys.
● Forging energy The interaction of the most significant vari- In most practical hot forging operations, the
● Die life ables in forging is shown in a simplified manner temperature of the workpiece material is higher
The overall design of a forging process re- in Fig. 3. It is seen that for a given billet material than that of the dies. Metal flow and die filling
quires the prediction of: and part geometry, the ram speed of the forging are largely determined by:
machine influences the strain rate and flow
● Forging material resistance to flow and ability
● Shape complexity and volume of the forg- stress. Ram speed, part geometry, and die tem-
to flow, that is, its flow stress and forgeability
ing perature influence the temperature distribution
● Friction and cooling effects at the die-mate-
● Number and configurations of the preforms in the forged part. Finally, flow stress, friction,
rial interface
or blockers and part geometry determine metal flow, forging
● Complexity of the forging shape
● The flash dimensions in the dies and the ad- load and forging energy, and, consequently, in-
ditional flash volume required in the stock fluence the loading and the design of the dies. For a given metal, both the flow stress and
for preforming and finishing operations Thus, in summary, the following three groups of forgeability are influenced by the metallurgical
factors influence the forging process: characteristics of the billet material and by the
temperatures, strain, strain rates, and stresses
Upper die ● Characteristics of the stock or preform to be that occur in the deforming material. The flow
Flash land forged, flow stress and the workability at var- stress determines the resistance to deformation,
ious strain rates and deformation conditions, that is, the load, stress, and energy requirements.
Flash
stock temperature, preform shape, and so on Forgeability has been used vaguely in the litera-
● Variables associated with the tooling and lu- ture to denote a combination of both resistance
brication: tool materials, temperature, de- to deformation and ability to deform without
Lower die sign of drafts and radii, configuration, flash fracture. A diagram illustrating this type of in-
design, friction conditions, forging stresses, formation is presented in Fig. 5.
External and internal draft angles and so on In general, the forgeabilities of metals in-
● Characteristics of the available equipment: crease with increasing temperature. However, as
Flash
load and energy capacities, single or multi-
Gutter Rib
Web blow availability, stiffness, ram velocity Table 1 Hot forging temperatures of
Parting Fillet under load, production rate, availability of
line
different metals and alloys
Land Corner ejectors, and so on
Trim line Approximate range of
Metal or alloy forging temperature, ∞C (∞F)

Fig. 2 Schematic of a die set and the terminology used Forging Materials. Table 1 lists different
Aluminum alloys (least difficult) 400–500 (750–930)
in impressed die forging with flash metals and alloys in order of their respective Magnesium alloys 250–350 (480–660)
Copper alloys 600–900 (1110–1650)
Carbon and low-alloy steels 850–1150 (1560–2100)
Data on Martensitic stainless steels 1100–1250 (2010–2280)
billet material Maraging steels 1100–1250 (2010–2280)
Austenitic stainless steels 1100–1250 (2010–2280)
Nickel alloys 1000–1150 (1830–2100)
Semiaustenitic PH stainless steels 1100–1250 (2010–2280)
Titanium alloys 700–950 (1290–1740)
Iron-base superalloys 1050–1180 (1920–2160)
Flow stress/ Cobalt-base superalloys 1180–1250 (2160–2280)
Ram velocity Strain rate Niobium alloys 950–1150 (1740–2100)
forgeability
Tantalum alloys 1050–1350 (1920–2460)
Molybdenum alloys 1150–1350 (2100–2460)
Nickel-base superalloys 1050–1200 (1920–2190)
Tungsten alloys (most difficult) 1200–1300 (2190–2370)
Billet/forging Contact time PH, precipitation-hardenable. Source: Ref 2
geometry under pressure
volume, thickness

Temperature
Die temperature,
distribution in
cooling
forging

Function
Interface,
conditions and
lubrication
coefficient
(a) (b)
• Metal flow
• Forging load
• Forging energy Fig. 4 Comparison of typical design limits for rib-
web-type structural forgings of (a) aluminum al-
loys and (b) nickel-base superalloys. All dimensions in
Fig. 3 Variables in forging millimeters. Source: Ref 2
 Chapter 14: Process Design in Impression Die Forging / 3

contact each other at the end of each work- H0 – H, in.

ing stroke of the forging press. This allows 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
175 192.5
very close control of the thickness toler- 1.18
Hydraulic press
ances, even if the flow stress and friction 150 Vpi = 0.33 ft/s, 165
conditions change during a production run.

Forging load, metric tons

or 0.1 m/s
Ram guiding, stiffness of the press frame, 125 1.58 137.5
and drive also contribute to tolerances that

U.S. tons
100 Screw press 110
can be achieved in forging. Vpi = 0.96 ft/s,
or 0.29 m/s
75 82.5
Friction and Lubrication. The flow of
metal in forging is caused by the pressure trans- Drop hammer
50 Vpi = 21.1 ft/s, 55
mitted from the dies to the deforming material; or 6.4 m/s
therefore, the friction conditions at the die-mate- 25 27.5
rial interface are extremely important and influ- 0 0
ence the die stresses and the forging load as well 0 5 10 15 20 25
as the wear of the dies. In order to evaluate the Displacement, Ho – H, mm
performances of various lubricants and to be
able to predict forming pressures, it is necessary Fig. 6 Load vs. displacement curves for the same part
to express the interface friction quantitatively, in forged in three different machines with different
initial velocities, Vpi (dimensions of the part in inches; ini-
terms of a factor or coefficient. In forging, the tial temperature = 1100 ∞C (2012 ∞F): H0, initial height; H,
frictional shear stress, t, is most commonly ex- instantaneous height)
Fig. 5 Generalized diagram illustrating the influence pressed as:
of forgeability and flow stress on die filling.
Source: Ref 2 and temperature effects, for the same forging
m
t= fs= s process, different forging loads and energies are
3 (Eq 1) required by different presses. For the hammer, the
temperature increases, grain growth occurs, and
forging load is initially higher, due to strain-rate
in some alloy systems, forgeability decreases – is effec-
where t is the frictional shear stress, s effects, but the maximum load is lower than for ei-
with increasing grain size. The forgeabilities of
tive stress, f is the friction factor, and m is the ther hydraulic or screw presses. The reason for this
metals at various deformation rates and temper-
shear friction factor (0 ≤ m ≤ 1). is that in the presses, the extruded flash cools rap-
atures can be evaluated by using various tests,
For various forming conditions, the values of idly, whereas in the hammer, the flash temperature
such as torsion, tension, and compression tests.
m vary as follows: remains nearly the same as the initial stock tem-
In all these tests, the amount of deformation
perature. Thus, in hot forming, not only the mate-
prior to failure of the specimen is an indication ● m = 0.05 to 0.15 in cold forging of steels,
rial and the formed shape but also the type of
of forgeability at the temperature and deforma- aluminum alloys, and copper, using conven-
equipment used (rate of deformation and die chill-
tion rates used during that particular test. tional phosphate soap lubricants or oils
ing effects) determine the metal flow behavior and
Forging Equipment. In hot and warm forg- ● m = 0.2 to 0.4 in hot forging of steels, cop-
the forming load and energy required for the
ing, the behavior and the characteristics of the per, and aluminum alloys with graphite-
process. Surface tearing and cracking or develop-
forging press influence: based lubricants
ment of shear bands on the formed material often
● m = 0.1 to 0.3 in hot forging of titanium and
● Contact time between the material and the can be explained by excessive chilling of the sur-
high-temperature alloys with glass lubri-
dies under load. This depends on the ram face layers of the formed part near the die-material
cants
velocity and the stiffness of a given press. interface.
● m = 0.7 to 1 when no lubricant is used, for
The contact time is extremely important be- Production Lot Size and Tolerances. As is
example, in hot rolling of plates or slabs
cause it determines the heat transfer be- the case in all manufacturing operations, these
and in nonlubricated extrusion of aluminum
tween the hot or warm material and the two factors have a significant influence on die
alloys
colder dies. Consequently, the contact time design in forging. If the production lot size is
also influences the temperatures of the forg- Heat Transfer and Temperatures. Heat large, the main reason for changing the dies is
ing and that of the dies. When the contact transfer between the forged material and the dies die wear. In this case, die materials and their
time is large, the material cools down ex- influences the lubrication conditions, die life, hardnesses are selected to be especially wear re-
cessively during deformation, the flow properties of the forged product, and die fill. sistant, even if they are made from somewhat ex-
stress increases, and the metal flow and die Often, temperatures that exist in the material pensive alloys. The preforming and the finishing
filling are reduced. Thus, in conventional during forging are the most significant variables dies are designed such that relatively little mate-
forging operations, that is, non-isothermal, influencing the success and economics of a rial movement is allowed in the finisher dies;
it is desirable to have short contact times. given forging operation. In forging, the magni- thus, the finisher dies, which determine the final
● Rate of deformation, that is, the strain rate. In tudes and distribution of temperatures depend part dimensions, do not wear out easily.
certain cases, for example, in isothermal and mainly on: If the production lot size is small, as is the
hot die forging of titanium and nickel alloys, case in the aerospace forging industry, die wear
● The initial material and die temperatures
that are highly rate dependent, the large rate is not a major problem, but die costs are very
● Heat generated due to plastic deformation
of deformation leads to an increase in flow significant because these costs must be amor-
and friction at the die-material interface
stress and excessive die stresses. tized over a smaller number of parts. As a result,
● Heat transfer between the deforming mate-
● Production rate. With increasing stroke rate, some of the preforming or blocker dies may be
rial and the dies as well as between the dies
the potential production rate increases, pro- omitted, even if this would cause the use of more
and the environment (air, coolant, lubricant)
vided the machine can be loaded and un- billet material. Also, in this case, the dies must
loaded with billet or preforms at these in- The effect of contact time on temperatures and be changed more often than in large-scale pro-
creased rates. forging load is illustrated in Fig. 6, where the load- duction. Therefore, quick die changing and au-
● Part tolerances. Hydraulic and screw displacement curves are given for hot forging of a tomatic die-holding mechanisms are required for
presses, for example, operate with kissing steel part using different types of forging equip- economic production.
dies, that is, the dies have flat surfaces that ment. These curves illustrate that, due to strain rate Forging tolerances are very important in design-
4 / Process Design and Workability

ing the die holders and die inserts because they de- ● Decreasing flash thickness Choosing the Flash Width and Thickness.
pend considerably on the manufacturing tolerances ● Increasing flash land width because of the Several factors influence the choice of a good
and elastic deflections of the dies during forging. combinations of increasing restriction, in- flash thickness. The choice of the flash thickness
Precision forging of gears and blades, for example, creasing frictional forces, and decreasing is influenced by the part weight as well as the
requires not only very close manufacturing accura- metal temperatures at the flash gap shape complexity (Fig. 7). Based on the complex-
cies on the dies but also close control of die tem- ity, the majority of forging parts are classified into:
peratures. In addition, it is often necessary to esti- Flash Dimensions. The variations in the flash
● Compact shape, spherical and cubical (class
mate the changes in die dimensions under forging dimensions influence the forging load, forging en-
1)
conditions so that corrections can be made while ergy, and the flash allowance used to determine
● Disc shape (class 2)
designing and manufacturing these dies. Die di- the initial material (billet) volume. The dimen-
● Oblong shape (class 3)
mensions vary during the forging operation be- sions of the flash can be varied in three ways:
cause of thermal expansion, mechanical loading The first group of compact shapes has the
during assembling of the dies in a holder, and me- ● Changing the flash width with constant three major dimension, namely, the length (l),
chanical loading during the forging process itself. thickness breadth or width (w), and the height (h), approx-
● Changing the flash thickness with constant imately equal. The number of parts that fall into
width this group is rather small.
Design of Finisher Dies ● Changing the flash width and thickness with The second group consists of disk shapes for
constant width-thickness ratio which two of the three dimensions (length and
The most critical information necessary for
forging die design is the geometry of the forging
to be produced. The forging geometry, in turn, is
obtained from the machined part drawing by mod- Shape class 1, Sub-group 101 102 103 104
ifying this part to facilitate forging. Starting with compact shape No Unilateral Rotational Unilateral
subsidiary subsidiary subsidiary subsidiary
the forging geometry, the die designer first designs elements elements elements elements
h

l=w=h
w

the finisher dies by selecting the appropriate die

l
block size and the flash dimensions and estimating
the forging load and stresses to ascertain that the Spherical and
cubical
dies are not subjected to excessive loading.
Shape class 2, Sub-group
The geometry of the finisher die is essentially disc shape No subsidiary With With hub With With rim
Shape
that of the finish forging augmented by flash elements
group
hub and hole rim and hub
configuration. In designing finisher dies, the di-
w
h

21 211 212 213 214 215

mensions of the flash should be optimized. The l Disc
designer must make a compromise; on the one l=w>h
shape
hand, to fill the die cavity, it is desirable to in- with
unilateral
crease the die stresses by restricting the flash di- Parts with element
circular, square,
mensions (thinner and wider flash on the dies), and similar
but, on the other hand, the designer should not contours; 22 222 223 224 225
cross piece with Disc
allow the forging pressure to reach a high value, short arms; shape …
which may cause die breakage due to mechani- upset heads; with
and
cal fatigue. To analyze stresses, the slab method long shapes
bilateral
element
of analysis or process simulation using FEM- (flanges, valves,
based computer codes is generally used. etc.)
By modifying the flash dimensions, the die
and material temperatures, the press speed, and
Shape class 3, Subsidiary With With two
the friction factor, the die designer is able to oblong shape
Sub-group
elements With subsidiary or more
No open or
evaluate the influence of these factors on the subsidiary parallel
closed
elements subsidiary
to axis of asymmetrical elements
forging stresses and loads. Thus, conditions that Shape elements fork
w
h

principal to axis of of similar

appear most favorable can be selected. In addi- l group
shape element principal shape size
tion, the calculated forging-stress distribution 31 311 312 313 314 315
≥
≈h
l>w>
can be used for estimating the local die stresses Principal
in the dies by means of elastic FEM analysis. Parts with shape
pronounced element
After these forging stresses and loads are esti- longit. axis with
mated, it is possible to determine the center of length groups: straight
axis
loading for the forging in order to locate the die 1. Short parts 32 321 322 323 324 325
cavities in the press, such that off-center loading l < 3w Longit.
is reduced. axis of
2. Avg. length princial
Flash Design in Closed-Die Forging. As l = 3w to 8w shape
mentioned earlier, the flash dimensions and the element
3. Long parts curved in
billet dimensions influence the flash allowance, l = 8w to 16w one plane
forging load, forging energy, and the die life. 33 331 332 333 334 335
4. Very long parts
The selection of these variables influences the l > 16w Long. axis
of princial
quality of the forged part and the magnitude of shape
Length group
flash allowance, forging load, and the die life. numbers added element
The influence of flash thickness and flash land behind bar, curved in
e.g., 334/2 several
width on the forging pressure is reasonably well planes
understood from a qualitative point of view. The
forging pressure increases with: Fig. 7 Classification of forging shapes. l, length; w, width; h, height. Source: Ref 3
 Chapter 14: Process Design in Impression Die Forging / 5

width) are approximately equal and are larger determine the flash dimensions. These dimen- distribution is achieved prior to impression die
than the height. All the round forgings belong to sions are used to obtain little flash allowance and forging. In blocking, the preform is forged in a
this group, which includes approximately 30% to minimize the forging energy. blocker cavity prior to finish forging. Designing
of all the commonly used forgings. For round forgings, Eq 2 and 3 predict flash a correct preform allows the control of the vol-
The third group of forgings consists of long dimensions that are a good compromise between ume distribution of the part during forging as
shapes, which have one dimension significantly flash allowance and forging load (Ref 4): well as control over the material flow. The ob-
larger than the other two (l > w ≥ h). jectives of preform design are:
These three basic groups are further subdi- È 1 ˘
t = [0.017 ◊ D] + Í ˙ ● Ensure defect-free metal flow and adequate
vided into subgroups, depending on the presence Î D+5 ˚ (Eq 2)
and type of elements subsidiary to the basic die filling
shape. This classification is useful for practical w 30 ● Minimize the amount of material lost as
= flash
purposes, such as estimating costs and predict- t È Ê 2◊ D 2
ˆ˘
ing preforming steps. This method, however, is 3 DÍ1 + Á ˜˙
● Minimize die wear in the finish-forging cav-
ÍÎ Ë H ( 2 R + D) ¯ ˙˚ (Eq 3) ity by reducing the metal movement in the
not entirely quantitative and requires some sub- h

jective evaluation based on past experience. operation

Depending on the shape complexity of the part where w is the flash width, (mm). t is the flash ● Achieve desired grain flow and control me-
that the user desires to produce, a range of thickness, (mm). H is the height of the ribs or chanical properties
graphs can be selected for each group. shaft, D is the outside diameter of the forging,
and Rh is the radial distance of the center of a rib Basic Rules of Preform Design. In forging
Figure 8 shows a graph for selecting the flash steel parts, a correct preform can be designed by
thickness based on the weight, Q, of the forging from the axis of symmetry of the forging.
using the following three general design rules
for a particular group of forgings. This graph (these rules do not apply to forging nonferrous
shows the relationship between the flash width- materials):
thickness (w/t) ratio and the forging weight. Preform (Blocker) Design in
Thus, knowing the weight of the part to be Impression-Die Forging ● The area of cross section of the preform
forged, it is possible to find the corresponding equals the area of cross section of the fin-
flash thickness and w/t ratio. Thus, the user can One of the most important aspects of closed- ished product plus the flash allowance
obtain the flash dimensions based on the weight die forging is the design of preforms or blockers (metal flowing into flash). Thus, the initial
of the forging. to achieve adequate metal distribution. The de- stock distribution is obtained by determin-
There is no unique choice of the flash dimen- termination of the preform configuration is an ing the areas of cross sections along the
sions for a forging operation. The choice is vari- especially difficult task and an art by itself, re- main axis of the forging.
able within a range of values where the flash al- quiring skills achieved only by years of exten- ● All the concave radii, including the fillet
lowance and the forging load are not too high. sive experience. radii, on the preform must be greater than
There has to be a compromise between these two. In preforming, round or round-cornered the corresponding radii on the finished part.
Empirical Formulae. There are different square stock with constant cross section is de- ● In the forging direction, the thickness of the
sets of formulae, based on billet dimensions, to formed in such a manner that a desired volume preform should be greater than that of the fin-
ished part so that the metal flow is mostly by
upsetting rather than extrusion. During the
finishing stage, the material is then squeezed
5.0 laterally toward the die cavity without addi-
4.0 tional shear at the die-material interface. Such
w/t ratio

conditions minimize friction and forging load

3.0
and reduce wear along the die surfaces.
2.0
In attempting to develop quantitative or ob-
1.0 jective engineering guidelines for preform de-
0 sign, a thorough understanding of metal flow is
essential. Metal flow during forging occurs in
in. mm. two basic modes:
0.39 10.0
● Parallel to the motion of the dies, that is, ex-
9.0
trusion
0.31 8.0 ● Perpendicular to the motion of the dies, that
Flash thickness, t

7.0 is, upsetting

0.24 6.0 Conventionally, blocker dies were designed
5.0 using some guidelines, which are summarized as
follows. Prior to the advent of computer-aided
0.16 4.0 design methods, blocker dies and preforms were
3.0 designed by tryouts. The guidelines used depend
0.08 2.0 on the material and the forging machines used:
1.0 ● The blocker is slightly narrower than the
finisher in the top view by approximately
0
0.1 0.5 1 5 10 50 100 kg 0.5 to 1.0 mm (0.02 to 0.04 in.) and has
2.2 22 110 220 lb larger fillet and corner radii. This helps en-
Forging weight, Q hanced metal distribution.
● The areas of the various blocker cross sec-
Fig. 8 Variation in flash thickness (t) and width-thickness (w/t) ratio for carbon and alloy steel forgings of different tions are augmented from those of the fin-
weights. Source: Ref 3 isher by the flash allowance.
6 / Process Design and Workability

● To forge high ribs in the finisher, those in

the blocker are, at times, shorter. Addition-
ally, the web thickness in the blocker is
larger than that in the finisher.
● To enhance the metal flow toward the ribs,
an opening taper may be useful from the
center of the web toward the ribs.
● In the case of steel forgings, whenever pos-
sible, the ribs in the blocker sections should
be narrower but slightly higher than those in
the finisher sections to reduce the die wear.
The common practice in preform design is to
consider planes of metal flow, that is, selected
cross sections of the forging (Fig. 9).
Understanding the principles of the material
flow during the forging operation can help attain
a better understanding of the design rules. Any
complex shape can be divided into axisymmetric
or plane-strain flow regions, depending on the
geometry in order to simplify the analysis.
The example steel forging presented in Fig. 10 Fig. 9 Planes and direction of metal flow during forging of two simple shapes (left) and a complex shape (right). (a)
Planes of flow. (b) Finish-forged shape. (c) Directions of flow
illustrates the various preforming operations nec-
essary to forge the part shown. The round bar
Guidelines for Aluminum Parts. For rib-
from rolled stock is rolled in a special machine
web-type aluminum alloy parts, the recom-
called a reducer roller for volume distribution,
mended preform dimensions fall into the ranges
bent in a die to provide the appropriate shape,
given in Table 3. The preform is usually de-
blocked in a blocker die cavity, and finish forged.
signed to have the same draft angles as the finish
In determining the forging steps for any part, it
part. However, when very deep cavities are pres-
is first necessary to obtain the volume of the forg-
ent in the finisher die, larger draft angles are pro-
ing based on the areas of successive cross sec-
vided in the preform. A greater web thickness in
tions throughout the forging. The volume distri-
the preform is selected when the web area is rel-
bution can be obtained in the following manner:
atively small and when the height of the adjoin-
1. Lay out a dimensioned drawing of the finish ing ribs is very large. A comparison of the pre-
configuration, complete with flash. form and the finished part is illustrated in Fig.
2. Construct a baseline for area determination 15.
parallel to the centerline of the part. Guidelines for Titanium Alloys. The guide-
3. Determine the maximum and minimum lines for designing titanium alloy preforms (Table
cross-sectional areas perpendicular to the 4) are similar to those for aluminum alloys.
centerline of the part.
4. Plot these area values at proportional dis-
tances from the baseline. Prediction of Forging Stresses and
5. Connect these points with a smooth curve. Loads
6. Above this curve, add the approximate area
of the flash at each cross section, giving con- In designing forging dies, the forging stresses
sideration to those sections where the flash Fig. 10 Preforming, blocking, and finish-forging oper- and load must be estimated in order to predict
should be widest. The flash is generally of ations for an example steel forging. Source: whether the dies may break under load or not
constant thickness but is widest at the nar- Ref 5
and to select the forging machine with adequate
rower sections and smallest at the wider sec- load and energy capacity. In most multistage
tions. Preform design guidelines differ from mate-
forging operations, the finish-forging operation
7. Convert the minimum and maximum area rial to material. They are basically categorized
requires the highest load because in the finisher
values to rounds or rectangular shapes having into the following three categories:
die, the thickness of the forging and all the fillet
the same cross-sectional area. ● Carbon and low-alloy steel parts and corner radii are reduced to obtain the final
● Aluminum alloy web-rib-type parts part geometry.
Figure 11 shows two examples of obtaining a
● Titanium alloy web-rib-type parts Prediction of the forging load and pressure in
volume distribution through the previously men-
closed- or impression-die forging is difficult due
tioned procedure. Guidelines for Carbon and Low-Alloy
to the nonsteady state of the process, that is, vari-
The applications of the design rules for pre- Steels. In hammer forging of carbon or low-
ables affecting the process, such as temperature,
forming are illustrated by examples shown in alloy steels, the preform usually does not have
stresses, and so on. In addition, forgings comprise
Fig. 12. Figure 13 shows some suggested flash. The blend-in radius of the preform (RP) at
an enormously large number of geometrical
blocker and finish cross sections for various the parting line is influenced by the adjacent
shapes and materials that require different, even
steel forgings. cavity depth (C) (Table 2). In the preform, the
though similar, techniques of engineering analy-
The preform is the shape of the billet before fillet radius (RPF) between the web to a rib is
sis. The following methods are generally used for
the finish operation. In certain cases, depending larger than that in the finish forging (RFF), espe-
determination of the forging stresses and loads:
on the ratio of the height of the preform to its cially when the height of the rib over the web is
width, there might be more than one preform op- larger than the rib width, that is, DF > wF (Fig. ● By empirical formulae, based on past expe-
eration involved. 14). rience
 Chapter 14: Process Design in Impression Die Forging / 7

Upset stock

None Preform

Trimmed
b h b
b h
h
Finish

h=b h = 2b h = 3b

Fig. 12 Preforms for different H-shaped forgings. h, height; b, breadth. Source: Ref 6

P3 represents the final load reached in normal

practice for ensuring that the cavity is com-
pletely filled and that the forging has the proper
dimensions. During the stroke from P2 to P3, all
P E P E P E the metal flow occurs near or in the flash gap,
which in turn becomes more restrictive as the
dies close. Thus, the detail most difficult to fill
determines the minimum forging load required
to produce a fully filled forging.
The dimensions of the flash determine the
P E final load required to close the dies. The forma-
The blocker and finish cross sections for var-
tion of flash, however, is greatly influenced by
Fig. 13 the amount of excess material available in the
ious shapes. P, preform; E, end. Source: Ref 6
cavity because that amount determines the in-
stantaneous height of the extruded flash and
Table 2 Preform dimensions for carbon or therefore the die stresses.
low-alloy steels Studies have revealed that it is possible to fill
Dimensions of the a cavity with various flash geometries, provided
finish forgings Preform dimensions
there is always a sufficient supply of material in
Flash No flash the die. Thus, it is possible to fill a die cavity
Blend-in radii (RF) RP @ RF + C or using a less restrictive flash, that is, a thicker
HR/6 < RP < HR/4
Fillet radii (RFF) RPF @ 1.2 RFF + 3.18 mm flash, and to do this at a lower total forging load
(0.125 in.) if the necessary excess material is available or if
Depth of cavity (HR), When HR is less than 10 mm the workpiece is properly preformed. In the for-
mm (in.) and depth of (0.4 in.), then C = 2 mer, the advantages of low forging load and cav-
Fig. 11 Preform designs for two example parts. In adjacent cavity (C), mm (0.08 in.)
ity stress are offset by increased scrap loss. In
both examples: (a) Forging. (b) Cross- mm (in.)
sectional area vs. length. (c) and (d) Ideal preform. VE and When HR is between 10 mm and the latter, low stresses and material losses are
qE, volume and cross section of the finish forging, respec- 25 mm (1. in.), then C = 3 mm obtained by extra preforming (Ref 8).
tively; VG and qG, volume and cross section of the flash, (0.12 in.)
When HR is between 25 mm and
Empirical Methods for Estimation of
respectively. Source: Ref 5
50 mm (2 in.), then C = 4 mm Forging Pressure and Load. In estimating
(0.16 in.) the forging load empirically, the surface area of
● By performing approximate calculations When HR is greater than 50 mm, the forging, including the flash zone, is multi-
then C = 5 mm (0.2 in.)
through one of the well-known methods of plied by an average forging pressure known
plasticity, such as slab, upper bound, slip RP, blend-in radii of perform; RPF, fillet radii of preform; HR, cavity from experience. The forging pressures encoun-
depth; C, adjacent cavity depth. Source: Ref 7
line, or FEM. tered in practice vary from 275 to 950 MPa (20
to 70 tons/in.2), depending on the material and
Load-Stroke Curves. A typical load-ver-
the geometry of the part. Forging experiments
sus-stroke curve for a closed-die forging opera- ● The extrusion of metal through the narrow-
were conducted (Ref 9) with various carbon
tion indicates that loads are relatively low until ing gap of the flash opening must be more
steels (up to 0.6% C) and with low-alloy steels
the more difficult details are partly filled and the difficult than the filling of the more intricate
using flash ratios, w/t (where w is flash-land
metal reaches the flash opening (Fig. 16, 17). detail in the die.
width, and t is the flash thickness), from 2 to 4
This stage corresponds to point P1 in Fig. 17.
As the dies continue to close, the load in- (Fig. 18). It was found that the variable that most
For successful forging, two conditions must be
creases sharply to point P2 (Fig. 17), the stage at influences the forging pressure, Pa, is the aver-
fulfilled when this point is reached (Ref 8):
which the cavity is filled completely. Ideally, at age height, Ha, of the forging. The lower curve
● A sufficient volume of metal must be this point, the cavity pressure provided by the relates to relatively simple parts, whereas the
trapped within the confines of the die to fill flash geometry is just sufficient to fill the entire upper curve relates to slightly difficult ones (Ref
the remaining cavities. cavity, and the forging is completed. However, 9).
8 / Process Design and Workability

wF Extra load required P3

to close dies

RPF RFF
DF
Cavity fills completely P2

Increasing forging load

HR

RP RF

Forging energy

Flash begins
to form P1
(a) (b)

Fig. 14 (a) Preform. (b) Finish shape. RPF, fillet radius of preform; RP, blend-in radius of preform; DF, height of forg-
ing; RFF, finish-forging radius; wF, width of forging; HR, depth of cavity; RF blend-in radii of forging. Source:
Ref 7 Dies contact Forging
workpiece complete

Table 3 Preform dimensions for aluminum Table 4 Preform dimensions for titanium Forging stroke
alloys alloys
Dimensions of the finish forgings Dimensions of the preforms Dimensions of the finish forgings Dimensions of the preforms Fig. 17 Typical load-stroke curve for closed-die forging
showing three distinct stages. Source: Ref 8
Web thickness (tF) tP @ (1–1.5) * tF Web thickness (tF) tP @ (15–2.2) * tF
Fillet radii (RFF) RPF @ (1.2–2) * RFF Fillet radii (RFF) RPF @ (3–3) * RFF
Corner radii (RFC) RPC @ (1.2–2) * RFC Corner radii (RFC) RPC @ (2) * RFC 228.0 180
Draft angle (aF) aP @ aF + (2–5∞) Draft angle (aF) aP @ aF + (3–5∞) 160

Forging pressure, 1000 psi

Width of the rib (wF) wP @ wF -0.8 mm (1/32 in.) Width of the rib (wF) wP @ wF -1.6 to 3.2 mm
(1/16 to 1/8 in.) 140
tP, web thickness of preform; RPF, fillet radii of preform; RPC, corner
radii of preform; aP, draft angle of preform; wP, width of preform rib. 170.1 120
tP, thickness of preform; RPF, fillet radii of preform; RPC, corner radii of

kg/mm2
Source: Ref 7 preform; aP, draft angle of preform; wP, width of preform rib. Source Ref 100
7
114.0 80

wF 60
RFC 57.0 40
28.5 20
0
F 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 mm
wP RPC
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 in.
Average height of forging Ha

RPF
Fig. 18 Forging pressure versus average forging
height, Ha, for forging of carbon and low-
alloy steels at flash ratios, w/t, from 2 to 4. Source: Ref 9
Preform
Finish the cavity is not rectangular, the cross section is
RPC simplified to conform to this model.
tP tF
P
As seen in Fig. 19, the cavity height is de-
noted by H, the radius (or half-width of the cav-
ity) by r, the flash thickness by t, and the flash
Fig. 16 Metal flow and the corresponding load-stroke width by w. The stresses at various locations of
Fig. 15 Comparison of the preform and finished part curve. (a) Upsetting. (b) Filling. (c) End. (d) the cross section and hence the load acting on
for a quarter of an “H” cross section. aF, draft Load-stroke curve. Source: Ref 8
angle of forging; aP, draft angle of preform; wF, width of the cross section can be estimated according to
forging; wP, width of preform; RFC, corner radius of forg- the following equations.
ing; RPC, corner radius of preform; RPF, fillet radius of pre- Simplified Slab Method to Estimate Forg-
With the flow stress in the flash region de-
form; tP, thickness of preform; tF, thickness of forging. ing Load. The slab method has been used suc-
Source: Ref 7
noted by s0f and the frictional shear factor by m,
cessfully for predicting forging loads and
the stress at the entrance from the cavity into the
stresses with acceptable engineering accuracy.
flash of an axisymmetric cross section, sea, is
Most empirical methods, summarized in For this purpose, a forging is divided into vari-
given by:
terms of simple formulae or nomograms, are not ous plane-strain and axisymmetric sections, and
sufficiently general to predict forging loads for a then, simplified equations are used to predict the
Ê 2 w ˆ
variety of parts and materials. Lacking a suitable average pressure and load for each section be- s ea = Á m + 1˜ s 0 f
empirical formula, one may use suitable analyt- fore all these load components are added to- Ë 3 t ¯ (Eq 4)
ical techniques of varying degrees of complexity gether. This method, used in the practical pre-
for calculating forging load and stresses. Among diction of forging loads, is shown in Fig. 19 (Ref Because of rapid chilling and a high deforma-
these techniques, the relatively simple slab 8). In this analysis, it is assumed that the cavity tion rate, the flow stress in the flash region is
method has been proved to be very practical for has a rectangular shape and the flash geometry considered to be different from the flow stress in
predicting forging loads. illustrated in Fig. 19. In actual practice, where the cavity. Hence, two different flow stresses are
 Chapter 14: Process Design in Impression Die Forging / 9

computational methods have been developed ● As the workpiece contacted the uppermost
Flow and used to reduce the number of necessary ex- surface of the top die and began upsetting, the
stress σe
σe periments. One of these methods, FEM, has inside surface of the blocker began to buckle.
σf
proved to be the most powerful analysis tool. ● The radial flow from the web region forced
Die r With the increasing use of computers in indus- the buckle out toward the outer die walls,
motion
try, FEM has steadily gained importance in the and as the upsetting and radial flow com-
simulation of metal-forming processes. bined, the buckling became more severe.
w Investigation of Defect Formation in Ring
Metal flow To counter the previously stated problem, the
H Gear Forging. The process analyzed was the
following modification was made to the original
t forging of an automotive ring gear blank (Ref 10).
blocker design:
In production, the part is hot forged from
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) 4320 ● The corner radius (region “A” of Fig. 21)
Fig. 19 Schematic of a simple closed-die forging and steel in three sets of dies. The dies were of H11 was increased by a factor of 2, to aid the
forging stress distribution. H, cavity height; r, steel, lubricated with a graphite-and-water mixture metal flow around the corner.
radius; t, flash thickness; w, flash width; sf, flow stress in and maintained at approximately 150 ∞C (300 ∞F). ● The angle of the top surface of the upper die
flash region; sc, flow stress in cavity, se flow stress at
edge., Source: Ref 8 The first step in the manufacturing process in- (region “B” of Fig. 21) was decreased until
volves cold shearing the billets from stock and it was horizontal, to increase the height of
used for the flash and cavity regions. The total induction heating them to 1200 ∞C (2200 ∞F). the blocker.
load, Pta, on the cross section is the summation Next, a billet is placed in the busting dies and ● The outer wall of the lower die (region “C”
of the load acting on the flash region and the upset (Fig. 20a). It is then transferred to a blocker of Fig. 21) was modified so that upsetting
load acting on the die cavity: die and forged (Fig. 20b) and finally transferred flow from the top die would fill voids in the
to and forged in a finisher die (Fig. 20c). During upper die cavity instead of voids in the
initial forging trials, buckling flow in the blocker lower die cavity.
È 2 m 1 3
Pta = 2 ps 0 f Í- (R - r3 ) dies caused a lap to be formed intermittently
Î 3 3 t
Figure 22 shows the die fill in the simulation
around the circumference of the part (Fig. 20d).
run with the new blocker design. At the start of
Ê m RˆÊ R - r ˆ˘
2 2 As the finish dies filled, the lap worsened.
+ Á1 + 2
the working stroke, the workpiece followed the
˜Á ˜˙ Because of this defect, the part was rejected, and
Ë 3 t ¯Ë 2 ¯ ˙˚ walls of the upper and lower die. With further de-
hence, a new blocker die design was required.
formation, the workpiece contacted the upper-
È m s c r s ea ˘ The following observations were made during
+ 2 pr 2 Í + ˙
most wall of the top die, and a gap formed be-
simulation of the process:
Î 3 3 H 2 ˚ (Eq 5) tween the inside wall of the top die and the
● The sharp corner radius and steep angle of workpiece. At the final stroke position, a small
where R = r + w, s0f is the flow stress in the flash the inside wall on the upper die resulted in gap remained along the inside wall of the upper
region, and sc is the flow stress in the cavity. the formation of a gap between the inside die, but no buckle was formed. Figures 22 (a–c)
For the plane-strain cross sections, the equa- die wall and the workpiece. show the finish die operation with the modified
tions corresponding to Eq 4 and 5 are:

2 Ê wˆ
s ep = s0 f 1 + m
3 Ë t¯ (Eq 6)

2 Ê mw ˆ Ê L m ˆ
Ptp = ws 0 f 2 + + Á s ep + sc ˜ L
3 Ë t ¯ Ë 2 H 3 ¯
(Eq 7)

where L is the cavity width, that is, L = 2r in Fig

19. The previous equations are relatively simple
and can be programmed for practical use. The
following information is required to perform (b)
these calculations: (a)

● Geometry of the part

● Flow stresses in the cavity and the flash dur-
ing the final stages of the forging operation
● Friction at the die-forging interface
D E
Process Simulation to Predict Metal
C
Flow and Forging Stresses A B
F

One of the major concerns in the research of

manufacturing processes is to find the optimal G
H
production conditions in order to reduce produc-
tion costs and lead time. In order to optimize a
process, the effect of the most important process (c) (d)
parameters has to be investigated. Conducting
experiments, as stated earlier, can be very time- Fig. 20 Investigation of defects in ring gear forging using finite-element modeling. (a) Busting dies. (b) Blocker dies.
consuming and expensive. Therefore, various (c) Finisher dies. (d) Deformed mesh showing lap formation. Source: Ref 10
10 / Process Design and Workability

B life in the hot extrusion of the automotive compo- b. Industrial forging tests for validation of
nent shown in Fig. 23 (Ref 11). The resulting the thermal boundary conditions for the
stresses in this process are a combination of the punch
purely mechanical stresses due to forging and the
thermomechanical stresses as a result of thermal The surface temperatures on the punch are a
A cycling of the punch surface due to the alternating factor of the heat-transfer coefficient at the tool-
hot forging and waiting periods. The stresses due workpiece interface. This coefficient is a func-
C
to thermal cycling were found to comprise ap- tion of various factors, such as surface topogra-
proximately 75% of the total stress field. This cy- phy, contact pressures, temperature difference,
cling causes tool damage known as heat checking. and duration of contact (Ref 12). Forging tests
Fig. 21 Modified blocker design (broken lines) posi-
Originally, the punch had to be changed approxi- were conducted on an industrial press using a
tioned in the open finisher dies (solid lines).
Source: Ref 10 mately every 500 cycles, due to cracking as a re- test punch with five thermocouples. Several nu-
sult of thermal cycling (Fig. 24). It is a commonly merical iterations (FEM simulations) were per-
known fact that geometry changes are not the best formed by using different heat-transfer coeffi-
way to reduce the stress level with regard to ther- cients until the calculated temperature
mal stresses. From this study, it was determined distribution was in agreement with that from the
that increased tool life could be achieved by mod- experiments.
ifying the hot forging process parameters, such as In order to reduce the thermal stresses, a re-
billet temperature and the forging rate. duction of the thermal gradient during forging
Finite-element modeling simulation and ex- must be obtained. There are two options: modi-
(a) perimental work were used to conduct a para- fication of process parameters to decrease the
metric study to determine the optimal process temperature (reduction of the punch speed, thus
parameters to achieve higher life expectancy of reducing the flow stress, or decreasing work-
the tools. This combined numerical and experi- piece temperature, resulting in an increase in
mental approach can be summarized as: flow stress) or use of lubricating/insulating
products during forging to reduce the heat trans-
● A two-step numerical simulation:
fer, which is an empirical approach. The first op-
a. Process simulation to determine the
tion was selected, because the available press
purely mechanical stresses, forging
could handle increased forging loads as a result
loads, and thermal boundary conditions
of increased flow stress.
(b) for the punch
A parametric study was conducted to investi-
b. Thermoelastic simulation for thermal-
gate the influence of forging speed and initial
stress analysis of the punch
workpiece temperature on the final thermome-
● A two-step experimental stage:
chanical stresses. The optimal process parame-
a. Metallurgical validation of the constitu-
ters were thus determined, resulting in a 30% de-
tive laws of the workpiece material
crease in the stresses. Thus, a combination of
process simulation and experimental verification
resulted in an increase in the tool life for the
(c) punch in this hot forging process.
Multistage Forging Simulations of Aircraft
Fig. 22 Deformed mesh of the finishing simulation Components. Multistage forging simulations
with the modified blocker design. Source: Ref of two aircraft components (a titanium fitting
10 and an aluminum wheel) were run to study
metal flow, temperature distribution, die filling,
blocker output. On deformation, the upper die and die stresses (Ref 13). The commercial FEM
pushes the workpiece down until contact is made code “DEFORM-3D” (Scientific Forming
with the outer wall of the lower die. With further Technol-ogies Corporation, Columbus, Ohio)
reduction, the workpiece contacts the outer web was used for these simulations. The two com-
region of the upper die. As the stroke continues, ponents considered for this study are produced
the inside corner fills up without any indication by closed-die forging with flash. Because the
of defective flow patterns. With further upsetting parts are forged at elevated temperatures, it was
of the workpiece, the uppermost fillet of the top necessary to run nonisothermal simulations.
die and the outside fillet of the bottom die con- Fig. 23 Automotive component formed by forward/
Flash removal between the forging stages also
backward hot forging process. Source: Ref 11
tinue to fill, and the die cavity fills up completely. had to be considered for the simulations in order
Hence, the result from the finisher simulation in- to ensure appropriate material volume in the
dicates that the modified blocker workpiece fills dies for the subsequent forging stage. Each of
the finisher die without defects. the components was forged in three stages,
Investigation of Tool Failure. Hot forging namely, two blocker stages followed by a fin-
is a widely used manufacturing process in the isher stage. Figures 25 and 26 show the forging
automotive industry. High production rates re- sequence of the titanium fitting and the alu-
sult in severe thermomechanical stresses in the minum wheel, respectively. The results obtained
dies. Either thermal cracking or wear governs at the end of the simulations were the effective
the life of the dies. In the forging industry, the stress distribution, die filling, metal flow during
tooling cost alone can constitute up to 20% of forging, temperature distribution, and strain dis-
the total cost of the component. tribution.
This example deals with the investigation of the Fig. 24 Cracks formed as a result of thermal cycling. Flash removal between the forging stages also
effect of thermomechanical stresses on the tool Source: Ref 11 had to be considered because the amount of
 Chapter 14: Process Design in Impression Die Forging / 11

Cold and Warm Forging

The current chapter is devoted to impression-

die forging, which is essentially a hot forging
process with flash, where the workpiece mate-
rial is at a higher temperature than the dies. The
dies are designed to provide for flash that en-
sures proper filling of the die cavity and the flow
of excess material outside the die cavity.
However, it is appropriate to discuss, very
briefly, cold and warm forging processes that
use die designs without flash.
Cold forging is a process wherein metal at
Fig. 25 Forging sequence of the titanium fitting. Courtesy of Weber Metals Inc. room temperature is forced to flow plastically
under compressive force into a variety of shapes.
These shapes are usually axisymmetric, with rel-
atively small, nonsymmetrical features, and they
generally do not generate flash. The terms cold
forging and cold extrusion are often used inter-
changeably and refer to well-known forming op-
erations, such as extrusion, upsetting or heading,
coining, ironing, and swaging. Through a com-
bination of these techniques (Fig. 29), a very
large number of parts can be produced.
Due to the limitations with regard to load on
the tooling and the formability of certain materi-
als at room temperature, the extrusion process is
also carried out above room temperatures and
below hot forging temperatures. This process is
classified as warm extrusion. For low-carbon
steel, warm extrusion is carried out between 400
and 800 ∞C (750 and 1475 ∞F. The tooling used
for this process is similar to that used for cold
extrusion. Because the flow stress of steel is
Fig. 26 Forging sequence of the aircraft wheel. Courtesy of Weber Metals Inc. Source: Ref 13 lower at higher temperatures, larger reduction in
area is achievable, allowing a subsequent reduc-
tion in the number of stages required to manu-
facture a part. There is also a possibility for
using combined cold and warm extrusion.
Cold and warm forging are extremely important
and economical processes, especially for produc-
ing round or nearly round parts in large quantities.
Some of the advantages of these processes are:

● High production rates

● Excellent dimensional tolerances and sur-
face finish
● Significant savings in material and machining
● Higher tensile strengths in the forged part
than in the original material because of
strain hardening
● Favorable grain flow to improve strength
Fig. 27 Sections taken along the fitting to check for die filling at the blocker stage. Source: Ref 13
The most common extrusion processes encoun-
tered are forward rod and backward cup extrusion
(Fig. 29). Several combinations of extrusion
flash to be removed influences the volume of was achieved, and it was this stage of the simu- processes are possible, and other operations, such
material available for the subsequent forging lation, that was used to determine the stresses in as upsetting, heading, coining, embossing, and
stage and thus, the die filling and the die the dies. In order to reduce computational time, ironing, can be used in conjunction with extrusion.
stresses. The simulation strategy adopted for the the dies were kept rigid throughout the simula- Figure 30 gives an overview of the production se-
two components was to remove the flash in be- tion. At the last step, they were changed to elas- quence for cold forging of a gear blank. The oper-
tween stages. This was done by using the tic, and the stresses from the workpiece were in- ations consist of combined forward rod and back-
Boolean capability of DEFORM, that is, volume terpolated onto the dies. The results obtained ward cup extrusion followed by the simultaneous
manipulation. Die filling was checked by exam- from the die stress analysis simulations were the upsetting and coining of the shoulder.
ining various cross sections along the length of effective stress, the maximum principal stress, The main advantages of the cold extrusion
the forging (Fig. 27, 28). and the temperature distribution. Using these re- process are the large material savings compared
The simulations were stopped when die filling sults, an effective die design was established. with processes such as machining and other metal-
12 / Process Design and Workability

Top die A final advantage is the option of using steel of

lower strength for machine and construction ele-
ments without the need for further hardening. In
Die cold forging, the forming load and stresses are rel-
cavity atively higher than in hot forging, up to 2070 MPa
(300 ksi). Therefore, the tool or die design is quite
elaborate, and cold forging dies are relatively ex-
pensive. Thus, production of a large quantity of
parts is required to amortize the tool costs.
Flash Flash These advantages, combined with the wide
cavity possibilities of shapes that can be manufactured
by extrusion, have increased the popularity of
this process in the industry.
Bottom die
REFERENCES
Fig. 28 Section A-A of the fitting seen in Fig. 27 after the first blocker operation. Source: Ref 13
1. V. Vasquez and T. Altan, New Concepts in
Die Design—Physical and Computer
Modeling Applications, J. Mater. Process.
Technol., Vol 98, 2000, p 212–223
2. A.M. Sabroff et al., Forging Materials and
Practices, Reinhold, 1968.
3. K. Spies, “Preforming in Forging and
Preparation of Reducer Rolling,” Ph.D. dis-
sertation, University of Hannover, 1959
4. K. Vieregge, “Contribution to Flash Design
in Closed-Die Forging,” Ph.D. dissertation,
Technical University of Hannover, 1969
5. H.W. Haller, Handbook of Forging, Carl
Hanser Verlag, 1971 (in German)
6. K. Lange and H. Meyer-Nolkemper, Closed-Die
Fig. 29 Example of a component produced using forward rod and backward extrusion. Source: Ref 15 Forging, Springer-Verlag, 1977 (in German)
7. T. Altan, F.W. Boulger, J.R. Becker, N.
Akgerman, and H.J. Henning, Forging
Equipment, Materials and Practices,
Batelle Columbus, 1973
8. T. Altan, S.-I. Oh, and H.L. Gegel, Metal
Forming Fundamentals and Applications,
American Society for Metals, 1983
9. F. Neuberger and S. Pannasch, Material
Consumption in Die Forging of Steel, Vol
12, Fertiegungstechnik und Betrieb, 1962, p
775–779 (in German)
10. B.L. Jenkins, S.-I. Oh, and T. Altan,
Investigation of Defect Formation in a 3-
Station Closed-Die Forging Operation,
CIRP Ann., Vol 381, 1989, p 243
11. O. Brucelle and G. Bernhart, Methodology
for Service Life Increase of Hot Forging
Tools, J. Mater. Process. Technol., Vol 87,
1999, p 237
12. B. Snaith, S.D. Probert, and P.W. O’Callag-
han, Thermal Resistances of Pressed Contacts,
Appl. Energy, Vol 22, 1986, p 31–84
13. M. Shirgaokar, G. Ngaile, and T. Altan,
“Multistage Forging Simulations of Aircraft
Components,” Engineering Research Center
for Net Shape Manufacturing, ERC/NSM-
02-R-84, 2002
14. H.D. Feldman, Cold Extrusion of Steel,
Fig. 29 Common cold extrusion processes. (a) Forward rod extrusion. (b) Forward cup extrusion. (c) Backward cup Merkblatt 201, 1977 (in German)
extrusion. (d) Combined forward rod and backward cup extrusion. (e) Combined forward and backward cup 15. F. Sagemuller, Cold Impact Extrusion of
extrusion. P, punch; W, workpiece; C, container; E, ejector. Source: Ref 14
Large Formed Parts, Wire, No. 95, June
1968, p 2
forming processes, such as hot forging; and the advantages include good dimensional and form
higher productivity, that is, parts produced per error tolerances, good surface finish, and im-
hour, in comparison with other processes. Other proved mechanical properties of the workpieces.