@ OUTLINE 3-1 Introduction 3-2 The Diode as a Nonlinear Device 3-3 acand de Resistance 3-4 Analysis of de Circuits Containing Diodes 3-5 Elementary Power Supplies 3-6 Elementary Voltage Regulation 3-7 Diode Types, Ratings, and Specifications 3-8 Multisim Exercise Summary Exercises@ OBJECTIVES Develop an understanding of the operation of diodes in de circuits. Differentiate between the concepts of ac and de resistance in diodes. ‘Understand the load line concept in a simple diode circuit. Graphically visualize the half-wave and full-wave rectification process. Recognize the effect of capacitive filtering in a rectifier. Specify components for a simple power supply. 3-1 INTRODUCTION In Chapter 2 we studied the construction and properties of a pn junction and mentioned that a semiconductor diode is an example of an electronic device that contains such a junction. We learned about the I-V relationship (the diode equation) that describes mathematically the behavior of a diode and used it for obtaining the operating voltage and current in a simple diode cir- cuit. We also learned to identify in a circuit when a diode is forward or reverse biased and used this fact in the analysis of diode logic circuits. In this chapter we will study the diode as a circuit device or component of an electronic circuit with a specific function. We will also learn about mod- eling a diode as an ideal or semi-ideal device by replacing it with a simpler equivalent circuit element. This approach will serve as our introduction to this standard and widely used method of electronic circuit analysis: Replace actual devices by simpler equivalent circuits in order to obtain solutions that are sufficiently accurate for the application in which they are used. This analysis method allows us to use standard procedures of solution for de and ac circuits. Understand that this “replacement” of the diode by its equivalent circuit is done on paper only, in order to simplify calculations. Studying and understanding important concepts such as linearity, small- and large-signal operation, quiescent points, bias, load lines, and equivalent circuits are best accomplished by applying them to the analysis of the rela- tively simple diode circuit. In later chapters we will apply our knowledge of diode circuit analysis to the study of several practical circuits in which these versatile devices are used. Finally, this chapter will cover elementary power supplies (electronic cir- cuits used for converting ac voltage to de voltage) where diodes play a very important role. A section on elementary voltage regulation is included with the aim of allowing students to build their own multi-voltage power supply early in the course. 3-2_ THE DIODE AS A NONLINEAR DEVICE Linearity is an exceptionally important concept in electronics. For our pur- poses now, we can best understand the practical implications of this rather broad concept by restricting ourselves to the following definition of a linearelectronic device: A device is linear if the graph relating the voltage across it to the current through it is a straight line. If we have experimental data that shows measured values of voltage and _ the corresponding values of current, then it is a simple matter to plot these and determine whether the linearity criterion is satisfied. Often we have an equation that relates the voltage across a device to the current through it (or that relates the current to the voltage). If the equation is in one of the general forms V=al+a, or T= bV + bz where a, a2, 1, and b; are any constants, positive, negative, or 0, then the graph of V versus [is a straight line and the device is linear. In equation 3-1, 4a; is the slope of the line and has the units of ohms. In equation 3-2, b, is the slope and has the units siemens (formerly mhos). In fundamental circuit analysis courses, we learn that resistors, capacitors, and inductors are all linear electrical devices because their voltage-current equations are of the form of equations 3-1 and 3-2, such as V = IR, I= VY, Vi, = 1,X;, 0r Ie = VoXe, to name a few. In these voltage-current equations, we of course assume that any other _ circuit characteristics such as frequency are held constant. In other words, only the magnitudes of voltage and current are regarded as variables. In each case, all else being equal, increasing or decreasing the voltage causes a proportional increase or decrease in the current. Figure 3-1 is a plot of _ the voltage V across a 200-0) resistor versus the current I through it. The linearity property of the resistor is clearly evident and follows from the Ohm’s law relation V = 200/. Note that the slope of the line equals the resistance, r = AVIA! = 200 02, and that the Linear relation applies to negative voltages and currents as well as positive. Reversing the directions (polarities) of the voltage across and current through a linear device does not alter its linearity property. Note also that the slope of the line is every- where the same: No matter where along the line the computation AVIAI is performed, the result equals 200 1. When displaying the voltage-current relationship of an electronic device on a graph, it is conventional to plot current along the vertical axis and : along the horizontal axis—the reverse of that shown in Figure 3-1. Of course, the graph of a linear device is still a straight line; reversal of axes is equivalent to expressing the V-relation in te form of equation 3-2 with slope having the units of conductance, G = AI/AV = 1/R (siemens) instead of resistance. FIGURE 3-1 The graph of V versus I for a resistor is a straight line. A resistor is a linear device, and the value of AVIAI is the same no matter where it is computed.In Chapter 2 we stated that the current-voltage relation for apn junction (and therefore for a diode) is Ip = 1,(e0™"* = 1) 3) saturation where i current V; = thermal voltage ~ 26 mV at room temperature 1) =a function of Vp, whose value ranges between 1 and 2 Equation 3-3 is clearly not in the form of either equation 3-1 or 3-2, so the diode’s voltage-current relation does not meet the criterion for a linear electronic device. We conclude that a diode is a nonlinear device. Figure 3-2 is a graph of the -V characteristic of a typical silicon diode in its forward- biased region. The graph is most certainly not a straight line. Figure 3-2 shows how identical AV values result in different AT values along the I-V curve, revealing that the resistance AV/AI decreases (steeper slope) as diode current increases. Unlike a linear device, the resistance of a nonlinear device depends on the voltage across it (or current through it)— i.e., the resistance depends on the point where the values of AVand ATare cal- culated—specifically, at the biasing or operating point. In the case of a diode, we further note that the /-V characteristic becomes very nearly horizontal at low values of current and in the reverse-biased region (see Figure 2-12). Therefore, in these regions, large changes in voltage, AV, create very small changes in current, AI, so the value of AVIATis very large. ‘The region on the I-V curve where the transition from high resistance to low resistance takes place is called the knee of the curve. When the diode current is significantly greater or less than that in the vicinity of the knee, ‘we will say that it is biased above or below the knee, respectively. The biasing point is also called the quiescent point or Q-point, for short. low resistance high resistance Vp FIGURE 3-2 A forward-biased diode characteristic. The value of AIJAV depends upon the location where it is computed.3.3_ac AND de RESISTANCE eee rr The resistance AVIAI is called the ac (or dynamic) resistance of the diode. Itis called ac resistance because we consider the small change in voltage, AV, such as might be generated by an ac generator, causing a change in current, AL In using this graphical method to calculate the ac resistance, the changes AVand Al must be kept small enough to avoid covering sections of the I-V curve which there is an appreciable change in slope. Henceforth we will refer to the ac resistance of the diode as rp, where t lowercase ris in keeping with the convention of using lowercase letters fc ac quantities. Thus, let us define rp as VA ale (4) for small AV, and Alp about the operating point. For very small variations, Al,/AVp approaches the slope of the tangent at the Q-point. When a de voltage is applied across a diode, a certain de current will flow through it. The de resistance of a diode is found by dividing the de voltage across it by the de current through it. Thus the dc resistance, also called the static resistance, is found by direct application of Ohm’s law. We will desig- nate de diode resistance by Rp: Like ac resistance, the dc resistance of a diode depends on the point on the -V curve at which it is calculated. For instance, the de resistance of the diode at point A in Figure 3-2 is represented by a straight line that passes through the origin and point A. If the diode is biased at a larger cur- rent, it is apparent that the straight line will have a larger (steeper) slope, meaning that the de resistance will be smaller. (The larger the slo} the smaller the resistance.) We see that the diode is nonlinear in both the de and the ac sense; that is, both its de and ac resistances change over a wide range. ee When analyzing or designing diode circuits, it is often the case that the LV characteristic curve is not available. In most practical work, the ac resistance of a diode is not calculated graphically but is found using a widely accepted approximation. It can be shown that the ac resistance is closely approximated by rp = Vill, where Vy is the thermal voltage and I, is the de current amperes. For T = 300 K, V; is about 26 mV so at room temperature 7, = 26mV, Pew Tp ) This approximation is valid for both silicon and germanium diodes and is ob- tained using calculus by differentiating the diode equation = Ip = Ise”! with respect to Vp that is, ‘There is one additional component of diode resistance that should be men- tioned. The resistance of the semiconductor material and the contact resistance where the external leads are attached to the pn junction can be lumped to- gether and called the bulk resistance, rp, of the diode. Usually less than 1 0, theChapter 3 bulk resistance also changes with the de current in the diode, becoming quite small at high current levels. The total ac resistance of the diode is rp + ray but at low current levels rp is so much greater than rp that rs can usually be neg- lected. At high current levels, ry is typically on the order of 0.1 0. When a diode is connected in a circuit in a way that results in the diode being forward biased, there should always be resistance in series with the diode to limit the current that flows through it. The following example illustrates a practical circuit that could be used to determine I-V characteristics. The circuit shown in Figure 3-3 was connected to investigate the relation between the voltage and current in a certain diode. The adjustable voltage source was set to several different values in order to control the diode current, and the diode voltage was recorded at each setting. The results are tabulated in the table in Figure 3-3. 1, Find the de resistance of the diode when the voltage across it is 0.56, 0.62, and 0.67 V. 2. Find the ac resistances presented by the diode to an ac signal generator that causes the voltage across the diode to vary between 0.55 V and 0.57 V, between 0.61 V and 0.63 V, and between 0.66 V and 0.68 V. 3. Find the approximate ac resistances when the diode voltages are 0.56 V, 0.62 V, and 0.67 V. Assume bulk resistances of 0.8 2, 0.5 0, and 0.1 9, respectively. 1, The de diode resistances at the voltages specified are found from equa- tion 3-5, Ry = Vollp. At V = 0.56, 0.56 V Rp = = 538.50 ? 1.04 x 10° A At V=0.62V, 0.62 es = a Ro“ joax1a 74 (Example 31) Measurement ‘Number Homa) V (vols) 1 0.705 05s 2 108 056 3 iss 037 4 733 os 5 108 062 6 159 063 7 sil 0966 8 753 067 9 1108 068 R V) voltmeterAtV= .67 V, 0.67 V Pos reaxtota 7 8900 2. The ac diode resistances are found from equation 3-4, rp = AVp/Alp, as follows: oe (0.57 — 0.55) V he: 0.02 V ws ® "* (1.540.705) x 107A 0835x107a 73°95 a 0.02 V a oe pene es) 0.02 V. Re Sa KAUBATONE 3, The approximate ac resistances are found using relation (3-6), rp = 0.0261 and adding the bulk resistance rp. At V = 0.56 V, : 0.026 = Oe +08n=2580 +10 Tax tot +080 = 258 qt 050= 2910 Stn +010 = 04450 © 75.3 X 109A Note that each ac resistance calculated in part 3 is at a diode voltage in the middle of a range (AV) over which an ac resistance is calculated in art 2. We can therefore expect the approximations for rp to agree reasonably well with the values calculated using rp = AV;/Alp. The results bear out this fact. 344 _ ANALYSIS OF dc CIRCUITS CONTAINING DIODES a a adaceitciihiatahdchattatahteiatibtashtec In virtually every practical dc circuit containing a diode, there is one sim- plifying assumption we can make when the diode current is beyond the _ knee. We have seen (Figure 3-2, for example) that the I-V curve is se tially a vertical line above the knee. The implication of a vertical line an I-V characteristic is that the voltage across the device remains constant regardless of the current that flows through it. Thus the voltage drop a diode remains substantially constant for all current values above th knee. This fact is responsible for several interesting applications of diodes. For present purposes, it suggests that the diode is equivalent to another familiar device that has this same property of maintaining a constan voltage, independent of current: a voltage source! Indeed, our first sim fied equivalent circuit of a diode is a voltage source having a potenti equal to the (essentially) constant drop across it when the current is abo the knee. Figure 3-4(a) shows a simple circuit containing a forward-biased diode. Assuming the current is above the knee, the diode can be replaced by a 07 source as shown in Figure 3-4(b). a» aE O3V ie ory” é (@) germanium (b) silicon FIGURE 3-4 For analysis purposes, FIGURE 3-5 Idealized characteristic the forward-biased diode in (a) can be curves. The diodes are assumed to be replaced by a voltage source, as in (b) open circuits until the forward-biasing voltages are reached. ‘The idealized characteristic curves in Figure 3-5 imply that the diode is an open circuit (infinite resistance, zero current) for all voltages less than 0.3V or 0.7¥ and becomes a short circuit (zero resistance) when one of those voltage values is reached. These approximations are quite valid in most real situations. Note that it is not possible to have, say, 5V across a forward-biased diode. If a diode were connected directly across a +5-V source, it would act like a short circuit and damage either the source, the diode, or both. When troubleshooting a circuit that contains a diode that is supposed to be forward biased, a diode voltage measurement greater than 0.3 V or 0.7 V means that the diode has failed and is in fact open. In some de circuits, the voltage drop across a forward-biased diode may be so small in comparison to other de voltages in the circuit that it ‘can be neglected entirely. For example, suppose a circuit consists of a 25-V source in series with a 1-k0 resistor in series with a germanium diode. Then T = (25 — 0.3)/(1 k) = 24.7 mA. Neglecting the drop across the diode, we would calculate I = 25/(1 k®) = 25 mA, a result that in most practical situations would be considered close enough to 24,7 mA to be accurate. MMMM arcs cae cho aticon diode in Figure 2-6 requires a minimum current of 1 mA to be above the knee of its I-V characteristic. R 1, What should be the value of R to establish 5 mA in the circuit? 5 2. With the value of R calculated in (1), what is the minimum value to which Easy the voltage E could be reduced and still maintain diode current above ‘ 1 the knee? Solution 1. If Lis to equal 5 mA, we know that the voltage across the diode will be 0.7 V. Therefore, solving for R, ‘ E 5 -0.7)V = =], = 860 . £. 5x 103A e 2. In order to maintain the diode current above the knee, J must be at least 1 mA. Thus, Therefore, since R = 860 9,or E> (860 x 10) + 0.7 E21.56V Circuits containing dc sources and two or more diodes can be analyzed through general circuit analysis by assuming a conducting or nonconductin state for each diode according to the polarity or orientation of the sources. Each diode assumed to be conducting is replaced by a 0.7-V or 0.3-V sot Even in cases where the conduction state is not obvious, one can assume an arbitrary state and solve for the currents. If a diode is assumed to be forward biased and the calculated forward current turns out to be negative, it means. that the diode is not conducting and should be replaced by an open circuit. Obviously, the circuit needs to be reanalyzed with the new condition, An example illustrating the concept follows. ecu Determine the current through each branch in the following circuit (Figure 3-7). Assume silicon diodes. Solution Assuming both diodes are conducting, we replace both with 0.7-V sources as. indicated in Figure 3-8 and write the two mesh equations according to tht assigned directions for J, and I, Mesh 1: 3%, ~ 2f, = 13.6 (using V, k, and mA) Mesh 2: ~ 21, + SI, = ~4.3 Using Kramer's rule or any of the other methods, we obtain 1,=5.4mA = Ip, andl, = 1.3mA ‘The (forward) current through D,, according to KCL, is then Ip) = 5.4-13=4.1mA Because both diode currents turned out to be positive, both diodes are indeed conducting and the answers are all correct. 3kO reo OLN 3k0 1 io 2K i e 2k, Fe 1SV SV... ISV n ks 4 aS = =o07V FIGURE 3-7 (Example 3-3) FIGURE 3-8 (Example 3-3) Sketch the output voltage V, in the following circuit for the variable inp voltage Vs depicted in Figure 3-9. Solution ‘When Vs = 0, the diode is reverse biased and is therefore an open circuit. The ‘output voltage at this point is also zero. As Vsincreases, the diode will continue being open and V, will be equal to, or track, V; since no drop occurs across the2v ov Vs 6 Chapter 3 Vs (sec) 0s 1 15 2 (Example 3-4) Vo 18 6 axa a ko: Vo = ny (sec) ih | sing a 0s 1 1s 2 (Example 3-4) E311 (Example 3-4) series resistor. The diode starts conducting at t = 0.5 sec when Vs = 6 V, that is, when it overcomes the 5.3-V battery plus the 0.7-V diode drop. When the diode is conducting, the equivalent circuit in Figure 3-10 results. Using superposition and the voltage-division rule, we can write (using V, mA, and k®) an expression for V, as a function of Vs: 1 3 v, (Ga)re+ (Gq) s= 025% +45 (Vs=6V) Alternatively, we could have written the loop current I = ( V; ~ 6)/4, from which we obtain the voltage V, as -6 V, =) +6= +6=0.25 Vs + 4.5V (Vs=6V) 4 According to this expression, when Vs = 6V at t = 0.5 sec, V, = 0.25(6) + 4. GY, as expected. At t = 1 sec, when Vs = 12V, V, is 0.25(12) + 4.5 = 7.5V. Using symmetry, we can determine the behavior of the circuit for 1 < t < 2. The resulting waveform for V, is illustrated in Figure 3-11.The Load Line The concept of biasing a diode by means of a voltage source and a series resistor can also be seen from a graphical perspective. In later chapters, we will see that this graphical analysis applies to other devices as well. Consider the diode circuit of Figure 3-12. According to KVL, the loop equation yields In = (E ~ Vp)/R = ~ (UR)Vp + EIR. Note that this equation is a straight line (recall y = mx + 6) with slope —V/R and y-intercept (Ip-intercept, in our case) EIR. The relationship between V, and Ip also obeys the diode equation, namely: Tp = Tero So if we plot both the straight line and the exponential diode curve as shown in Figure 3-12, the crossing point will clearly represent the simultaneous solution of the two equations. The coordinates of this point are the operating voltage and current of the diode for the given E and R values, that is, the biasing operating point (Q-point). If the resistor R is reduced in value, the slope of the straight line will be steeper (dotted line) with the crossing point at a higher current as expected. To further illustrate the point, suppose we wanted to reduce the cur- rent back to its original value but now by reducing the source voltage E. This effect can also be seen graphically as the shifting of the straight line _ to the left while maintaining the same slope (same resistance) as shown in the figure. The process just described dealt with changing the resistance or the source voltage to change the operating point. Now let us look at what hap- pens if, for instance, the diode is exposed to higher temperatures. As we know, the diode drop decreases at a rate of approximately ~2.2 mV/°C, _ Figure 3-12 shows how the operating point moves according to the shifting of the diode curve due to change in temperature. As temperature increases, Vog decreases and Ing increases. In this situation, of course, we are not deal ing with changing the operating point for design purposes, but with undesirable effect of having the operating point displaced due to changes in temperature, 3-5 ELEMENTARY POWER SUPPLIES A typical application of diodes is in the construction of de power supplies, which are electronic circuits that convert ac voltage to de voltage, or dc volt- age to a different de voltage. Every electronic apparatus needs a p supply to operate. In this section, we will learn about the different bas schemes of obtaining de voltage from an ac voltage source, such as a household outlet. We will first look at the behavior of a diode when it is operated under signal conditions, that is, when the current and voltage changes it undergo extend over a large portion of its characteristic curve, from full conduction to reverse biasing and vice versa. When this is the case, the diode resistance w change between very small and very large values and, for all practical p poses, the diode will behave very much like a switch. An ideal (perfect) switch has zero resistance when closed and it resistance when open. Similarly, an ideal diode for large-signal applicati one whose resistance changes between these same two extremes. When ana- lyzing such circuits, itis often helpful to think of the diode as a voltage-controlled switch: A forward-biasing voltage closes it, and a zero or reverse-biasing vol opens it. Depending on the magnitudes of other voltages in the circuit, thIm Chapter 3 Vg E E Qpoint displacement due to changes in load line and temperature or 0.7-V drop across the diode when it is forward biased may or may not be negligible. Figure 3-13 shows the idealized characteristic curve for a silicon diode (a) when the 0.7-V drop is neglected and (b) when it is not. In case (a), the characteristic curve is the same as that of a perfect switch. One of the most common uses of a diode in large-signal operation is in a rectifier circuit. A rectifier is a device that permits current to flow through it in one direction only. It is easy to see how a diode performs this function when we think of it as a voltage-controlled switch. When the anode voltage is positive with respect to the cathode, i.e., when the diode is forward biased, the “switch is closed” and current flows through it from anode to cathode. If the anode becomes negative with respect to the cathode, the “switch is open” Idealized ; Fs silicon diode characteristics, used for large-signal analysis 0 IV E () EV characteristic when the diode is Iteated as a perfect, Treated as a perfect Sitch having © voltage Switch that closes when ar0p. V'= 0.7 vols.FIGURE 3-14 The diode ao, used as a rectifier. Current flows only during the positive Pa ¥ ah half-cycle of the input. A i © > te Beas eae ah and no current flows. Of course, a real diode is not perfect, so there is in fact some very small reverse current that flows when it is reverse biased. Also, we know, there is a nonzero voltage drop across the diode when it is forwar biased (0.3 or 0.7 V), a drop that would not exist if it were a periect switch. Consider the rectifier circuit shown in Figure 3-14. We see in the figure that an ac voltage source is connected across a diode and a resistor, R, the latter de- signed to limit current flow when the diode is forward biased. Notice that no de source is present in the circuit. Therefore, during each positive half-cycle of the ac source voltage e(t), the diode is forward biased and current flows through itin the direction shown. During each negative half-cycle of e(t) the diode is re- verse biased and no current flows. The waveforms of e(t) and i(t) are sketched in the figure. We see that i(t) is a series of positive current pulses separated by intervals of zero current. Also sketched is the waveform of the voltage ug(¢) that is developed across Ras a result of the current pulses that flow through it. Note that the net effect of this circuit is the conversion of an ac voltage into a pul- sating de voltage, a fundamental step in the construction of a de power supply. If the diode in the circuit of Figure 3-14 is turned around so that the anode is connected to the resistor and the cathode to the generator, then the diode will be forward biased during the negative half-cycles of the sine wave. The current would then consist of a sequence of pulses representing current flow in a counterclockwise, or negative, direction around the circuit. Assume that the silicon diode in the circuit of Figure 3-15 has a characteris tic like that shown in Figure 3-13(b). Find the peak values of the current i(t) and the voltage vg(t) across the resistor when 1. e(t) = 20 sin ot, and Solution ai 1. When e(t) = 20 sin ot, the peak positive voltage generated is 20V. At the instant e(t) = 20V, the voltage across the resistor is 20 — 0.7 19.3V,and the current is i = 19.3/(1.5 kM) = 12.87 mA. Figure 3-16 shows resulting waveforms. Note that because of the characteristic assumed i Figure 3-13(b), the diode does not begin conducting until e(t) reaches +0.7 V and ceases conducting when ¢(t) drops below 0.7 V. The time interval between the point where e(t) = 0V and e(t) = 0.7 Vis very short in comparison to the half-cycle of conduction time, From a practical FIGURE 3-15 (Example 3-5)intervals of 46 Diode current and voltage in the FIGURE 3-17_ Diode current and voltage in Figure 3-15, Note that the diode does not__the circuit of Figure 3-15 when the sine wave ict until e(t) reaches 0.7 V, so short intervals of __ peak is reduced to 1.5V. Note that the intervals ynduction occur during each positive half-cycle. of nonconduction are much longer than those in Figure 3-16. standpoint, we could have assumed the characteristic in Figure 3-13(a), i.e., neglected the 0.7-V drop, and the resulting waveforms would have differed little from those shown. 2. When e(2) = 1.5 sin ot, the peak positive voltage generated is 1.5V. At that instant, vd(t) = 1.5 — 0.7 = 0.8V and i(z) = (0.8 V)/(1.5 kQ) = 0.533 mA. The waveforms are shown in Figure 3-17. Note once again that the diode does not conduct until e(t) = 0.7 V. However, in this case, the time interval between e(t) = OV and e(t) = 0.7 V is a significant portion of the conduct- ing cycle. Consequently, current flows in the circuit for significantly less time than one-half cycle of the ac waveform. In this case, it clearly would not be appropriate to use Figure 3-13(a) as an approximation for the char- acteristic curve of the diode. ‘As already mentioned, an important application of diodes is in the con- struction of de power supplies. It is instructive at this time to consider how diode rectification and waveform filtering, the first two operations performed by every power supply, are used to create an elementary de power source. ‘The single-diode circuit in Figure 3-14 is called a half-wave rectifier, because the waveforms it produces (i(¢) and vq(¢)) each represent half a sine wave. These half-sine waves are a form of pulsating dc and by themselves are of little practical use. (They can, however, be used for charging batteries, an application in which a steady de current is not required.) Capacitive Filtering Most practical electronic circuits require a de voltage source that produces and maintains a constant voltage. For that reason, the pulsating half-sine ‘waves must be converted toa steady de level. This conversion is accomplished by filtering the waveforms. Filtering is a process in which selected frequency components of a complex waveform are rejected (filtered out) so that they do not appear in the output of the device (the filter) performing the filtering operation. The pulsating half-sine waves (like all periodic waveforms) can be regarded as waveforms that have both a dc component and ac components.Our purpose in filtering these waveforms for a de power supply is to reject _ all the ac components. It can be shown that the average (or dc) value of ah ‘ wave rectified waveform is given by Vee ie (half-wave) where Vpp = peak value of the rectified waveform = V/2Vim — 0.7 V. This average or de value is what a de voltmeter would read connected across the load resistor. The simplest kind of filter that will perform the filtering task we h just described is a capacitor. Recall that a capacitor has reactance inve1 proportional to frequency: X; = 1/2nfC. Thus, if we connect a capacit directly across the output of a half-wave rectifier, the ac components will “see” a low-impedance path to ground and will not, therefore, appear in the output. Figure 3-18 shows a filter capacitor, C, connected in this way. In this circuit the capacitor charges to the peak value of the rectified waveform, Vig, so the output is the dc voltage Vr. Note that Viz = Vp ~ Vp, where Vp is the peak value of the sinusoidal input and Vp is the de voltage drop across the diode (0.7 V for silicon). In practice, a power supply must provide de current to whatever load it is designed to serve, and this load current causes the capacitor to discharge and its voltage to drop. The capacitor discharges during the intervals of between input pulses. Each time a new input pulse occurs, the capaci recharges. Consequently, the capacitor voltage rises and falls in synch with the occurrence of the input pulses. These ideas are illustrated in F 3-19. The output waveform is said to have a ripple voltage superimposed its de level, Vj. When the peak-to-peak value of the output ripple voltage, Veg is small. compared to V,., (a condition called light loading), we can assume that the load current is essentially constant and will discharge the capacitor li according to the basic equation aj Jat Beeccn G4) where AV is the reduction in capacitor voltage over the time interval At and Tis the current discharging the capacitor. Notice that At, within our discus- sion, is very close to the period of the rectified waveform; therefore, replacing AV with Vj», we can write the following expression: olay ola "FC FRC where = load current frequency of the rectified waveform C = filter capacitance FIGURE 3-18 Filter binne capacitor C effectively removes the ac components from the half-wave rectified waveform, ee diode rectifieret aveform wth iter ‘ ‘capacitor and load > fesitance connected ‘current, (load) load resistance ce, Eqprren input current Ay pulses are when input Re present | puhesare ‘bent ‘The de voltage across the load is the average of the maximum and mini- mum values caused by the ripple voltage. This can clearly be approximated as the maximum value minus one half of Vjp, expressly Vr Veseva ss (3-13) or Wee ieee (3-14) Sole ane Note that this form is expressed in terms of I, which is the most general situation. However, in the case where the load is a fixed resistance R,, I, can be replaced with V;JR,, vielding V; ete asd (3-15) Mahe Observing a rectified and filtered waveform, itis obvious that the smaller the variation Vy», the more the waveform will resemble a pure de voltage. The variation portion is known as ripple and the value Vpp is known as the ripple voltage, Furthermore, the ratio of the ripple voltage to the de or average volt- age is known as the ripple factor or percent ripple and represents a measure of show close the filtered waveform resembles a dc voltage. Obviously, low rip- ple factors are desirable and can be achieved by properly selecting the capacitor value. The ripple factor r is then expressed by Ripple factors of up to 10% are typically acceptable in noncritical applica- tions. However, precision electronic circuits could require supply voltages with very low ripple factors. Although ripple factors could be reduced arbitrarily by using large capacitor values, a more practical solution is to use special circuits called voltage regulators that not only reduce the ripple voltage substantially but also maintain a constant de voltage under variable load current. These circuits will be addressed later in the chapter.The sinusoidal input, ¢, in Figure 3-19 is 120.V rms and has frequency 60 Hz, The load resistance is 2 k@ and the filter capacitance is 100 pF. Assuming light loading and neglecting the voltage drop across the diode, a 1. find the de value of the load voltage; 2. find the peak-to-peak value of the ripple voltage. Solution 1, The peak value of the sinusoidal input voltage is Vp = V2 (120 Vrms) 169.7 V. Since the voltage drop across the diode can be neglected, Veg Vp = 169.7 V. From equation 3-15, ie er ___ = 1629 1+ 5060 H)(2 k)(400 uF) 2. From equation 3-12, 162.9V. Ver = 6 Hz)(2 k0)(100 nF) ~ 397 V Full-Wave Rectification os to produce an output that is a sequence of positive half-pulses with no inter- vals between them. Figure 3-20 shows a widely used full-wave rectifier con- structed from four diodes and called a full-wave diode bridge. Also shown is _ the full-wave rectified output. In this case, the average or de value of the rectified waveform is qlee (full-wave) 316) Note that on each half-cycle of input, current flows through two diodes, so the peak value of the rectified output is Vox = Vp - 2Vp or Vp ~— 1.4V_ for silicon. ‘ As in the half-wave rectifier, the full-wave rectified waveform can be fil- tered by connecting a capacitor in parallel with load R,. The advantage of full-wave rectifier is that the capacitor does not discharge so far between input pulses, because a new charging pulse occurs every half-cycle instead of every full cycle. Consequently, the magnitude of the output ripple voltage. smaller. This fact is illustrated in Figure 3-21. Equations 3-12 and 3-14 for Vpp and V,, are valid for both half-wave and full-wave rectifiers. Note that jin those equations is the frequency of the tified waveform, which, in a full-wave rectifier, is twice the frequency of the 4 vy PIGURE 3-20 The full-wave bridge rectifier and output waveform. The arrows show the direction of current flow when ¢, is positive.ae ae 21 The ripple output Ye (unre) % capacior recharges between haf eles the half-wave fabes sche capacitor ipl oa sat shorter intervals. Z if cance discharges unrectified sine wave (see Figure 3-21). If the same input and component values used in Example 3-6 are used to compute Vj. and Vpp for a full-wave rectifier (f, = 120 Hz), we find Vg = 277 __ = 166.2 1+ 5120 Hi)(2 kA)(100 nF) and 166.2 V Ver = G20 Hay(2 k1)(100 uF) ~ 92 Note that the value of the ripple voltage is one-half that found for the half- wave rectifier. Another means of obtaining full-wave rectification is through a center- tapped transformer and two diodes, as shown in Figure 3-22. Assume that the transformer is wound so that terminal A on the secondary is positive with respect to terminal B at an instant of time when v;, is positive, as signified by the polarity symbols (dot convention) shown in the figure. Then, with the center tap as reference (ground), v, is positive with respect to ground and vp is negative with respect to ground. Similarly, when v,, is negative, v, is negative with respect to ground and vy is positive with respect to ground. Figure 3-22(b) shows that when v,, is positive, v, forward biases diode D,. ‘Asa consequence, current flows in a clockwise loop through R,, Figure 3-22(c) shows that when v,, is negative, D, is reverse biased, D, is forward biased, and current flows through R,, in a counterclock-wise loop. Notice that the voltage developed across R, has the same polarity in either case. Therefore, positive voltage pulses are developed across R, during both the positive and negative half-cycles of v;,. and a full-wave-rectified waveform is created. ‘The peak rectified voltage is the secondary voltage in the transformer, between center tap and one side, less the diode drop: Von = Vp - 0.7 (3-17) where Vpis the peak secondary voltage per side. To determine the maximum reverse bias to which each diode is sub- jected, refer to the circuit in Figure 3-23. Here, we show the voltage drops in the rectifier when diode D, is forward biased and diode D, is reverse biased. Neglecting the 0.7-V drop across Dy, the voltage across R,, is v, volts. Thus the ‘cathode-to-ground voltage of D; is v4 volts. Now, the anode-to-ground voltage of D, is — vg volts, as shown in the figure. Therefore, the total reverse bias across D, is v4 + vp volts, as shown. When v, is at its positive peak, vp is at its negative peak, so the maximum reverse bias equals twice the peak value of either. We conclude that the PIV (peak inverse voltage) rating of each diode must be equal to at least twice the peak value of the rectified voltage: PIV 2 2VpeFIGURE 3-22 A full-wave fier employing a center- tapped transformer and two rec diodes + erretivieg (0) Current ow when v8 postive. Dy is (6) Current low when neg Dy forward biased and By revere bibed reves iad and Dy fore FIGURE 3-23 Diode D, is Db reverse biased by v4 + vp volts, which has a maximum value of 2Vg volts si) ‘The primary voltage in the circuit shown in Figure 3-24 is 120V rms, and secondary voltage is 60V rms from side to side (60 VCT). Find 1. the average value of the voltage across Ri; 2. the (approximate) average power dissipated by R,; and 3. the minimum PTV rating required for each diode. Solution 1. Vp = V2(30) = 42.4 V per side From equation 3-17, Vox = Vp — 0.7 V = 42.4 - 0.7V = 41.7V. Although equation 3-16 does not strictly apply to a rectified wavef with 0.7-V nonconducting gaps, it is a good approximation when the p value is so much greater than 0.7 V; Wop _ 2(41.7 V) Ving = Te a ™ aFIGURE 3-24 (Example 3-7) Ry, = 1000 Peavadege ee, = 417 V v2 v2 Vong _ (29.5 V)* Peg oon 7 87 3. PIV 2 2Vpp = 2(41.7) = 83.4,V Capacitive filtering with the center-tap configuration is identical to that described for the diode-bridge circuit. The only difference is the peak volt- ‘age of the rectified waveform which, in this case, involves only one diode drop. Remember that in this configuration, the circuit rectifies the voltage from the center tap to each side of the transformer in alternating half-cycles. For example, if the secondary of a transformer is rated 18 VCT, meaning 18 volts rms with a center tap, the peak voltage of the rectified waveform Vix will be 9 x 1.414 — 0.7, or about 12V. Although the elementary power supplies we have described can be used in applications where the presence of some ripple voltage is acceptable, where the exact value of the output voltage is not critical, and where the load does not change appreciably, more sophisticated power supplies have more elaborate filters and special circuitry (voltage regulators) that maintain a constant output voltage under a variety of operating conditions. These refinements are discussed in detail in Chapter 13. Voltage Multipliers Diodes and capacitors can be connected in various configurations to pro- duce filtered, rectified voltages that are integer multiples of the peak value of an input sine wave. By using a transformer to change the amplitude of an ‘ac voltage before it is applied to a voltage multiplier, a wide range of de Jevels can be produced using this technique. One advantage of a voltage multiplier is that high voltages can be obtained without using a high-voltage transformer. HALF-WAVE VOLTAGE DOUBLER Figure 3-25(a) shows a half-wave volt- age doubler. When vj, first goes positive, diode D; is forward biased and diode Dy is reverse biased. Because the forward resistance of D, is quite small, C, charges rapidly to Vp (neglecting the diode drop), as shown in (b). During the ensuing negative half-cycle of vn. D, is reverse biased and D, is forward biased, as shown in (c). Consequently, C; charges rapidly, with polarity shown. ‘Neglecting the drop across D2, we can write Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the loop at the instant v,, reaches its negative peak, and obtain Vp = -Vp + Vo, orFIGURE 3-25 A half-wave voltage doubler (© C, charges o 2Vp during the negative half cyce of Vy, Vo,=2Vp (3-18) During the next positive half-cycle of vi», D. is again reverse biased and the voltage across the output terminals remains at Vc, = 2Vp volts. Note carefully the polarity of the output. If a load resistor is connected across C, then C; _ will discharge into the load during positive half-cycles of v,, and willrecharge _ to 2V, volts during negative half-cycles, creating the usual ripple waveform. _ ‘The PIV rating of each diode must be at least 2Vp volts. FULL-WAVE VOLTAGE DOUBLER Figure 3-26(a) shows a full-wave volt- age doubler. This circuit is the same as the full-wave bridge rectifier shown in Figure 3-20, with two of the diodes replaced by capacitors. When vj, is positive, D, conducts and C; charges to Vp volts, as shown in (b). When Unis negative, D, conducts and C, charges to Vp volts, with the polarity shown in (©). Its clear that the output voltage is then Vc, + Vc, = 2Vp volts. Since one or the other of the capacitors is charging during every half-cycle, the output is the same as that of a capacitorfiltered, full-wave rectifier. Note, however, that the effective filter capacitance is that of C, and C, in series, which is les than either C, or C;, The PIV rating of each diode must be at least 2V» volts VOLTAGE TRIPLER AND QUADRUPLER By connecting additional diode-_ capacitor sections across the half-wave voltage doubler, output voltages equal to three and four times the input peak voltage can be obtained. The circuit shown in Figure 3-27. When »,, first goes positive, C, charges to Vp throug! forward-biased diode D;. On the ensuing negative half-cycle, C, charges throu D, and, as demonstrated earlier, the voltage across C, equals 2V». During next positive half-cycle, D, is forward biased and C, charges to the same volté attained by C,: 2V, volts. On the next negative half-cycle, D, and D, are forward biased and C, charges to 2V» volts. As shown in the figure, the voltage across th combination of C, and C, is 3V» volts, and that across C, and C, is 4Vp voltsfulliwave voltage doubler FIGURE 3-27 Voltage tripler and quadrupler Additional stages can be added in an obvious way to obtain even greater mul- tiples of Vp. The PIV rating of each diode in the circuit must be at least 2V; volts. 3-6 ELEMENTARY VOLTAGE REGULATION A basic power supply consisting of a transformer, one or more diodes, and a capacitor filter is subject to output voltage variations caused by changes in the load current and the ac line voltage to which the primary of the trans- former is connected. If the de voltage provided by the power supply needs to ‘be constant regardless of the changes just mentioned, some form of voltage regulation must be employed. A simple form of voltage regulation can be obtained by using a zener diode, mentioned in Chapter 2, or by employing a three-terminal integrated-circuit (IC) voltage regulator with fixed or adjustable voltage. More advanced power supplies and voltage regulators will be presented later in this text where additional electrical parameters and temperature effects will also be addressed. The Zener-Diode Voltage Regulator Zener diodes are specifically designed for operating in their reverse-bias region and are fabricated with a specific zener (avalanche) voltage and power rating. Their forward-bias behavior is no different from common diodes.forward: biased region FIGURE 3-28 I-V characteristic of a FIGURE 3-29 A simple voltage regulator using zener diode azener diode Figure 3-28 shows a typical I-V characteristic for a zener diode. The forward-biased characteristic is identical to that of a forward-biased silicon diode and obeys the same diode equation that we developed in Chapter 2 (equation 2-2). The zener diode is normally operated in its reverse-biased_ breakdown region, where the voltage across the device remains substantiall constant as the reverse current varies over a large range. Like a fixed voltage source, this ability to maintain a constant voltage across its terminals, inde- Pendent of current, is what makes the device useful asa voltage reference. The fixed breakdown voltage is called the zener voltage, V;, as illustrated in the figure. : ‘To demonstrate how a zener diode can serve as a constant voltage refer- ence, Figure 3-29 shows a simple but widely used configuration that main- _ tains a constant voltage across a load resistor. Notice the orientation of V, anc Jy, The circuit is an elementary voltage regulator that holds the load voltage near V; volts as R,, and/or V; undergo changes. So the voltage across the par- allel combination of the zener and R, remains at V, volts, the reverse current I, through the diode must at all times be large enough to keep the device in its breakdown region, as shown in Figure 3-28. The value selected for Ry is _ critical in that respect. As we shall presently demonstrate, Ry must be small _ enough to permit adequate zener current, yet large enough to prevent the. zener current and power dissipation from exceeding permissible limits. A couple of rules regarding the operation of the zener diode in Figure 3-29 should be addressed at this point: "The zener current changes in direct proportion to input voltage variations. © = The zener current changes in inverse proportion to load current variat This is because the zener diode adjusts its current in order to increase o decrease the voltage drop across Ry and hence maintain a constant voltage Vz. If Vs increases, I, increases, and vice versa; if I, increases, I, decreases, and vice versa. 2 It is apparent in Figure 3-29 that kekth Also, Is is the voltage difference across Rs divided by Re: Vs — Vz eee‘The power dissipated in the zener diode is Pr = Vole (321) Solving equation 3-20 for Rs, we find pet (3-22) ae Te +h, Sree Let [,(min) denote the minimum zener current necessary to ensure that the diode is in its breakdown region. As mentioned earlier, Ry must be small ‘enough to ensure that the (min) flows under worst-case conditions, namely, when Vs falls to its smallest possible value, Vs(min), and I, reaches its largest possible value, I, (max). Thus, from (3-23), we require Vamin) ~ Vz Rs Emin) + I,(max) (3-24) With the established value for Re, we can now determine the actual power dissipation for the resistor and the zener diode. Obviously, maximum power will be dissipated by the resistor when the input voltage is maximum; that is, Px(max) = (V{max) — V;)?/Rs (3-25) Because the zener voltage is constant, maximum power will be dissipated by the zener diode when I, is maximum. This happens when V; is maximum and f, is minimum according to the preceding rules. Therefore, Ie(max) = Heats = (min) (3-26) and P,{max) = Vs.(max) (3-27) Note that the power rating for Rs should be three or four times the actual ‘maximum power dissipated by Rs. However, such a large safety factor is not necessary for the zener diode. A 50% safety margin is very adequate in this case. For example, if the maximum dissipated power in a zener diode is, say, 600 milliwatts, a 1-watt zener diode will do the job. Regarding the minimum zener current necessary to keep the diode in its avalanche region (i.e., maintaining regulation), a good rule of thumb is, to use 5% to 10% of the maximum load current but no less than a few mil- liamps in the case of small load currents. For instance, if the maximum load current is 150 mA, the minimum zener current can be set at about 10 mA or so. But if it is only about 10 mA, then the minimum zener current should probably not be set at about 1 mA but more like 3 or 4 mA. It is im- portant to note that, as far as zener dissipation is concerned, the worst- case load condition in some applications may correspond to an open output; that is, R, = © and J, ~ 0. In that case, all of the current through Rg flows in the zener. In the circuit of Figure 3-29, Ry = 20.0, Vz = 18 V, and R, = 200.0. If Vs can vary from 20V to 30, find1. the minimum and maximum currents in the zener diode; 2, the minimum and maximum power dissipated in the diode; and 3. the rated power dissipation that R, should have. Solution 1. Assuming that the zener diode remains in breakdown, then the load age remains constant at V, = 18 V, and the load current therefore constant at From equation 3-20, when Vs; = 20V, (20 V) - (18 V) 200 Therefore, I, = Is ~ I, = (100 mA) ~ (90 mA) = 10 mA. When Vs = 30V, (30.V) - (18 Vv) _ soa = 600 mA [s — I, = (600 mA) ~ (90 mA) = 510 mA. Is = 100 mA. I and I, 2. P(min) = Vzlp(min) = (18 V)(10 mA) = 180 mW s P,(max) = Vzl(max) = (18 V)(510 mA) = 9.18 W 3. Pg,(max) = I3(max)Rs = (0.6)"(20) = 7.2 W (rated power should be 20W) the regulator circuit shown in Figure 3-30, where Vs can vary from 15V to 20 V. Note that the load can be switched out of the regulator circuit in Rs have? Solution Vs(min) = 15V Icmin) = 5 mA R,(min) = R,, = 500 0 (when the switch is closed) Therefore, from equation 3-24, Vs(min) ~ Vz (15 = 10) V Rs" 7 fmnin) + VaRy(min) ~ (mA) + (0 ‘V)500 ) FIGURE 3-30 (Example 3-9) this application. Find a value for Rs. What power dissipation rating should_ (20 = 10)? Fe 200 Vs(max) = 20 V, I,(min) = 0 (switch open) Vgamax) — Vz j, 20-10 perenne ier) 00 Pmax) = (10 V)(50 mA) = 0.5 W 0.5 W (use 2-watt rating) Imax) = -0=50mA ‘The zener diode is operating well under its power rating. ‘An unregulated de power supply provides a de voltage that can vary between 18 and 22V. Design a 15-volt zener voltage regulator for a load having J, (min) 20 mA and J, (max) = 120 mA. Specify resistor and zener diode values, including power ratings. Solution First, the resistor value is calculated based on worst-case conditions for the minimum zener current. Minimum zener current occurs when Vs is mini- mum and f, is maximum, Using equation 3-24 with I; (min) = 5% of I; (max), ‘we obtain Vs(min) ~ Vz _ 18 ~ 15 A,(max) + [,{min) 120 + 6 ‘From equation 3-25, % 3.8.0 (use 24 ohms) 22 - 15)? P,,max) = ew = 2.04 W (use rating of 5 or 7 watts) From equation 3-26, I,{max) = 2 15 02a\= 272mA P,{max) = (15 V)(272 mA) = 4.08 W (use a 5-watt zener diode) Temperature Effects The breakdown voltage of a zener diode is a function of the width of its depletion region, which is controlled during manufacturing by the degree of impurity doping. Recall that heavy doping increases conductivity, which nar- rows the depletion region and therefore decreases the voltage at which break- down occurs. Zener diodes are available with breakdown voltages ranging from 2.4 to 200V. As noted in Chapter 2, the mechanism by which breakdown occurs depends on the breakdown voltage itself. When V; is less than about 5 V, the high electric field intensity across the narrow depletion region (around 3 x 10’ V/m) strips carriers directly from their bonds, a phenomenon usually called zener breakdown. For V, greater than about 8 V, breakdown ‘occurs as a result of collisions between high-energy carriers, the mechanism called avalanching. Between 5V and 8Y, both the avalanching and zener mech- anisms contribute to breakdown. The practical significance of these facts is that the breakdown mechanism determines how temperature variations affect the value of V;. Low-voltage zener diodes that break down by the zener mechanism have negative temperature coefficients (Vz decreases withincreasing temperature) and higher-voltage avalanche zeners have positive temperature coefficients. When V; is between about 3 V and 8 V, the temper- ature coefficient is also strongly influenced by the current in the diode: The coefficient may be positive or negative, depending on current, becoming more positive as current increases. The temperature coefficient of a zener diode is defined to be its change in breakdown voltage per degree Celsius increase in temperature. For example, a temperature coefficient of +8 mV/°C means that V, willincrease 8 mV for each degree Celsius increase in temperature. Temperature stability is the ratio of the temperature coefficient to the breakdown voltage. Expressed as a percent, S(%) = = x 100% (3-28) where .C. is the temperature coefficient. Clearly, small values of $ are desirable. In applications requiring a zener diode to serve as a highly stable volt- age reference, steps must be taken to temperature compensate the diode. A technique that is used frequently is to connect the zener in series with one or more semiconductor devices whose voltage drops change with tempera- ture in the opposite way that Vz changes, i.e., devices having the opp- osite kind of temperature coefficient. If a temperature change causes Vz to increase, then the voltage across the other components decreases, so the total voltage across the series combination is (ideally) unchanged. For example, the temperature coefficient of a forward-biased silicon diode is negative, so one or more of these can be connected in series with a zener diode having a positive temperature coefficient, as illustrated in Figure 3-31, The next example illustrates that several forward-biased diodes having relatively small temperature coefficients may be required to compensate a single zener diode. A zener diode having a breakdown voltage of 10V at 25°C has a temperature coefficient of +5.5 mV/°C. It is to be temperature compensated by connect- ing it in series with three forward-biased diodes, as shown in Figure 3-31. Each compensating diode has a forward drop of 0.65 V at 25°C and a tem- perature coefficient of -2 mV/°C. A 1. What is the temperature stability of the uncompensated zener diode? 2. What is the breakdown voltage of the uncompensated zener diode at 100°C? 3. What is the voltage across the compensated network at 25°C? At 100°C? FIGURE 3-31 Temperature ‘compensating a zener diode by connecting it in series with forward-biased diodes having opposite temperature coefficients Via Vzt Via Vary4. What is the temperature stability of the compensated network? Solution 1. From equation 3-27, T.C. x 100% _ 5.5 x 10° Vi i0V = (10V) + AT(L.C.) = (10V) + (100°C ~ 25°C)(5.5 mV/*C) = 10.4125 3. As shown in Figure 3-31, V, = Vz + V, + Vp + Vy. At 25°C, V, = 10 + 3(0.65) = 11.95 V. At 100°C, the drop V» across each forward-biased diode is Vp = (0.65V) + (100°C — 25°C)(~2 mV/"C) = 0.5 V. Therefore, at 100°C, V, = (10.4125 V) + 3(0.5V) = 10.5625 V. 4. The temperature coefficient of the compensated network is T.C. = (45.5 mV/°C) + 3(-2 mVPC) = (+5.5 mV/°C) — (6 mV/°C) = -0.5 mV/C. The voltage drop across the network (at 25°C) was found to be 11.95 V, so x 100% = 0.055% =0.5 mvc 11.95 x 100% = ~0.00418% We see that compensation has improved the stability by a factor greater than 10. ‘Temperature-compensated zener diodes are available from manufactur: ers in single-package units called reference diodes. These units contain spe- cially fabricated junctions that closely track and oppose variations in V; with temperature. Although it is possible to obtain an extremely stable reference this way, it may be necessary to maintain the zener current at a manufac- turer’s specified value in order to realize the specified stability. Zener-Diode Impedance The breakdown characteristic of an ideal zener diode is a perfectly vertical line, signifying zero change in voltage for any change in current. Thus, the ideal diode has zero impedance (or ac resistance) in its breakdown region. ‘A practical zener diode has nonzero impedance, which can be computed in the usual way: AV; Al, Zz is the reciprocal of the slope of the breakdown characteristic on an I;-Vz plot. The slope is not constant, so the value of Z, depends on the point along. the characteristic where the measurement is made. The impedance decreases as I; increases; that is, the breakdown characteristic becomes steeper at points farther down the line, corresponding to greater reverse currents. For this reason, the diode should be operated with as much reverse current as possible, consistent with rating limitations. ‘Manufactures’ specifications for zener impedances are usually given for a specified AI, that covers a range from a small J, near the onset of breakdown to some percentage of the maximum rated I. The values may range from a few ohms to several hundred ohms. There is also a variation in the impedance of zener diodes among those having different values of V;. Diodes with breakdown voltages near 7 V have the smallest impedances. 2 (3-29)‘The Diode EXAMPLE 3-12 A zener diode has impedance 40 in the range from I = 1 mA tol, = 10 mA. ‘The voltage at J, ~ 1 mA is 9.1 V. Assuming that the impedance is constant over the given range, what minimum and maximum zener voltages can be expected if the diode is used in an application where the zener current changes from 2 mA to 8 mA? Solution From equation 3-29, the voltage change between I, = 1 mA and I, = 2 mA is AV, = AlpZ, = [(2 mA) ~ (1 mA)|(40 0) = 0.04 V. Therefore, the minimum volt- age is Vz (min) = (9.1V) + AV; = (9.1V) + (0.04V) = 9.14V. The voltage change between I, = 2 mA and I, = 8 mA is AV, = [(8 mA) ~ (2 mA)](40 9) = 0.16 V. Therefore, the maximum voltage is V(max) = Vmin) + AV, = (9.14 V) + (.16V) = 9.3V. Three-Terminal Integrated-Circuit Regulators A three-terminal regulator is a compact, easy-to-use, fixed-voltage regulator packaged in a single integrated circuit. To use the regulator, it is necessary only to make external connections to the three terminals: Vj, V;, and ground, ‘These devices are widely used to provide local regulation in electronic sys- tems that may require several different supply voltages. For example, a 5-V regulator could be used to regulate the power supplied to all the chips mounted on one printed circuit board, and a 12-V regulator could be used for a similar purpose on a different board. The regulators might well use the same unregulated input voltage, say, 20 V. A popular series of three-terminal regulators is the 7800/7900 series, available from several manufacturers with a variety of output voltage ratings. Figure 3-32 shows National Semiconductor specifications for their 7800-se- ries regulators, which carry the company’s standard LM prefix and which are available with regulated outputs of +5 V, +12 V, and +15 V. The last two dig- its of the 7800 number designate the rated output voltage. For example, the 7805 is a +5-V regulator and the 7815 is a +15-V regulator. The 7900-series regulators provide negative output voltages. Notice that the integrated cir- cuitry shown in the schematic diagram is considerably complex. It can be seen that the circuit incorporates a zener diode as an internal voltage refer- ence. The 7800/7900 series also has internal current-limiting circuitry. Important points to note in the 7800-series specifications include the following: 1. The output voltage of an arbitrarily chosen device might not exactly equal its nominal value. For example, with a 23-V input, the 7815 output may be anywhere from 14.4 V to 15.6 V. This specification does not mean that the output voltage of a single device will vary over that range, but | that one 7815 chosen at random from a large number will hold its output constant at some voltage within that range. 2. The input voltage cannot exceed 35 V and must not fall below a certain minimum value, depending on type number, if output regulation is to be maintained. The minimum specified inputs are 7.3, 14.6, and 17.7 V for the 7805, 7812, and 7815, respectively. 3. Load regulation is specified as a certain output voltage change (AV,) as the load current (J,) is changed over a certain range. For example, the out- put of the 7805 will change a maximum of 50 mV as load current changes from 5 mA to 1.5 A, and will change a maximum of 25 mV as load current changes from 250 mA to 750 mA.06 Lotte General Description The LMTBXX saris of theae seminal reulators is valle with srl fixed cutout vltoges making them tal in's wide range of aplication, One of these focal on cara equation, eiminating the esibution ‘robles stocated with single pint regulation The Wolpe avaiable llow theve regulators to be used in logic tystems, instrumentation, HiFi, and oer sold Voltage Regulators LM78XX Series Voltage Regulators of external components. It not nectar te bypass he ‘utout, although ths does improve tanant reipone. Tout bypaeting nerd oni ifthe regultor i oeted far fom he fier capacitor of the power spol For ouput voltage other than SV, 12V and 18V the LALIT series provider an outot voltage range fom SOLOS XXBZIN' 12V1051V. Be “state electronic equipment. Although designed primarily el cen tetoes sar soca cn ot Features. ‘Teh extwral Smgonens to ota spate vlog nd cee linea rer eomtcl1A 5 lnm! ural ore recon ‘ The LM7BXX series is available in an aluminum TO3 No external components required : eee erin cd sink cree res ; ics tet saog pert. Covers tater 5 Cet Voit ne sn rome : Ince oli prove cunt io nate vane, INGA rican init f ela ered povw Geis Sruprion tacores tes hgh fr he nea song Voltage Range Seer. he ited hunter take’ et yreventing the IC from overheating. ames - -— uw7ei2c 120 Consdeabe effort was expanded to make the LM7@xx UM7BISC 18 ‘eres of regulators easy to se and minimize the nomber ‘Schematic and Connection Diagrams enc cage : Serena RA ‘Yoon m i fol] * Se Peta 1038 FIGURE 3-32 7800-series voltage-regulator specifications (Courtesy of National Semiconductor) For negative voltage regulation, the 7900 series provides the same char- acteristics as the 7800 series but for negative input and output voltage. Another popular three-terminal IC regulator is the LM317, which can provide adjustable output voltage by simply adding a few external compo- nents. The LM317 can supply up to 1.5 A of current to a load when mountedLM78XX Series Absolute Maximum Ratings Input Voltage (Vo =8V,12V and 18¥) sv Internal Power Diospaiion Note 1) | Internally Limited Operating Temperature Range (TA) Maximum dunetion Tempecature (Package) (Package) Storage Temperature Range orcro 470°C Electrical Characteristics LM78XXC mote 2 0°C <1) < 125°C unis otherwise noted. Sane ww Soro tar on se} rf a eee ee i ee a Tee He we * 10 wo] ov 20 tts iotre : St ees ethan Pn ee BE aeeaiad vores e z Smacige ia 8 sit. os os os [ma ae Same am We Vax 5¢ vv 2 |oese veh |orsevweso |W aerial ewe a ee came eh eae fe © te te oe ina awa gpemnes [a] |S tanta 2 ne cen es ws j= 3- | MEOW [ef imeyam | |S feet [NOTE Thera nace oh 70:3 patag I, Ka yey 4C/W uncon aban 26°CW anwar. Tamale th ‘Toma pata T= cay 4°) W pnt ae ag OCW cam oo LNOTE2: At curscraca we mennzws wh capac whew tga atom aout of 1. A cite Seite ine ope pean sunray sae mera p< fre avenue ge Se FIGURE 3-32. Continued ona suitable heat sink. Figure 3-33 shows the specifications for this regula: tor. For negative voltage regulation, the LM337 is very much like the mirror image of the LM317 positive regulator. Both regulators operate based on an internal fixed voltage reference of 1.25 V and a bias current of 100 pA, as shown in Figure 3-34. Resistor Ry establishes a current of (1.25 V)/R;, which, together with the bias current I,, produces a voltage drop across R,. The output voltage will then beLM117/LM317A/LM317 General Description “The LMT series of astable 34eminal postive vtage reguisiors a capable of suing in excess of 1.54 ovr 8 TV to STV cxtput range, Toy are excaptenaiy oy to ume and req ony br exioral reisors sat the cuout ‘lage. Furor. both ine and oad regulation are beer han Standard fed roguators Als, fe LIT Ia packaged ‘Sancaré transistor packages which are eos mounted and hands In ution to higher prtrmance than ed rogltor, tho LMI sores oes fl overloed patton avetable cay in I. Iced on he chip are caren mt hemal overied ‘protection and sae area protector. Al oveiod protection reat roain ul untonl even fhe auton or ‘al ie dct | Normal, ocapactrs are needed uress he cavic i sti- ‘ated mare tan 6 inches tom Ibe ipa iter capscors fh lich case an Input bypass ls needed. An optional ouput ‘apector canbe aed to imarove wane’ response. The ‘cjatment terminal can be bypassed © achive very high "opie jection ratios wnt ae Suto chive wih san Gere tema! roglton | ‘Besides rpiacng hed roqustors, the LMII7 ie usin 8 ice varaly of eer sppizasene. ‘Since the regain “oating and eee ony te inpuo-otpu dere vot Qrationat Semiconductor 3-Terminal Adjustable Regulator ‘August 1900 ‘99, supp of sever! hundred vs can be requstes a {ong as he maximum puto out cMerntal Pat ‘ooted, Le, vod shareuling fe ouput ‘Aso, makes an especialy simple adjustable ewichng ‘puller a prorarmabie cup requ, by connecting 1 ed elt batwoen the egjusmont pn end ouput, he LLutt7 Gon be Used a precision eure rogulalor Sup. pes wih elgcrone shutdown canbe scheved by amen {he acustrat toral to ground which programe tho ou illo 12V whore most ode dew ie caret For appleatonsrequng greater cuput cure, ee MISO sees (2A) and LMSE sores (SA) data shoes For the regatie complement 06 LMI37 seas dain shoot Features 1 Guararieed 1% ouput vatage tolerance (LMSI7A) 1 Guaranteed mex. 0.01%/ bre reguason(LM317A) 1 Guararoed max. 0.9% load regulation (MSY?) "= Guaranteed 184 ouput curert 1 Adusiadi ouput down 12 1 Curent iit constart win temperatre ‘+ > Procut Enhancoment isted 18 0 8 roe rojecton 1 Output short rout protect Typical Applications LM117 Series Packages 120-20 Agung rene Te Tole See po te en" SEE rs ear Sob ts e = tcc | 08a, 3 — fast ae [estan mar] one | a be a8 3 come SOT-223 vs D-Pak (TO-252) ace eaters es Packages Setsara ee a S svar =rane(s +) sma ere nas (© 109 Neto Sars Capron 8005003 National Semiconductor Corporation) V, where I, = FIGURE 3-33 Specifications for the LM317/LM117 (Reprinted with permission of ay + (I+ Viet (4 RJR 100 pA and V,j = 1.25 V, nominally. The manufacturer soyeinBey eiqeisnipy jeulmuel-¢ LEW VVZLEWTZLINT recommends 240 ohms for R, to establish a current of about 5 mA through it. When this is the case, I; can be neglected and V, can be approximated by V, = Va«(1 + RyR,). The output voltage can be made adjustable by usingThe Diode as a Circuit Element Electrical Characteristics (woe ») SCS RES NE an oe tong noe = Sa aa a sae a eae eS 7 Wa Vari eaw fea fam Pas fe Tantra SR SF a ars | [oi aa Pa aa Pa ar sor} — Per ar a cn ah Fax avo ate} —per tere = Ss cf ear} — fa fear a a ert — or ae a = a Sree wen ase reese : Tales ea eee ate] — ar bere = aa Tete vs [a |e [co el ra |e] at |e | ss [at] Teton om, aa | ce | |e) a mera Aaa we Se 36 ere a Nea ae a = eae eae Tea ee eae Soo ee state ee 3} ee ae ore aa nrc a{«| |e | few no ee |. [es wae a aol |S ae eae > =I Taiciotowe [Soren =] [a = son ‘0 wel fw pees = Paes Herne = =| |e SSS ae ee NE Sets eee rere ee ers Creel rune iae emake $e eines gate tn ec renee ear re Simi eee eae mee nee Soe tern enngere manne ote eet amare tiene ier Srecieun ree nna Sip cer eco ieee i eae Sine RS Sar cee ee cea FIGURE 3-33 Continued a variable resistor for Rp. For better results, 1-F tantalum capacitors can be connected across both the input and output sides (see data sheet), 3-7 DIODE TYPES, RATINGS, AND SPECIFICATIONS Discrete diodes—those packaged in individual cases with externally acces- sible anode and cathode connections—are commercially available in a wideFIGURE 3-34 A very simple adjustable positive voltage regulator with the LM317 range of types designed for different kinds of service and for a variety of applications. We find, for example, switching diodes designed specifically for use in logic circuit applications, like those discussed in the last section. These diodes typically have low power-dissipation ratings, are small in size, and are designed to respond rapidly to pulse-type inputs, that is, to switch between their ON and OFF states with minimum delay. Rectifier or power diodes are designed to carry larger currents and to dissipate more power than switching diodes, They are used in power supply applications, where heavier currents and higher voltages are encountered. Small-signal diodes are general- purpose diodes used in applications such as signal detection in radio and TV. Figure 3-35 illustrates the variety of sizes and shapes that commercially available diodes may have. Each of those shown has a designation that iden- tifies the standard case size it has (DO-4, DO-7, etc.). Materials used for case construction include glass, plastic, and metal. Metal cases are used for large, rectifiertype diodes to enhance the conduction of heat and improve their power-dissipation capabilities. There are two particularly important diode ratings that a designer using commercial, discrete diodes should know when selecting a diode for any application: the maximum reverse voltage (Vgy;) and the maximum forward current. The maximum reverse voltage, also called the peak inverse voltage (PIV), is the maximum reverse-biasing voltage that the diode can withstand without breakdown. If the PIV is exceeded, the diode “breaks down” only in the sense that it readily conducts current in the reverse direction. As discussed in Chapter 2, breakdown may result in permanent failure if the power dissipation rating of the device is exceeded. The maxi- mum forward current is the maximum current that the diode can sustain when it is forward biased. Exceeding this rating will cause excessive heat to be generated in the diode and will lead to permanent failure. Manufac- turers’ ratings for the maximum forward current will specify whether the rating is for continuous, peak, average, or rms current, and they may pro- vide different values for each. The symbols I, and I; are used to represent forward current. In the circuit of Figure 3-36, a rectifier diode is used to supply positive current pulses to the 100-0 resistor load. The diode is available in the com- binations of ratings listed in the table portion of the figure. Which is the least expensive diode that can be used for the application? Solution ‘The applied voltage is 120 V rms. Therefore, when the diode is reverse biased by the peak negative value of the sine wave, it will be subjected to a maximum07 (c8.26) PONICBIN DOATAICEN) © DOZDAB i We 3 FIGURE 3-85 Discrete diode case styles (Courtesy of International Rectifier and Thomson-CSF Components Corp.) reverse-biasing voltage of (1.414)(120) = 169.7 V. The Vey rating mt greater than 169.7 V. ‘The average value of the current is one-half the average value of a sinusoidal pulse: I,y;; = (1/2)(0.637 Jp) A, where Ip is the peak value of the (Note that the factor 1/2 must be used because the pulse is present for 0 half of each full cycle.) The peak forward current in the example (negFIGURE 3-36 (Example 3-13) 100v 150V 200V 200V. 500. 500V. ‘ 120Vim/\_, ©) 100 oe drop across the diode) is I, = (169.7 V)(100 0) = 1.697 A. Therefore, the average forward current through the diode is I; = (1/2)(0.637 + 1.697) = 0.540 A. The least expensive diode having ratings adequate for the peak in- verse voltage and average forward current values we calculated is the one costing $2.00, Figure 3-37 shows a typical manufacturer’s specification sheet for a line of silicon small-signal diodes. Like many other manufactured elec- tronic components, diodes are often identified by a standard type number in accordance with JEDEC (Joint Electron Devices Engineering Council) specifications. Diode-type numbers have the prefix 1N, like those shown in the leftmost column of Figure 3-37. (Not all manufacturers provide JEDEC numbers; many use their own commercial part numbers.) The second col- umn in the specification sheet shows the maximum reverse voltage, Vey for each of the diode types. Note that Vax, ranges from 20 V to 200V for the diodes listed. The third column shows the rated average forward current, I, of each diode in mA, and these range from 0.1 mA to 200 mA. The next two pairs of columns list values of reverse current, Ip, for different values of re- verse voltage, Vs, and ambient temperature, T,»y, The next column gives ca- pacitance values in pF, an important specification in high-frequency and switching applications. The column headed ¢, lists the reverse recovery time of each diode, in nanoseconds. This specification relates to the time required for a diode to switch from its ON to its OFF state and is another important parameter in switching circuit design. Finally, the maximum rated power dissipation is given in mW. The product of diode voltage and diode current should never exceed this rating in any application (unless there is some auxiliary means for removing heat, such as a cooling fan). Figure 3-38(a) shows a typical specification sheet for a line of silicon rec- tifier diodes. Note that the forward current ratings for these diodes are gen- erally larger than those of the small-signal diodes. The current ratings are given as Ip,4y) (average), and Iygyo each in units of amperes. Ingy is the maxi- mum nonrepetitive forward current that the diode can sustain, that is, the maximum value of momentary or surge current it can conduct. Note that the Trsyy values are much larger than the Iy,,,, values. The voltage ratings are specified by Vip, the maximum repetitive reverse voltage that each diode an sustain. Also note the large physical sizes and the metal cases of the stud- mounted rectifiers that are capable of conducting currents from 12 to 40 A. Diode bridges are commonly available in single-package units. These packages have a pair of terminals to which the a input is connected andsilicon signal diodes : ms Ym om iTamb © ty Pa : fara ua ver tmnt o GENERAL PURPOSE AND HIGH SPEED SWITCHING Tam = 25°C tase 2 © om 2 se 20 In asa Bm ome Ste io IN mm Ome & $i io Nara m moms tao = IN se wo") Gos m8 two a Nita M10) tas tao 0 west eos ast zo mata 3s 20 wae 0 Ob eam. Bo hasta m 1m 0s ow 0 0 re) 0 i oss 0 180 os ise Bo ‘° om | 0 2 Sas is 0 * cms 3S ey » os © 2» so ry Oi as Bo Dias ts is zo > cas tas |S ze 1% cas ee Noa to ons 3 6 era 1% cos Bo 4 4 Bo jw to Gams mo re ts aor aes ana mo Gas a ss % 3% On wo Feld oe % 1 0: tw 1 Asn a wea % % oF & to a iso me fh to oe me co 2m ake so m Oke om 8 200 0 tm eos te ts Ok two vel a cae 2 Ot 2 ag dim Gos 30 20 r e om Om eta tae to ome eo it wo os pa ® 2% oh 1 a m | Om Joie 2 ee © te fe aa at B tm oe So path piers) B mo ® wo a ae bh te ts is 1) ook to eee wm tas i Fy wo > Saw 2 oo 1 1 Gas i = to | Gos 2 so ‘om om » ‘ =o me 2 0 3 ovp-0ssv FIGURE 3-37 A typical diode data sheet (Courtesy of Thomson-CSF) £ another pair at which the full-wave-rectified output is taken. Figure 3.38(b) shows a typical manufacturer’s specification sheet for a line of single- package bridges with current ratings from 1 to 100 A. The Van specifications refer to the maximum repetitive reverse voltage ratings of each, i.e., the peak inverse voltage ratings when operated with repetitive inputs, such as sinu- soidal voltages. These ratings range from 50 to 1200 V. Note the Ipsy specifi- cations, which refer to maximum forward surge current. = Power Supply Component Specifications Designing a simple power supply, as the reader might have already con- cluded, should not be a lengthy and difficult task. Nevertheless, the designerGeneral Purpose Stud Mounted Silicon Rectifiers SILICON RECTIFIERS — ORWERAL PURPOSE Silicon retire are avalabie from las han "Amp t0 2000 avaiable as required Two ofthese re shown below These we ‘mead vttages 10 3000 volts In adation tote sangerd devices wih an excellent eputabon for aaDity Inausiy packages, there te number 0 other packages 50mA TOS AMPS, deal weal C12 | oom OMS | ios cul BE EEE. aes of GSE EE bl EN ie a 8 ee Pe, mem) 2th, gm Wea | Be ‘sTup MouNTED") SILICON RECTIFIERS — 12 TO 40 AMPS. ae | :| oe [te | | So | | “| MME ition hrepertiencligs cos Bites ee eed edie tre | S| ase se owen tan hag aa ‘Sore casa styien Contact | youre! Setrtutr Bee | Be | as a eihet oven tensa 2 S| ome | wre cis ‘nlamaton (ewe hts atte ad te (Sieanodrac med Foroaro ta "Nba en ean FL,OMFLA, BH) FIGURE 3-38(a) A typical rectifier data sheet (Courtesy of International Rectifier) will need to perform a few calculations that will yield the required specifi- cations and ratings for the power supply components. Let us begin with the transformer. We will need to work backwards from the regulated output voltage, to the required unregulated voltage, to the secondary voltage from the transformer. An important point to remember is that if a diode-bridge rectifier is to be used, the secondaryINTERNATIONAL RECTIFIER LOR, | Diode Bridges Icopiwtns coveceeomre eran tor ye caves up eaten tap | = Se ruse enoce af Maoe fae foes Ripeeneece a is My ag ‘ te Re dom ieee tee Ueitte rm eemetine ect ar Goan og ee Sanepeeweeaeetite re S's: Semper sone st eve pres ke ee SINGLE PHASE DIODE MOLDED BRIDGES — 1.0 T0 100 AMPS (io) et wpe | ["*Svsifiotte lisa [i Taube Yegrcios [rarese ‘ose. Toso [sees FIGURE 3-38(b) Diode bridge specifications (Courtesy of International Rectifier) peak voltage from the transformer should be, in ballpark numbers, close to the required unregulated voltage. If a center-tapped transformer and two diodes are used, the secondary voltage must be twice as much, Remember that the filtering capacitor charges to the peak voltage of the rectified waveform.Because the dc unregulated voltage has a ripple component, the peak voltage of the rectified waveform (Vp) needs to be somewhat larger than the - minimum required unregulated dc voltage. When a voltage regulator IC is used, the ripple factor does not have to be very low; a 10% figure would be adequate. Therefore, Vn needs to be about 5% higher than the minimum unregulated de voltage. We will also need to take into account one or two diode drops depending on whether we use a rectifier with centertapped transformer or a diode bridge, respectively. ‘The current rating of both transformer and diodes is the same. The sum of all the load currents times a safety factor will determine the current rat- ing. Additionally, the PTV rating of the diodes needs to be specified as well. Recall that the maximum reverse voltage per diode equals the peak voltage from the secondary. A safety factor can also be used for the PIV rating. In both cases, a safety factor of 1.5 to 2 is adequate. For the capacitor value(s) and rating(s), we make use of the ripple volt- age formula (equation 3-12) in terms of the load current. Again, if the power supply includes a regulator, a 10% ripple factor is acceptable. However, ifa regulator is not required, the ripple factor should be less than 5%. The capacitor voltage should be somewhat larger than Vpa; a safety factor of 15 to 2 is also appropriate for capacitor voltage. Finally, a fuse needs to be placed in series with one of the ac power lines to protect the power supply in case an excessive current develops anywhere in the circuit or the load. The power in the primary of the transformer is about the same as that in the secondary because the efficiency of commercial trans- formers is high. Therefore, the rms yoltage-current product in the primary will equal the rms voltage-current product in the secondary. The fuse current rat- ing should be about 50% higher than the calculated primary current. Addi- : tionally, if more than one regulator will be used, it would be a good idea to also protect the input to each regulator with a quick-acting fuse. PR ics exprimertrs power supp thar provides two regulated voge: +12V at1Aand +5Vat1A. Solution We start by specifying the two regulators; the 7812 for the 12-V output, and the 7805 for the 5-V output. The 7812 requires a minimum unregulated input voltage of 14.6 V. Let us work with a target of 16 V. Now we can determine the specs for the transformer. With a 10% ripple, Vjx needs to be 16.8 V, which is 5% above 16 V. If we choose to use a diode-bridge rectifier, then 16.8 41 Ving — 1.4°V, from which Vn, = 12.9 V (secondary voltage). We can specify a 12-V transformer because the actual secondary voltage would be about 13 V to 14 V at normal loading, The transformer’s current rating should be at least 2 A because the current from each regulator can be up to 1 A. However, it is not a good engineering : practice to specify ratings based on strict minimum requirements; one / should always use a safety margin. A rating of 2.5 or 3 A will do the job. = The filter capacitance value is determined by using equation 3-12 with I, = 2A, f, = 120 Hz, and Vpp = 10% of 16 V = 1.6 V. (We are using a 10% ripple factor.) Cage iVer 2a = Gao Hayne vy ~ 10408 HFst the value of Vpg or, in this case, about 17 V. A capacitor with a voltage rating of 25 or 30V is appropriate. The final capacitor specification is: Electrolytic type, 10,000 pF at 25 or 30 V. Diode-bridge specification is based on the total load current and the reverse voltage to which the diodes will be exposed. As stated previously, the diode rating is the same as for the transformer: 2 or 2.5 A. The reverse volt- age per diode is the peak voltage from the secondary or about 17 V. We will use a PIV rating of 50 V, which is the lowest typically available, The fuse is finally specified according to the current in the primary which can be obtained from equating primary and secondary powers, that is, Vi Tort = Vise Toye which yields j= Vela wl and tae SAE sa A 250 mA, slow-blow type would be a good choice for the fuse, Slow-blow specification is necessary because when the power is first turned on, the ini- tial current is much larger than the normal operating current. Additionally, the fuse should also protect the transformer if its maximum rating is exceeded. Therefore, the current rating of the fuse should not exceed the value of the primary current that results at the maximum rated secondary current. In our case, for example, if we use a 12-V, 3-A transformer, the primary current at the rated secondary current would be (3 A)(@2 v) 120V The rating of the fuse must not exceed this value. ee 3-8 MULTISIM EXERCISE Observing on the Oscilloscope the Filtered Output Voltage and the Diode Current in a Half-Wave Rectifier Figure 3-39 shows a half-wave rectifier with capacitive filter and a resis- tive load. Notice that a 1-0 resistor has been added in series with the ac voltage source to sense the diode current and display it on the oscillo- scope. The resistor must be on the ground side because the oscilloscope must be grounded. Before you start the simulation, double-click on the oscilloscope and set it up to 5 ms/div for the time axis, 1 V/div for channel A, and 100 Vidiv for channel B. Once the simulation is running, pause it and observe the wave- form from channel A, which represents the diode current. Because the sens- ing resistor has a value of 1 9, the current will be numerically identical to the displayed voltage. Note that the current peaks reach almost 2 amperes. The current peaks appear negative on the oscilloscope because of the polarity of the voltage drop according to the direction of the diode current. Notice also that current flows through the diode only during the recharge of the capacitor. = 300 mAFIGURE 3-39 Half-wave rectifier with oscilloscope Ri ‘connected to observe diode ‘current and output voltage oy | 163 TIV eH Oe9 SUMMARY ‘This chapter has presented the use of diodes in circuits, particularly in rec- tifiers for basic power supplies. At the end of this chapter, the student should have an understanding of the following concepts: ™ Diodes are used for allowing current to flow in only one direction. = Diodes are an essential part in all power supplies. = Rectified waveforms can be full-wave or half-wave. = Full-wave rectification can be done with four diodes and an ac source, or with two diodes and a center-tapped transformer. Capacitive filtering substantially reduces the pulsating character of a rectified waveform. = Zener diodes and special integrated circuits provide voltage regulation. EXERCISES ' SECTION 3-2 SECTION 3-3 The Diode as a Nonlinear Device ac and de Resistance 3-1. Make a sketch of the I-V characteristic 3-3. Using the diode IV characteristic shown. in Figure 3-40, find (graphically) the approximate ac resistance when the cur- rent in the diode is 0.1 mA. Repeat when the voltage across it is 0.64 V. Is the diode curve for a 10-k0 resistor when current Tis plotted along the vertical axis and ‘voltage V along the horizontal axis. ‘What is the slope of the characteristic? A Be certain to include units in your silicon or germanium? snee 3-4, Using the diode I-V characteristic shown 3-2, Make a sketch of the I-V characteris- in Figure 3-40, find (graphically) the tic curve for a diode with I, = 0.02 pA for approximate value of the dynamic resist- Vp values from zero to 0.7 V. Use the ance when the current in the diode is approximation 0.2 mA. Repeat when the voltage across Vp lV the diode is 0.62 V. What is the approxi- Ip = Ie!" i mate maximum knee current? ‘What is the slope of a line tangent to the curve at Ip = 2 mA? Find the de resistance of the diode at each point specified in Exercise 3-3.FIGURE 3-40 (Exercises 3-3 and 3-4), nv FIGURE 3-41 (Exercise 3-12) Find the static resistance of the diode at each point specified in Exercise 3-4, Neglecting bulk resistance, use equa- tion 3-6 to find the approximate ac resistance of the diode at each point specified in Exercise 3-3. Assume that the bulk resistance of the diode whose I-V characteristic is shown in Figure 3-41 is 0.1 © when the current is greater than 1.5 mA and 0.5 when the currentis less than 1.5 mA. Use equa- tion 3-6 to find the approximate dynamic resistance of the diode at each point specified in Exercise 3-4. 422. 3413. 3-9. 3-10. 3-11, A certain diode conducts a current of 440 nA from cathode to anode when the reverse-biasing voltage across it is 8 V. What is the diode’s de resistance under these conditions? When the reverse-biasing voltage in Exercise 3-9 is increased to 24 V, the reverse current increases to 1.20 »A. What is its de resistance in this case? In the test circuit shown in Figure 3-3, a diode voltage of 0.69 V was measured when the diode current was 163 mA. (a) What is the de resistance of the diode at V, = 0.69. V2 (b) What is the ac resistance of the diode when the voltage across it changes from 0.68 V to 0.69V? In the circuit shown in Figure 3-41, the current T is 34.28 mA. What is the volt age drop across the diode? What is its de resistance? Repeat Exercise 3-12 if the resistor R is 220 0 and the current Fis 51.63 mA, SECTION 3-4 Analysis of dc Circuits Containing Diodes 3414, 3415. 3-16. 3417. Determine the currents I, and J; in Figure 3-42. Assume silicon diodes. Repeat Problem 3-14 when diode D, is reversed. The voltage Vs in Figure 3-43 can be varied between zero and 20 V, Assuming the diodes behave as shown in Figure 3-13(b): (a) Determine the voltage levels of V5 at which D, and D; begin conducting, (b) Find the currents through each diode when Vs reaches 20. Find the current in each diode in the circuit of Figure 3-44. Assume diode drops of 0.7 V. 1k 2kO e < 5seine) 110 Chapter 3 + Rv aot (Exercise 3-19) SECTION 3-5 Elementary Power Supplies In the circuit shown in Figure 3-15, the 1.5-K0 resistor is replaced with a 2.2-k0 resistor. Assume that the silicon diode has a characteristic curve like that shown in Figure 3-13(b). If e(t) = 2 sin ot, find the peak value of the current i(t) and the voltage vg(t) across the resistor. Sketch the waveforms for e(¢), i(¢), and vat). The silicon diode in Figure 3-45 has a characteristic curve like that shown in Figure 3-13(b). Find the peak values of the current i(t) and the voltage vg(t) across the resistor. Sketch the waveforms for e(2), i(t), and vet). What peak-to-peak sinusoidal voltage must be connected to a half-wave recti- fier if the rectified waveform is to have a de value of 6V? Assume that the forward drop across the diode is 0.7 V. What should be the rms voltage of a si- nusoidal wave connected to a full-wave rectifier if the rectified waveform is to have a dc value of 50 V? Neglect diode voltage drops. ‘The half-wave rectifier in Figure 3-19 has a 250-pF filter capacitor anda 1.5-kload. ‘The ac source is 120V rms with frequency 60 Hz. The voltage drop across the silicon diode is 0.7 V. Assuming light loading, find (a) the de value of the load voltage; (b) the peak-to-peak value of the ripple voltage. ‘The half-wave rectifier in Exercise 3-22 is replaced by a silicon full-wave rectifier, and a second 250-yF capacitor is con- nected in parallel with the filter capacitor. Assume light loading and do not neglect the voltage drop across the diodes. Find (a) the de value of the load voltage; (b) the peak-to-peak value of the ripple voltage. (c) Ifthe load resistance is decreased by a factor of 2, determine (without recalculating) the approximate fac- tor by which the ripple voltage is changed. The primary voltage on the transformer shown in Figure 3-46 is 120 V rms and R, = 10 ©. Neglecting the forward volt- age drops across the diodes, find (a) the turns ratio Np: Ns, if the average current in the resistor must be 1.5 A; (b) the average power dissipated in the resistor, under the conditions of (a); and (©) the maximum PIV rating required for the diodes, under the conditions of (a). ‘The primary voltage on the transformer in Figure 3-46 is 120V rms and Np: Ns = 15:1. Diode voltage drops are 0.7 V. (a) What should be the value of R, if the average current in R, must be 0.5 A? (Exercises 3-24 and 3-25)a“ FIGURE 3-47 (Exercise 3-26) 3-26. 3-30. FIGURE 3-48 (Exercise 3-27) (b) What power is dissipated in R, under the conditions of (a)? (©) What minimum PIV rating is required for the diodes under the conditions of (a)? The secondary voltage on the trans- former in Figure 3-47 is 30 VCT rms at 50 Hz. The diode voltage drops are 0.7 V. Sketch the waveforms of the voltage across and current through the 20-0 resistor. Label peak values and the time points where the waveforms go to 0. Each of the diodes in Figure 3-48 has a forward voltage drop of 0.7 V. Find (a) the average voltage across R,; (b) the average power dissipated in the 1-0 resistor; and (©) the minimum PIV rating required for the diodes. Repeat Exercise 3-27 if R, is changed to 5 Q and the transformer turns ratio is changed to 1:1.5. Sketch the waveform of the voltage v, in the circuit shown in Figure 3-49, Include the ripple and show the value of its period on the sketch. Also show the value of Vox. Neglect the forward drop across the diode. What is the percent ripple of a full- wave-rectified waveform having a peak value 75 V and frequency 120 Hz if C 220 pF and 1, = 80 mA? What is the per- cent ripple if the frequency is halved? wa FIGURE 3-49 (Exercise 3-29) 3-31. A half-wave rectifier is operated 60-Hz line and has a 1000-)F filter itance connected across it. What is minimum value of load resistance the percent ripple cannot exceed 5%? A full-wave rectifier is operated from 60-Hz, 50-V-rms source. It has a 500-pF fil- ter capacitor and a 750-0 load. Find (a) the average value of the load voltage; (b) the peak-to-peak ripple voltage; and (c)_ the percent ripple. A half-wave rectifier has a 1000-pF file capacitor and a 500-0 load. It is operat from a 60-Hz, 120-V-rms source. It t 1 ms for the capacitor to recharge: each input cycle. For what mini value of repetitive surge current the diode be rated? 3-32. 3-33. 334. full-wave and the capacitor takes 0.5 1 to recharge. Assuming negligible ripple, find t average current in the 100-k0 resistor Figure 3-50. # ‘The transformer shown in Figure 3-5 a tapped secondary each portion of the ondary winding having the numb turns shown. Assuming that the voltage is that shown in the figure, desig two separate circuits that can be used w 3-35. 3-36. 19 Ry = 100ltage of 1200 V. It is not necessary to capacitor sizes. What minimum ‘should the diodes in each circuit shown in Figure 3-52, the diode has a reverse breakdown volt- of 12V. Rs = 50.9, Vs = 20V, and R, can 100 to 200. Assuming that diode remains in breakdown, find "the minimum and maximum current the zener diode; (imum and maximum power dissipated in the diode; and (©) the minimum rated power dissipa- tion that Rs should have. |. Repeat Exercise 3-37 if, in addition to the variation in R,, Vs can vary from 19V i ong » G-V zener diode in Figure 3-53 has m rated power dissipation of tS reverse current must be at mA to keep it in breakdown. Find aan CTE " FIGURE 3-53 (Exercise 3-39) a suitable value for Ry if Vs can vary from 8 V to 12 V and R, can vary from 500 1 to 1 kQ. (a) If Rein Exercise 3-39 is set to its max- imum permissible value, what is the maximum permissible value of V;? (b) If Rs in Exercise 3-39 is set equal to its minimum permissible value, what is the minimum permissible value of R,? ‘A zener diode has a breakdown voltage of 12 V at 25°C and a temperature coeffi- cient of +0.5 mV/°C. (a) Design a temperature-stabilizing cir- cuit using silicon diodes that have temperature coefficients of —0.21 m/°C. The forward drop across each diode at 25°C is 0.68 V. (b) Find the voltage across the stabi- lized network at 25°C and at 75°C. (c) Find the temperature stability of the stabilized network. A zener diode has a breakdown voltage of 15.1 V at 25°C. It has a temperature coef- ficient of +0.78 mV/°C and is to be oper- ated between 25°C and 100°C. It is to be temperature stabilized in such a way that the voltage across the network is never less than its value at 25°C. (a) Design a temperature-stabilizing net- ‘work using silicon diodes whose tem- perature coefficients are ~0.2 mV/°C. The forward drop across each diode at 25°C is 0.65.(b) What is the maximum voltage across the stabilized network? 3-43. Following is a set of measurements that were made on the voltage across and cur- rent through a zener diod 1ymA) V,(volts) 0: 301 1.0 30.15 20 30.25 35 30.37 6 30.56 8 30.68 10 30.80 30 31.90 40 32.40 90 34.00 (a) Find the approximate zener imped- ance over the range from [, = 3.5 mA tol; = 10 mA. (b) Show that the zener impedance decreases with increasing current. 3-44, The breakdown voltage of a zener diode when itis conducting 2.5 mA is 7.5V. If the voltage must not increase more than 10% when the current increases 50%, what maximum impedance can the diode have? SECTION 3-7 Diode Types, Ratings, and Specifications 3-45. In the circuit shown in Example 3-13 (Figure 3-36), suppose the load resistor R is changed to 47.0. What then is the least expensive of the diodes listed in the example that can be used in this application? In the circuit shown in Example 3-13 (Figure 3-36), suppose the ac voltage is 100V rms and the load resistor is changed to 68 ©. What then is the least expensive of the diodes listed in the example that can be used in this application? PSPICE EXERCISES 3-47. 3-49. 3-50. 351. A small-signal diode is to be used in an application where it will be subjected to a reverse voltage of 35 V. It must conduct a forward current of 0.01 A when the forward-biasing voltage is 1.0 V. The reverse current must not exceed 30 nA when the reverse voltage is 30V. Select a diode type number from Figure 3-37 that meets these requirements, A silicon diode is to be used in an applica- tion where it will be subjected to a reverse-biasing voltage of 85 V. The for- ward current will not exceed 100 mA, but it must have a 0.5-W power dissipation rating. Select a diode type number from Figure 3-37 that meets these requirements. A rectifier diode is to be used in a power supply design where it must repeatedly withstand sine wave reverse voltages of 250 V rms and must conduct 0.6 A (aver- age) of forward current. The forward surge current through the diode when the supply is first turned on will be 25 A. It is estimated that the diode case tem- perature (T,) will be 30°C. Select a diode type number from Figure 3-38 that meets these requirements. A rectifier diode is to be used in a large power supply where it must be capable of withstanding repeated reverse voltages of 450 peak volts. The forward current in the diode will average 13.5 A. Select a diode type number from Figure 3-38 that meets these requirements. A full-wave bridge is to be connected to a 240-V-rms power line. The output will be filtered and will supply an average voltage of 150 V to a 50-0 load. The worst-case current that will flow through the bridge when power is first applied is 20 times the average load current. Using the Inter- national Rectifier specifications in Figure 3-38(b), select a bridge (give its part num- ber) that can be used for this application. 3-52. Simulate Problem 3-14 using PSpice. Use the part DIN4002 in the “Eval” library for both diodes. Hint: Include in your circuit file the .OP statement in order to obtain a report on the diode currents in the output file. 3-33. Simulate Problem 3-16 using PSpice with the voltage source Vs swept from zero to 20 V. Plot both diode currents versus Vs. Hint: Use .DC analysis,