TP 225 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS By Dale Pen 1. GENERAL TRANSDUCER CHARACTERISTICS jezoelectric transducers are used to measure physical forces. Accelerometers, pressure pickups, and force gages are the most common transducers using piezo electric or ferroelectric sensing elements (Fig. 1). The transducers have many ‘advantages that make them useful, such as: (Endevco Specifications) ‘A. Suppression of all DC values for the very accurate resolution of dynamic values B. Wide linear frequency response C. Large, self-generated output; full scale as high os ‘one hundred volts D. Zero phase shift through the transducer over the linear frequency range ~ ideal for transient measurements E. Linear response with temperature from below -320° F to 4750° F F. Freedom from spurious responses G. Small and rugged construction H. Very wide dynamic range Poge 1 of 14 Rev. 7/70 Scene norman ENDEvco @& —mL, Page 2 EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS FOR PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS. The equivalent circuit for @ piezoelectric transducer is shown in Figure 2. In practice, the internal resistance shown in cifcuit (a) normally exceeds 20,000 megohms and, thus, con be ignored when considering the over-all transducer performance. Similarly, effects due to the internal inductance are far beyond the upper frequency range of the transducer and can also be ignored. The sim- plified circuit (Fig. 2b) is adequate for applications analysis. The piezoelectric transducer is effectively a capacitor which produces a charge q across its plates Proportional to a force applied to the cystal The open circuit voltage e out of the transducer is equal to the generated charge divided by the transducer capacity, or e = Ss + (Thus, the transducer can also be represented as « voltage generator and a series capacitance (Fig. 2c). EFFECT OF CABLES ON SENSITIVITY When performing measurements, the transducer circuit involves an external capacitance ond the shunt impedance of the connected amplifier. Because the charge generated by the transducer does not change, regardless of the externally connected cqpacitance, the sensitivity of a system incorporating charge measuring electronics will be uneffected by the length of interconnecting cable. In voltage sensing systems the external capacitance C; includes the cable copaci~ tance plus the input copacitance of the associated voltage amplifier. The shunt impedance R, is commonly the input resistance of the amplifier (Figure 3). With added capaci tar the output voltage of the transducer (appearing across Ri) sapacitance the outp rage IPP 9 U becomes : ore The effect of added shunt capacitance on voltage sensitivity can be used to ad= Vantage in stondardizing transducer output to a desired value. Also, in instances where very high input levels are expected, it may be used to reduce the sensitivity of the transducer by a factor of 10 or more in order not to exceed the five volt limit of most transducer voltage amplifiers. LOW FREQUENCY RESPONSE A piezoelectric pickup is a self-generating transducer which generates an elec- trical output signal that is proportional to mechanical input, without the use of ‘an external power source or carrier voltage. Strictly specking, such a transducer cannot be used at zero frequency. Rev. 7/70TP 225 LOW FREQUENCY RESPONSE (Continued) When using charge amplifiers, the tronsducer~amplifier low frequency. response is determined only by the low frequency response of the amplifier. Thus, charge amplifiers will operate with a lower source resistance thon will voltage amplifiers, and changes in transducer and cable capacitance will not effect the sensitivity or low frequency of the system. When using voltage amplifiers, the low frequency response of a piezoelectric transducer is @ function of the RC time constant of the transducer and the put impedance of the matching electronics. For instance, on accelerometer with on internal capacity of opproximately 900 picofarad ond used with a 300 pf cable, requires a high input impedance (100 megohms or better) to work into a VIVM and provide satisfactory frequency response to 5 Hz. However, an accelerometer, with o copacity of opproximately 10,000 pico- farad,* will work directly into a VIVM or other device with an input impe= donce of 2 - 10 megohms and still provide good low frequency response. The low frequency response of any transducer can be improved by swamping edditional shunt copacitonce, such as long cables, to raise the RC time constant. However, this technique will alto affect sensitivity as discussed ‘ebove. Actual response at any frequency can be measured from Figure 4: Where F = frequency in Hz R = input impedance in ohms of the matching omplifier C= total capacitance in farads of the accelerometer, plus ‘edditional applied shunt capacity, if any. Example: If frequency (f) of desired measurements is 10 Hz, total capacitance (C) of accelerometer and cable is 500 picofarad, ond amplifier input impedance (R) is 100 megohms, we can determine: F xR x C= 10 x 100 x 10°x 500 x 10-* = 0.50 Using Figure 4, we find that the relative response corresponding to (RC = 0.5 is 95% (indicating the signal at 10 Hz will be down approximately 5%). HIGH FREQUENCY RESPONSE High frequency response of a piezoelectric transducer is o function of its mechanical characteristics. Such a device con be represented os a virtually undamped single-degree-of-freedom spring-mass system, the response of which is shown in Figure 5 as a function of frequency. Note that the frequency oxis normolized and is the ratio of operating frequency to resonant frequency. *Endevco Model 2215E Sele! Page 3 Rev. 7/70TP 225 vi. vil. HIGH FREQUENCY RESPONSE (Continued) The response curve shows that at 1/5 the resonant frequency, the response of the system is 1.04, This meons that the sensitivity of the transducer is 4% higher ot that frequency thon at the lower frequencies. Transducers should, therefore, be selected with resonant frequencies at least 5 times higher than the highest frequency of interest (or with a natural period less than 1/5 that of an input shock pulse duration). To be valid, however, the resonant frequency specified must be mounted mechanical resonance. (Since the pickup will be mounted in use, the mounted resonance is the only cone of value fo the user.) DYNAMIC RANGE AND LINEARITY The range of input levels for which transducer sensitivity remains constant is defined os the range of "Amplitude Linearity". Although a piezoelectric trans- ducer is theoretically linear down to zero input, a practical lower limitation is imposed by the noise level of matching electronics. For very low levels, a high output pickup is required. For example, a typical low level vibration system \cludes an accelerometer with a sensitivity of 350 mv/g* operating into «2 special low noise amplifier, provides a 10 db signal-to-noise ratio for 2 x 10~* g's vibration. Upper limits of linearity may be imposed by either non-linear response of the piezoelectric element or by fragility of the transducer a: a whole. In either case, the limits can be accurately determined only through actual evaluation. The sensitivity of all piezoelectric transducers increases with opplied input. Endevco specifies linearity by stating the slope of the change and a recommended range limit. For example: Sensitivity increases approximately 1% per 1000 g, 0 to 2000 g. NON-VIBRATION ENVIRONMENTS Properly built piezoelectric transducers are sealed and tested for case leaks and will operate under normal conditions of humidity, salt spray, sand, dust, and altitude. An epoxy seal has proven satisfactory for most environments. However, if @ unit is to be subjected to a humidity qualification test, such as that outlined in MIL-E-5272C, a fusion sealed (or hermetic) model should definitely be used. A true hermetic seal requires that the unit be sealed by either welding and/or soldering. Experience has shown that while on epoxy seal might survive severe temperature-humidity cycling, there is some probability that moisture will be inbreathed and cause reduced performance. True hermetically sealed piezo- electric transducers are unaffected by high altitude or vacuum and are suitable for deep space opplications. *Endevco Mode! 2219E Page 4 Rev. 7/70vil. TP 225 NON-VIBRATION ENVIRONMENTS (Continued) Static accelerations have no effect on crystal transducers. Considerable vibration in flight or static testing is induced by acoustical energy. It hos been shown in numerous cases that random acoustical energy ct 120 db can induce vibrations of the order of 50 g's or higher in structural members, ond it can be assumed that higher acoustic levels may increase the vibration levels although not necessarily linearly. Although acoustic exc! tation is normally not a problem, there are cases, however, where low level evaluations on structures that are not subject to acoustic excitation must be mode in high level acoustic fields. In these cases, considerable attention must be paid to the acoustic response of the measuring system to ossure good signal-to-noise levels and accuracies. The resonant frequency of the crystal transducer must be at least three(3) times the highest acoustic frequency expected. Magnetic and RF fields have no effect on piezoelectric elements. However, edequate isolation must be provided against ground-loops and stray signal kup. Insulated mounting studs (Fig. 6) can be used for electrical isolation of accelerometers from ground. High intensity RF or magnetic fields may require special shielding of the transducer, coble and amplifier. Measurement of very low vibration levels in the presence of rotating magnetic fields requires special core. It is necessary to select accelerometers made with non-magnetic materials, or with very low magnetic sensitivity. Piezoelectric materials are available in several temperature ranges. One transducer material (Fig. 7) will operate from below -400°F to as high as +750°F, Other materials are available for operation as high as 1200°F. Within their usable temperature ronge, the various crystal materials show variation of sensitivity, copacity and resistance. The deviation of voltage output with temperature is almost always different than the charge output deviation. It is, therefore, important when using charge measuring elec- tronics to select accelerometers with flat charge choracteristics, and with voltage equipment to choose accelerometers with flat voltage response curves. As the transducer temperature is increased beyond its maximum operating range, the cyrstal begins to depolarize, with a resultant loss of sensitivity. IF the unit is exposed to excess temperatures for only a short period, it may be usable. It must, however, be recalibrated since it will have a new of lower value. If the temperature is increased until the crystal reaches its Curie temperature, the pickup will become completely depolarized cond unusable. Page 5 Rev. 7/70TP 225 vill. Page 6 CABLES The cable which connects a transducer to its matching electronics is an important part of the over-all measurement system. It must transmit the transducer signal to the associated signal conditioning equipment without distortion or introduction of noise. Noise can be introduced either by pickup from nearby electrical (or magnetic) fields or by internal generation due to cable motion. Since piezoelectric transducers are high impedance devices, the pickup problem could be quite severe. For this reason, coaxial cobles are required. Generated cable noise is eliminated by special "treatment"which prevents triboelectric effect, the primary cause of cable noise. In addition to good noise characteristics, the cable must not affect trans- ducer or test specimen characteristics, Good transducer cables are as small, light and flexible os possible, considering their specific intended application. Stiff or mossive cables con severely distort normal response, particularly with light, Flexible specimens. ELECTRONICS accelerometers can be operated into either voltage sensi Both voltage and charge equipment are available designed for either (1) laboratory, (2) test tions (Fig. 8). Piezoelect charge sensing electronic: in @ wide variety of configur. stand, or (3) airborne opp! Voltage amplifiers may provide gain or may be simply @ cathode follower, with unity gain. Their high for the high internal source impedance of the cease high input impedance also permits long RC time constants for good low frequency response. System sensitivity will be reduced as longer interconnecting cables are used between accelerometer and amplifier. Charge amplifiers sense the actual charge developed in the crystal. They can operate at much lower input impedances than voltage equipment; system low frequency response is not a function of RC time constant and is determined only by the amplifier frequency response characteristic. Lower input impedance reduces problems with noise pickup and with connector contamination. charge is the parometer sensed, system sensitivity is unaffected by the length of cable between accelerometer and omplifier. Nor is it affected by changes in cable length. This means that transducer-amplifier system can be c: in the lab with any convenient length of coble and the calibration will still be valid when installed in, say, o missile in which the cable is already installed in a prewired harness. Rev. 7/70TP 225 X, SYSTEMS In addition to the characteristics of each component of the measurement system, the operation of the system asa whole must be considered. One particularly important system consideration is prevention of ground loops. This problem can occur when the common connection (or signal retum) in the system is grounded at more than one point. Differences in earth potential up to several volts may exist between various grounding points. This potential difference can produce circulating ground currents which result in noise and hum in the measuring system. The only method of pre- venting ground loops is to ensure that the entire system is grounded ct single point. In general, the most satisfactory system ground point is at the readout input. (When several channels of data are being simultaneously fed to the same recorder, it is mandatory.) This requires that both transducer cond omplifier be insulated from ground. One technique of accelerometer isolation involves electrically insulating the sensing element from the transducer housing and provides a floating out= put. With this approach the accelerometer cose is at ground potentio!, but is not connected to the “low side" of the signal. This method, however, has a serious drawback. Capacitive coupling between case and transducer ele- ment permits coupling of AC noise directly into the (high impedance) trans- ducer. ‘A much better and simpler technique is to electrically isolate « normal accelerometer from the structure to which it is mounted. Using this method, while the accelerometer is removed from earth ground, the transducer element is still shielded by the transducer case which is at circuit ground potential. This grounded shield is required to prevent copacitive coupling problems. Insulated mounting can most conveniently be achieved using one of the series of insulated mounting studs ovailable.* They provide good transmissibility cand insulation resistance over a wide range of frequencies ond acceleration levels. When using cementing techniques, isolation can be ensured by "sandwiching" sulating material (such os Mycalex) between the structure and accelerometer (or bose of cementing stud). Dental cements are also quite sotisfactory insulators. Matching electronics in which the case is tied to circuit ground can be sotis~ factorily isolated by wrapping with insulating material (electrical tape, etc.) cor by simply placing on paper or cardboard. (In severe environments, the amplifier can be wrapped with sponge rubber.) If amplifier output cables are unjacketed, care must be taken that any ex- posed shields do not become inadvertently grounded ahead of the recorder input. *Endeveo Model 2980 Series Page 7 Rev. 7/70TP 225 xl. Poge 8 TRANSIENT MEASUREMENTS In addition to the foregoing information, special problems are encountered in measuring transients (mechanical shock, shock waves, etc.) which place stringent requirements in the measuring system. Some of these problems ore: A. High input levels. ide frequency content of pulses. C. Transient choract of instrumentation. ‘As os result, each part of the transient instrumentation system should be evaluated and selected for: A. Adequate linear dynamic range (including safety factor). B. Adequate linear frequency response over @ wide range. C. Ability to respond to transient inputs. D. —_ Negligible phase shift errors over the frequency range of interest. Rev. 7/70TP 225 (e) 2) Figure 1, Typical Piezoelectric Transducers (a) General Purpose Accelerometer, (b) Shock Accelerometer, (c) Microminiature Accelerometer, (d) Triaxial Accelerometer, (e) Pressure Transducer, (f) Force Gage. Page 9 Rev. 6/70TP 225 occeleration input Figure 2, Equivalent Circuits for Piezoelectric Transducers (a) Actual Circuit, (&) Charge Generator Equivalent over useful frequency range, Page 10 _(€) Voltage Generator Equivalent of (b)..TP 225 (b) Figure 3. Equivalent Circuits for Piezoelectric Transducer Systems. (c) Charge Equivalent, (b) Voltage Equivalent. Page I Rev. 6/70TP 225 RELATIVE RESPONSE Page 12 Rev, 6/70 = Coat) Figure 4. FRC Low Frequency Response vs. Loading (Voltage AmplTP 225 “4/3 OLLWY ADNAN A swiaisks stow-Bulids wopeeiy jo va1B0q 2j6u1s pedwog 41,461] jo osuodsoy g eunB14 do Page 13 ASNOdSaY BAILY TY Rev. 6/70TP 225 EY Figure 6, Insulated Mounting Stud § +10 ao & e 10 “F300 150 0 +75 4200 © 4350 +500 +700 "eis 101 ie 424493 41774260 +400 Temperature Figure 7, Deviation of Transducer Sensitivity with Temperature ~ PIEZITE® Crystal Element Type P=14. The solid line shows the nominal chorge-temperature response. The broken lines show the nominal voltage-temperature response with the indicated external capacitances. Page 14 Figure 8, Airborne Charge Amp| Rev. 6/70