12.

MATHEMATICAL INDUCTIONDiscrete Mathematics

Mathematical induction, is a technique for proving results or establishing statements

for natural numbers. This part illustrates the method through a variety of examples.

Definition
Mathematical Induction is a mathematical technique which is used to prove a
statement, a formula or a theorem is true for every natural number.

The technique involves two steps to prove a statement, as stated below:

Step 1(Base step): It proves that a statement is true for the initial value.
th
Step 2(Inductive step): It proves that if the statement is true for the n iteration (or
th
number n), then it is also true for (n+1) iteration ( or number n+1).

How to Do It
Step 1: Consider an initial value for which the statement is true. It is to be shown that
the statement is true for n=initial value.

Step 2: Assume the statement is true for any value of n=k. Then prove the statement is
true for n=k+1. We actually break n=k+1 into two parts, one part is n=k (which is
already proved) and try to prove the other part.

Problem 1
n
3 -1 is a multiple of 2 for n=1, 2, ...

Solution
1
Step 1: For n=1, 3 -1 = 3-1 = 2 which is a multiple of 2
n k
Step 2: Let us assume 3 -1 is true for n=k, Hence, 3 -1 is true (It is an
k+1
assumption) We have to prove that 3 -1 is also a multiple of 2
k+1 k k k
3 – 1 = 3 × 3 – 1 = (2 × 3 ) + (3 –1)
k k
The first part (2×3 ) is certain to be a multiple of 2 and the second part (3 -1) is also
true as our previous assumption.
k+1
Hence, 3 – 1 is a multiple of 2.
n
So, it is proved that 3 – 1 is a multiple of 2.

Problem 2
2
1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n-1) = n for n=1, 2, ...

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 Discrete Mathematics

Solution
2
Step 1: For n=1, 1 = 1 , Hence, step 1 is satisfied.
Step 2: Let us assume the statement is true for n=k.
2
Hence, 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2k-1) = k is true (It is an assumption)
2
We have to prove that 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2(k+1)-1) = (k+1) also
holds 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2(k+1) – 1)
= 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2k+2 – 1)
= 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2k + 1)
= 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2k – 1) + (2k + 1)
2
= k + (2k + 1)
2
= (k + 1)
2
So, 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2(k+1) – 1) = (k+1) hold which satisfies the step
2
2. Hence, 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n – 1) = n is proved.

Problem 3
n n n
Prove that (ab) = a b is true for every natural number n

Solution
1 1 1
Step 1: For n=1, (ab) = a b = ab, Hence, step 1 is satisfied.
k k k
Step 2: Let us assume the statement is true for n=k, Hence, (ab) = a b is true (It is
an assumption).
k+1 k+1 k+1
We have to prove that (ab) =a b also hold
k k k
Given, (ab) = a b
k k k
Or, (ab) (ab)= (a b ) (ab) [Multiplying both side by ‘ab’]
k+1 k k
Or, (ab) = (aa ) ( bb )
k+1
Or, (ab) = (ak+1bk+1)
Hence, step 2 is proved.
n n n
So, (ab) = a b is true for every natural number n.

Strong Induction
Strong Induction is another form of mathematical induction. Through this induction
technique, we can prove that a propositional function, P(n) is true for all positive
integers, n, using the following steps:

  Step 1(Base step): It proves that the initial proposition P(1) true.

  
Step 2(Inductive step): It proves that the conditional statement
[ (1) ⋀ (2) ⋀ (3) ⋀ … … … … ⋀ ( )] → ( + 1) is true for positive integers k.

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 13. RECURRENCE RELATIONDiscrete Mathematics

In this chapter, we will discuss how recursive techniques can derive sequences and be
used for solving counting problems. The procedure for finding the terms of a sequence in
a recursive manner is called recurrence relation. We study the theory of linear
recurrence relations and their solutions. Finally, we introduce generating functions for
solving recurrence relations.

Definition
A recurrence relation is an equation that recursively defines a sequence where the next
term is a function of the previous terms (Expressing F n as some combination of Fi with
i<n).

Example: Fibonacci series: Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2, Tower of Hanoi: Fn = 2Fn-1 + 1

Linear Recurrence Relations

A linear recurrence equation of degree k is a recurrence equation which is in the format
xn= A1 xn-1+ A2 xn-1+ A3 xn-1+... Ak xn-k (An is a constant and Ak≠0) on a sequence of
numbers as a first-degree polynomial.

These are some examples of linear recurrence equations:

Recurrence Initial values Solutions

relations
Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2 a1=a2=1 Fibonacci number
Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2 a1=1, a2=3 Lucas number
Fn = Fn-2 + Fn-3 a1=a2=a3=1 Padovan sequence
Fn = 2Fn-1 + Fn-2 a1=0, a2=1 Pell number

How to solve linear recurrence relation

Suppose, a two ordered linear recurrence relation is: F n = AFn-1 +BFn-2 where A and B are
real numbers.

The characteristic equation for the above recurrence relation is:

2
x − Ax − B = 0
Three cases may occur while finding the roots:
Case 1: If this equation factors as (x- x1)(x- x1) = 0 and it produces two distinct real
n n
roots x1 and x2, then Fn = ax1 + bx2 is the solution. [Here, a and b are constants]
2
Case 2: If this equation factors as (x- x1) = 0 and it produces single real root x1, then
n n
Fn = a x1 + bn x1 is the solution.
Case 3: If the equation produces two distinct real roots x1 and x2 in polar form x1 = r ∠ θ and x2 = r ∠(- θ), then Fn = rn (a cos(nθ)+ b sin(nθ)) is
the solution.
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 Discrete Mathematics

Problem 1
Solve the recurrence relation Fn = 5Fn-1 - 6Fn-2 where F0 = 1 and F1 = 4

Solution
The characteristic equation of the recurrence relation is:
2
x – 5x + 6=0,
So, (x-3) (x-2) = 0

Hence, the roots are:

x1 = 3 and x2= 2

The roots are real and distinct. So, this is in the form of case 1
Hence, the solution is:
n n
Fn = ax1 + bx2

n n
Here, Fn = a3 + b2 (As x1 = 3 and x2=
2) Therefore,
0 0
1=F0 = a3 + b2 = a+b
1 1
4=F1 = a3 + b2 = 3a+2b
Solving these two equations, we get a = 2 and b = -1
Hence, the final solution is:
n n n n
Fn = 2.3 + (-1) . 2 = 2.3 - 2

Problem 2
Solve the recurrence relation Fn = 10Fn-1 - 25Fn-2 where F0 = 3 and F1 = 17

Solution
The characteristic equation of the recurrence relation is:
2
x –10x -25 =0,
2
So, (x – 5) = 0
Hence, there is single real root x1 = 5
As there is single real valued root, this is in the form of case
2 Hence, the solution is:
n n
Fn = ax1 + bnx1
0 0
3 = F0= a.5 + b.0.5 = a
1 1
17 = F1= a.5 + b.1.5 = 5a+5b
Solving these two equations, we get a = 3 and b = 2/5

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 Discrete Mathematics

Hence, the final solution is:

n n
Fn = 3.5 + (2/5) .n.2

Problem 3
Solve the recurrence relation Fn = 2Fn-1 - 2Fn-2 where F0 = 1 and F1 = 3

Solution
The characteristic equation of the recurrence relation is:
2
x –2x -2 =0
Hence, the roots are:
x1 = 1+ i and x2= 1- i
In polar form,
x1 =r∠θ and x2 = r ∠(- θ), where r= √2 and θ= π / 4

The roots are imaginary. So, this is in the form of case 3.

Hence, the solution is:
n
Fn = (√2 ) (a cos(n. π / 4) + b sin(n. π / 4))
0
1 = F0 = (√2 ) (a cos(0. π / 4) + b sin(0. π / 4) ) = a
1
3 = F1 = (√2 ) (a cos(1. π / 4) + b sin(1. π / 4) ) = √2 ( a/√2 +
b/√2) Solving these two equations we get a = 1 and b = 2
Hence, the final solution is:
n
Fn = (√2 ) (cos(n. π / 4)+ 2 sin(n. π / 4))

Particular Solutions
A recurrence relation is called non-homogeneous if it is in the form
Fn = AFn–1 + BFn-2 + F(n) where F(n) ≠ 0
The solution (an) of a non-homogeneous recurrence relation has two parts. First part is
the solution (ah) of the associated homogeneous recurrence relation and the second part
is the particular solution (at). So, an= ah + at
n
Let F(n) = cx and x1 and x2 are the roots of the characteristic equation:
2
x = Ax+ B which is the characteristic equation of the associated homogeneous
recurrence relation:
  If x ≠ x1 and x ≠ x2, then at = Ax
n

  If x = x1, x ≠ x2, then at = Anx

n
 2 n
If x= x1 = x2, then at = An x

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 Discrete Mathematics

Problem
n
Solve the recurrence relation Fn = 3Fn-1 +10Fn-2 +7.5 where F0 = 4 and F1 = 3

Solution
The characteristic equation is:
2
x –3x -10 =0
Or, (x - 5)(x + 2) = 0
Or, x1= 5 and x2= -2
Since, x= x1 and x ≠ x2, the solution is:
n n
at = Anx = An5
After putting the solution into the non-homogeneous relation, we get:
n n-1 n-2 n
An5 = 3A(n – 1)5 + 10A(n – 2)5 + 7.5
n-2
Dividing both sides by 5 , we get:
2 0 2
An5 = 3A(n – 1)5 + 10A(n – 2)5 + 7.5
Or, 25An = 15An – 15A + 10An – 20A + 175
Or, 35A = 175
Or, A=5
n+1
So, Fn = n5
Hence, the solution is:
n+1 n n
Fn = n5 + 6.(-2) -2.5

Generating Functions
Generating Functions represents sequences where each term of a sequence is
expressed as a coefficient of a variable x in a formal power series.
Mathematically, for an infinite sequence, say 0, 1, 2, … … … … , , … … …, the generating function will be:
∞
= 0+ 1 + 2 2 +………+ + ………= ∑
=0

Some Areas of Application:

Generating functions can be used for the following purposes:

For solving a variety of counting problems. For example, the number of ways to
make change for a Rs. 100  note with the notes of denominations Rs.1, Rs.2,
Rs.5, Rs.10, Rs.20 and Rs.50
  
For solving recurrence relations
  
For proving some of the combinatorial identities
 
For finding asymptotic formulae for terms of sequences

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 Discrete Mathematics

Problem 1
What are the generating functions for the sequences { } with = 2 and =3 ?

Solution
When = 2, generating function, G(x) = ∑∞ =0 2 = 2 + 2 + 2 2 + 2 3 + … … …
When = 3 , G( ) = ∑∞ =0 3 = 0 + 3 + 6 2 + 9 3 + … … …

Problem 2
What is the generating function of the infinite series; 1, 1, 1, 1, ……….?

Solution
Here, = 1, 0≤ ≤ ∞.
1
Hence, G(x) = 1 + + 2 + 3 + … … … = (1−
)

Some Useful Generating Functions

 For = , G( ) = ∑ =0∞ = 1 + + 2 2 + … … … = 1⁄
(1 − )

1
 For = ( + 1), G( ) = ∑∞ ( + 1) = 1 + 2 + 3 2 + … … … =
=
0 2
(1− )
 For = , G( ) = ∑∞ = 1 ++ 2 + … … … + 2 = (1 + )
=0 1 2
1 2 3
 For = , G( ) = ∑∞ =1+ + + ………=
3
! =0 ! 2! !
 5. PROPOSITIONAL LOGICDiscrete Mathematics

The rules of mathematical logic specify methods of reasoning mathematical statements.

Greek philosopher, Aristotle, was the pioneer of logical reasoning. Logical reasoning
provides the theoretical base for many areas of mathematics and consequently computer
science. It has many practical applications in computer science like design of computing
machines, artificial intelligence, definition of data structures for programming languages
etc.

Propositional Logic is concerned with statements to which the truth values, “true” and
“false”, can be assigned. The purpose is to analyze these statements either individually
or in a composite manner.

Prepositional Logic – Definition

A proposition is a collection of declarative statements that has either a truth value "true”
or a truth value "false". A propositional consists of propositional variables and
connectives. We denote the propositional variables by capital letters (A, B, etc). The
connectives connect the propositional variables.

Some examples of Propositions are given below:

  "Man is Mortal", it returns truth value “TRUE”

 
"12 + 9 = 3 – 2", it returns truth value “FALSE”

The following is not a Proposition:


"A is less than 2". It is because unlesswe give a specific value of A, we cannot say
whether the statement is true or false.

Connectives
In propositional logic generally we use five connectives which are: OR (V), AND (Λ), Negation/ NOT (¬), Implication / if-then (→), If and only if (⇔).

OR (V): The OR operation of two propositions A and B (written as A V B) is true if at

least any of the propositional variable A or B is true.

The truth table is as follows:

A B AVB
True True True
True False True
False True True
False False False

AND (Λ): The AND operation of two propositions A and B (written as A Λ B) is true if
both the propositional variable A and B is true.

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 Discrete Mathematics

The truth table is as follows:

A B AΛB
True True True
True False False
False True False
False False False

Negation (¬): The negation of a proposition A (written as ¬A) is false when A is true
and is true when A is false.

The truth table is as follows:

A ¬A

True False

False True

Implication / if-then (→): An implication A →B is False if A is true and B is false. The

rest cases are true.

The truth table is as follows:

A B A→B

True True True

True False False

False True True

False False True

If and only if (⇔): A ⇔B is bi-conditional logical connective which is true when p and q are both false or both are true.

The truth table is as follows:

A B A⇔ B

True True True

True False False
False True False
False False True

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 Discrete Mathematics

Tautologies
A Tautology is a formula which is always true for every value of its propositional variables.

Example: Prove [(A → B) Λ A] →B is a tautology

The truth table is as follows:

A B A→B (A → B) Λ A [(A → B) Λ A] →B
True True True True True
True False False False True
False True True False True
False False True False True

As we can see every value of [(A → B) Λ A] →B is “True”, it is a tautology.

Contradictions
A Contradiction is a formula which is always false for every value of its propositional
variables.

Example: Prove (A V B) Λ [(¬A) Λ (¬B)] is a contradiction

The truth table is as follows:
(¬A) Λ
A B AVB ¬A ¬B (A V B) Λ [(¬A) Λ (¬B)]
(¬B)
True True True False False False False
True False True False True False False
False True True True False False False
False False False True True True False

As we can see every value of (A V B) Λ [(¬A) Λ (¬B)] is “False”, it is a contradiction.

Contingency
A Contingency is a formula which has both some true and some false values for every
value of its propositional variables.

Example: Prove (A V B) Λ (¬A) a contingency

The truth table is as follows:
A B AVB ¬A (A V B) Λ (¬A)
True True True False False
True False True False False
False True True True True
False False False True False

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 Discrete Mathematics

As we can see every value of (A V B) Λ (¬A) has both “True” and “False”, it is a
contingency.

Propositional Equivalences
Two statements X and Y are logically equivalent if any of the following two conditions hold:
 
 The truth tables of each statement have the same truth values.
 
The bi-conditional statement X ⇔ Y is a tautology.

Example: Prove ¬ (A V B) and [(¬A) Λ (¬B)] are equivalent

st
Testing by 1 method (Matching truth table):
A B AVB ¬ (A V B) ¬A ¬B [(¬A) Λ (¬B)]
True True True False False False False
True False True False False True False
False True True False True False False
False False False True True True True

Here, we can see the truth values of ¬ (A V B) and [(¬A) Λ (¬B)] are same, hence the
statements are equivalent.

nd
Testing by 2 method (Bi-conditionality):
A B ¬ (A V B) [(¬A) Λ (¬B)] [¬ (A V B)] ⇔[(¬A) Λ (¬B)]

True True False False True

True False False False True
False True False False True
False False True True True
As [¬ (A V B)] ⇔ [(¬A) Λ (¬B)] is a tautology, the statements are equivalent.

Inverse, Converse, and Contra-positive

A conditional statement has two parts: Hypothesis and Conclusion.

Example of Conditional Statement: “If you do your homework, you will not be
punished.” Here, "you do your homework" is the hypothesis and "you will not be
punished" is the conclusion.

Inverse: An inverse of the conditional statement is the negation of both the hypothesis
and the conclusion. If the statement is “If p, then q”, the inverse will be “If not p, then
not q”. The inverse of “If you do your homework, you will not be punished” is “If you do
not do your homework, you will be punished.”

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 Discrete Mathematics

Converse: The converse of the conditional statement is computed by interchanging the

hypothesis and the conclusion. If the statement is “If p, then q”, the inverse will be “If q,
then p”. The converse of "If you do your homework, you will not be punished" is "If you
will not be punished, you do not do your homework”.

Contra-positive: The contra-positive of the conditional is computed by interchanging the

hypothesis and the conclusion of the inverse statement. If the statement is “If p, then q”, the
inverse will be “If not q, then not p”. The Contra-positive of " If you do your homework, you
will not be punished” is" If you will be punished, you do your homework”.

Duality Principle
Duality principle set states that for any true statement, the dual statement obtained by
interchanging unions into intersections (and vice versa) and interchanging Universal set
into Null set (and vice versa) is also true. If dual of any statement is the statement
itself, it is said self-dual statement.
Example: The dual of (A ∩ B) ∪ C is (A∪ B) ∩ C

Normal Forms
We can convert any proposition in two normal forms:
  Conjunctive normal form

 
Disjunctive normal form

Conjunctive Normal Form

A compound statement is in conjunctive normal form if it is obtained by operating AND
among variables (negation of variables included) connected with ORs.

Examples
  (P ∪Q) ∩ (Q ∪ R)

 
(¬P ∪Q ∪S ∪¬T)

Disjunctive Normal Form

A compound statement is in conjunctive normal form if it is obtained by operating OR
among variables (negation of variables included) connected with ANDs.

Examples

 (P ∩ Q) ∪ (Q ∩ R)
 
(¬P ∩Q ∩S ∩¬T)

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 6. PREDICATE LOGIC Discrete Mathematics

Predicate Logic deals with predicates, which are propositions containing variables.

Predicate Logic – Definition

A predicate is an expression of one or more variables defined on some specific domain. A
predicate with variables can be made a proposition by either assigning a value to the
variable or by quantifying the variable.

The following are some examples of predicates:

  Let E(x, y) denote "x = y"

  
Let X(a , b, c) denote "a + b + c = 0"
 
Let M(x, y) denote "x is married to y"

Well Formed Formula

Well Formed Formula (wff) is a predicate holding any of the following -
  All propositional constants and propositional variables are wffs

  
If x is a variable and Y is a wff, ∀x Y and ∃x Y are also wff
  
Truth value and false values are wffs
  
Each atomic formula is a wff
 
All connectives connecting wffs are wffs

Quantifiers
The variable of predicates is quantified by quantifiers. There are two types of quantifier
in predicate logic: Universal Quantifier and Existential Quantifier.

Universal Quantifier
Universal quantifier states that the statements within its scope are true for every value of the specific variable. It is denoted by the symbol ∀.
∀x P(x) is read as for every value of x, P(x) is true.

Example: "Man is mortal" can be transformed into the propositional form ∀x P(x) where P(x) is the predicate which denotes x is mortal and the universe of discourse is all men.

Existential Quantifier
Existential quantifier states that the statements within its scope are true for some values of the specific variable. It is denoted by the symbol ∃.
∃x P(x) is read as for some values of x, P(x) is true.

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 Discrete Mathematics

Example: "Some people are dishonest" can be transformed into the propositional form ∃x P(x) where P(x) is the
predicate which denotes x is dishonest and the universe of discourse is some people.

Nested Quantifiers
If we use a quantifier that appears within the scope of another quantifier, it is called
nested quantifier.

Examples
 
∀a ∃b P (x, y) where P (a, b) denotes a + b=0

 
∀a ∀b ∀c P (a, b, c) where P (a, b) denotes a + (b+c) = (a+b) +c
Note: ∀a ∃b P (x, y) ≠ ∃a ∀b P (x, y)

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 7. RULES OF INFERENCE Discrete Mathematics

To deduce new statements from the statements whose truth that we already know,
Rules of Inference are used.

What are Rules of Inference for?

Mathematical logic is often used for logical proofs. Proofs are valid arguments that
determine the truth values of mathematical statements.
An argument is a sequence of statements. The last statement is the conclusion and all its preceding
statements are called premises (or hypothesis). The symbol “∴”, (read therefore) is placed before the
conclusion. A valid argument is one where the conclusion follows from the truth values of the premises.

Rules of Inference provide the templates or guidelines for constructing valid arguments
from the statements that we already have.

Addition
If P is a premise, we can use Addiction rule to derive P V Q.

----------
∴PVQ

Example
Let P be the proposition, “He studies very hard” is true

Therefore: "Either he studies very hard Or he is a very bad student." Here Q is the
proposition “he is a very bad student”.

Conjunction
If P and Q are two premises, we can use Conjunction rule to derive P Λ Q.

P
Q
----------
∴PΛQ

Example
Let P: “He studies very hard”

Let Q: “He is the best boy in the class”

Therefore: "He studies very hard and he is the best boy in the class"
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 Discrete Mathematics

Simplification
If P Λ Q is a premise, we can use Simplification rule to derive P.

PΛQ
----------
∴P

Example
"He studies very hard and he is the best boy in the

class" Therefore: "He studies very hard"

Modus Ponens
If P and P→Q are two premises, we can use Modus Ponens to derive Q.

P→Q
P
----------
∴Q

Example

"If you have a password, then you can log on to facebook"

"You have a password"

Therefore: "You can log on to facebook"

Modus Tollens
If P→Q and ¬Q are two premises, we can use Modus Tollens to derive ¬P.

P→
Q
¬Q
----------
∴ ¬P

Example
"If you have a password, then you can log on to facebook"

"You cannot log on to facebook"

Therefore: "You do not have a password "

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 Discrete Mathematics

Disjunctive Syllogism
If ¬P and P V Q are two premises, we can use Disjunctive Syllogism to derive
Q. ¬P
PVQ
---------- ∴Q

Example
"The ice cream is not vanilla flavored"

"The ice cream is either vanilla flavored or chocolate flavored"

Therefore: "The ice cream is chocolate flavored”

Hypothetical Syllogism
If P → Q and Q → R are two premises, we can use Hypothetical Syllogism to derive P →
RP→Q
Q→R
----------
∴P→R

Example
"If it rains, I shall not go to school”

"If I don't go to school, I won't need to do homework"

Therefore: "If it rains, I won't need to do homework"

Constructive Dilemma
If ( P → Q ) Λ (R → S) and P V R are two premises, we can use constructive dilemma to
derive Q V S.

( P → Q ) Λ (R → S)
PVR
----------
∴Q V S

Example
“If it rains, I will take a leave”

“If it is hot outside, I will go for a shower”

“Either it will rain or it is hot outside”

Therefore: "I will take a leave or I will go for a shower"

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 Discrete Mathematics

Destructive Dilemma
If (P → Q) Λ (R → S) and ¬Q V ¬S are two premises, we can use destructive dilemma
to derive P V R.
(P → Q ) Λ (R → S)
¬Q V ¬S
----------
∴P V R

Example
“If it rains, I will take a leave”

“If it is hot outside, I will go for a shower”

“Either I will not take a leave or I will not go for a shower”

Therefore: "It rains or it is hot outside"

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 Discrete Mathematics

Part 3: Group Theory

26
 8. OPERATORS AND POSTULATESDiscreteMathematics

Group Theory is a branch of mathematics and abstract algebra that defines an algebraic
structure named as group. Generally, a group comprises of a set of elements and an
operation over any two elements on that set to form a third element also in that set.

In 1854, Arthur Cayley, the British Mathematician, gave the modern definition of group
for the first time:

“A set of symbols all of them different, and such that the product of any two of
them (no matter in what order), or the product of any one of them into itself,
belongs to the set, is said to be a group. These symbols are not in general
convertible [commutative], but are associative.”

In this chapter, we will know about operators and postulates that form the basics of
set theory, group theory and Boolean algebra.

Any set of elements in a mathematical system may be defined with a set of operators
and a number of postulates.
A binary operator defined on a set of elements is a rule that assigns to each pair of elements a unique element from that set. For example, given the set
A={1,2,3,4,5}, we can say ⊗ is a binary operator for the operation = ⊗ , if it specifies a rule for finding c for the pair of (a,b), such that a,b,c ∈ A.

The postulates of a mathematical system form the basic assumptions from which rules
can be deduced. The postulates are:

Closure
A set is closed with respect to a binary operator if for every pair of elements in the set,
the operator finds a unique element from that set.

Example: Let A = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …………. }

This set is closed under binary operator into (*), because for the operation c = a + b, for any a, b ∈ A, the product c ∈ A.

The set is not closed under binary operator divide (÷), because, for the operation c = a + b, for any a, b ∈ A, the product c may not be in the set A. If a = 7, b = 2, then c = 3.5. Here a,b ∈ A but c
∉ A.

Associative Laws
A binary operator ⊗ on a set A is associative when it holds the following property:
( ⊗ )⊗ = ⊗( ⊗ ), where x, y, z ∈ A

Example: Let A = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }
The operator plus ( + ) is associative because for any three elements, x,y,z ∈ A, the property (x + y) + z = x + ( y + z ) holds.

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The operator minus ( - ) is not associative since

(x–y)–z≠x–(y–z)

Commutative Laws
A binary operator ⊗ on a set A is commutative when it holds the following property:
⊗ = ⊗ , where x, y ∈ A

Example: Let A = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }
The operator plus ( + ) is commutative because for any two elements, x,y ∈ A, the property x + y = y + x holds.

The operator minus ( - ) is not associative since

x–y ≠ y–x

Distributive Laws
Two binary operators ⊗ and ⊛ on a set A, are distributive over operator ⊛ when the following property holds:
⊗( ⊛ )=( ⊗ )⊛( ⊗ ) , where x, y, z ∈ A

Example: Let A = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }
The operators into ( * ) and plus ( + ) are distributive over operator + because for any three elements, x,y,z ∈ A, the property x * ( y + z ) = ( x * y ) + ( x * z ) holds.

However, these operators are not distributive over * since

x+(y*z)≠(x+y)*(x+z)

Identity Element
A set A has an identity element with respect to a binary operation ⊗ on A, if there exists an element ∈ A, such that the following property holds:
⊗ = ⊗ , where x ∈ A

Example: Let Z = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ……………….. }

The element 1 is an identity element with respect to operation * since for any element x ∈ Z,

1*x=x*1

On the other hand, there is no identity element for the operation minus ( - )

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Inverse
If a set A has an identity element with respect to a binary operator ⊗, it is said to have an inverse whenever for every element x ∈ A, there exists another element y ∈ A, such
that the following property holds:
⊗ =

Example: Let A = { ………….. -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ………….. }

Given the operation plus ( + ) and = 0, the inverse of any element x is (-x) since x + (-
x) = 0

De Morgan’s Law
De Morgan’s Laws gives a pair of transformations between union and intersection of two
(or more) sets in terms of their complements. The laws are:
(A⋃B)′ = A′⋂ B′
(A⋂B)′ = A′⋃ B′

Example: Let A = { 1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {1, 3, 5, 7}, and

Universal set U = { 1, 2, 3, ………, 9, 10 }

A′ = { 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
B′ = { 2, 4,6,8,9,10}
A ⋃ B = {1, 2, 3,4, 5, 7}
A⋂B = { 1,3}

(A ⋃ B)′ = { 6, 8,9,10} A′⋂B′ = { 6, 8,9,10}

Thus, we see that (A⋃B)′ = A′⋂ B′
(A ∩ B) ′ = { 2,4, 5,6,7,8,9,10}
A′ ∪ B′ = { 2,4, 5,6,7,8,9,10}
Thus, we see that (A⋂B)′ = A′⋃ B′

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