Underground Mining

Geotechnics

Novandri Kusuma Wardana

Departemen Teknik Pertambangan
KK Geomekanika Pertambangan
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PROPERTIES
Underground Mining Geotechnics

ROCK & ROCK MASS

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Laboratory Test
There has always been a tendency to equate rock
mechanics with laboratory testing of rock
specimens and hence laboratory testing has played
a disproportionately large role in the subject. This
does not imply that laboratory testing is not
important but I would suggest that only about 10
to 20 percent of a well balanced rock mechanics
program should be allocated to laboratory testing.
(Hoek, 1998)
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Geological Data Collection

 The corner-stone of any practical rock
mechanics analysis is the geological data base:
 Rock types.
 Structural discontinuities.
 Material properties
 Even the most sophisticated analysis can
become a meaningless exercise if the geological
information upon which it is based is
inadequate or inaccurate.
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Geological data collections

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RMR System
 Bieniawski (1976) published the details of a rock mass
classification called the Geomechanics Classification or the
Rock Mass Rating (RMR) system.
 Over the years, this system has been successively refined as
more case records have been examined.
 Our discussion will be based on the 1989 version of the
classification (Bieniawski, 1989).
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RMR system
 The following five parameters are used to classify a rock mass
using the RMR system:
1. Uniaxial compressive strength of rock material.
2. Rock Quality Designation (RQD).
3. Spacing of discontinuities.
4. Condition of discontinuities.
5. Groundwater conditions.
 Another parameter for adjustment: Orientation of
discontinuities.
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RMR System
Parameter Range of Values
For this low range -
PLI > 10 MPa 4 – 10 MPa 2 – 4 MPa 1 – 2 MPa
Strength of intact UCS test is preferred

1 rock material 5 – 25 1 –5 <1

UCS > 250 MPa 100 - 250 MPa 50 - 100 MPa 25 – 50 MPa
MPa MPa MPa
Rating 15 12 7 4 2 1 0
Drill core quality RQD 90% - 100% 75% - 90% 50% - 75% 25% - 50% < 25%
2
Rating 20 17 13 8 3
Spacing of discontinuities >2m 0.6 – 2 m 200 – 600 mm 60 – 200 mm < 60 mm
3
Rating 20 15 10 8 5
Slickensided surfaces
Very rough Slightly rough Slightly rough Soft gouge >5 mm
or
surfaces surfaces surfaces thick
Gouge < 5 mm thick
Condition of discontinuities Not continuous Separation < 1 mm Separation < 1 mm or
or
4 No separation Slightly weathered Highly weathered Separation > 5 mm
Separation 1-5 mm
Unweathered wall walls walls Continuous
Continuous
Rating 30 25 20 10 0
Inflow per 10 m
tunnel length None < 10 10 - 25 25 - 125  125
(l/m)
(Joint water
Ground press)/
water 0 < 0.1 0.1 – 0.2 0.2 – 0.5 > 0.5
5 (Major principal
σ)
General
Completely dry Damp Wet Dripping Flowing
conditions
Rating 15 10 7 4 0
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RMR System
<1m 1–3m 3 – 10 m 10 – 20 m > 20 m
Discontinuity length (persistence)
6 4 2 1 0
None < 0.1 mm 0.1 – 1.0 mm 1 – 5 mm > 5 mm
Separation (aperture)
6 5 4 1 0
Very rough Rough Slightly rough Smooth Slickensided
Roughness
6 5 3 1 0
None Hard filling < 5 mm Hard filling > 5 mm Soft filling < 5 mm Soft filling > 5 mm
Infilling (gouge)
6 4 2 2 0
Unweathered Slightly weathered Moderately weathered Highly weathered Decomposed
Weathering
6 5 3 1 0
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RMR System
Ratings
81 – 100 61 – 80 41 – 60 21 – 40 < 21
Class number I II III IV V
Description Very good rock Good rock Moderate rock Poor rock Very poor rock
20 yrs for 1 year for 1 week for 10 hrs for 30 min for
Average stand-up time
15 m span 10 m span 5 m span 2.5 m span 1 m span
Cohesion of rock mass (kPa) > 400 300 – 400 200 – 300 100 – 200 < 100
Friction angle of rock mass
> 45 35 – 45 25 – 35 15 – 25 < 15
(deg)

Strike perpendicular to tunnel axis

Strike parallel to tunnel axis Dip 0 – 20O
Drive with dip Drive against dip
Irrespective of strike
Dip 45 – 90O Dip 20 – 45O Dip 45 – 90O Dip 20 – 45O Dip 45 – 90O Dip 20 – 45O
Very favourable Favourable Fair Unfavourable Very unfavourable Fair Fair
RMR system – Span vs
stand-up time

Bieniawski (1989)
 RMR System – Excavation & Support
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(10 m span, depth < 900 m)

Rock bolts
Rock mass class Excavation (20 mm diameter, Shotcrete Steel sets
fully grouted)
I – Very good rock Full face,
RMR: 81-100 3 m advance.
II – Good rock Full face , Locally, bolts in crown 50 mm in crown None.
RMR: 61-80 1-1.5 m advance. 3 m long, spaced 2.5 where required.
Complete support 20 m from face. m with occasional
wire mesh.
III – Fair rock Top heading and bench Systematic bolts 4 m 50-100 mm in crown None.
RMR: 41-60 1.5-3 m advance in top heading. long, spaced 1.5 - 2 m and 30 mm in sides.
Commence support after each in crown and walls
blast. with wire mesh in
Complete support 10 m from face. crown.
IV – Poor rock Top heading and bench Systematic bolts 4-5 m 100-150 mm in crown Light to medium ribs
RMR: 21-40 1.0-1.5 m advance in top heading. long, spaced 1-1.5 m and 100 mm in sides. spaced 1.5 m where
Install support concurrently in crown and walls required.
with excavation, 10 m from face. with wire mesh.
V – Very poor Multiple drifts 0.5-1.5 m advance Systematic bolts 5-6 m 150-200 mm in Medium to heavy ribs
rock in top heading. long, spaced 1-1.5 m crown, spaced 0.75 m with
RMR: < 21 Install support concurrently with in crown and walls 150 mm in sides, steel
excavation. with wire mesh. Bolt and 50 mm on face lagging and forepoling
Shotcrete as soon as possible invert. if
after blasting. required.
Close invert..
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1989) modifikasi Lauferr 1988)

Stand up Time untuk TBM ( Bieniawski,
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Rock mass Long term Strength

Bieniawski, 1974 Wattimena et al, 2008

• Andesitic breccia: = 10-25% x UCSLAB (Dwinagara, 2007).

• Sedimentary rock = 60% UCSLAB (Wattimena et al., 2005;
Saptono, 2012).
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Bukaan
Karakterisasi Tegangan Lubang
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Original Terzaghi’s
Classification
Rock conditions Rock load, Hp (ft)
1. Hard and intact Zero
2. Hard stratified or schistose 0 – 0.5B
3. Massive, moderately jointed 0 – 0.25B
4. Moderately blocky and seamy 0.25B – 0.35 (B+Ht)
5. Very blocky and seamy (0.35 – 1.10) (B+Ht)
6. Completely crushed 1.10 (B+Ht)
7. Squeezing rock, moderate depth (1.10 – 2.10) (B+Ht)
8. Squeezing rock, great depth (2.10 – 4.50) (B+Ht)
9. Swelling rock Up to 250 ft
B = Tunnel width (ft), Ht = Tunnel height (ft)
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Generalized Terzaghi’s
Classification
Rock conditions Rock load, Hp (ft)
1. Hard and intact Zero
2. Hard stratified or schistose 0 – 0.5B
3. Massive, moderately jointed 0 – 0.25B
4. Moderately blocky and seamy 0.25B – 0.20 (B+Ht)
5. Very blocky and seamy (0.20 – 0.60) (B+Ht)
6. Completely crushed but chemically intact (0.60 – 1.10) (B+Ht)
6a. Sand and gravel (1.10 – 1.40) (B+Ht)
7. Squeezing rock, moderate depth (1.10 – 2.10) (B+Ht)
8. Squeezing rock, great depth (2.10 – 4.50) (B+Ht)
9. Swelling rock Up to 250 ft
B = Tunnel width (ft), Ht = Tunnel height (ft)
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Rock Quality Tunnelling Index,

Q System
 On the basis of an evaluation of a large number of case
histories of underground excavations, Barton et al. (1974) of
the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute proposed a Tunnelling
Quality Index (Q) for the determination of rock mass
characteristics and tunnel support requirements.
 The numerical value of the index Q varies on a logarithmic
scale from 0.001 to a maximum of 1,000.
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Q System

 RQD = Rock Quality Designation

 Jn = Joint set number

 Jr = Joint roughness number

 Ja = Joint alteration number

 Jw = Joint water reduction number

 SRF = Stress reduction factor

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Q system – a note in SRF

Barton et al. (1974)
Description SRF
b. Competent rock, rock stress problems c/1
L Mild rockburst (massive rock) 5 – 2.5 5 – 10
M Heavy rockburst (massive rock) < 2.5 10 – 20

Grimstad & Barton (1993)

Description SRF
b. Competent rock, rock stress problems c/1
L Moderate slabbing after >1 hour in massive rock 5–3 5 – 50
Slabbing and rockburst after a few minutes in massive rock 3–2 50 – 200
M Heavy rockburst (massive rock) <2 200 – 400
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Q System – ESR and De

 In relating the value of the index Q to the stability and support
requirements of underground excavations, Barton et al
(1974) defined an additional parameter which they called the
Equivalent Dimension, De, of the excavation.
 This dimension is obtained by dividing the span, diameter or
wall height of the excavation by a quantity called the
Excavation Support Ratio, ESR.
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Q System – ESR and De

Excavation span, diameter or height (m)
De 
Excavation Support Ratio, ESR

 The value of ESR is related to the intended use of the

excavation and to the degree of security which is demanded of
the support system installed to maintain the stability of the
excavation.
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Q system – ESR
Excavation category ESR
A Temporary mine openings. 3–5
B Permanent mine openings, water tunnels for hydro power 1.6
(excluding high pressure penstocks), pilot tunnels, drifts and
headings for large excavations.
C Storage rooms, water treatment plants, minor road and 1.3
railway tunnels, surge chambers, access tunnels.
D Power stations, major road and railway tunnels, civil defence 1.0
chambers, portal intersections.
E Underground nuclear power stations, railway stations, 0.5
sports and public facilities, factories.
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Q System – Support recommendation

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Intact rock properties

• At least five data points should be included in the
analysis.
• Once the five or more triaxial test results have been
obtained, they can be analysed to determine the ci
and the mi as described by Hoek and Brown (1980).
Determine of cohesion and friction angle rock
with Hoek & Brown criterion

 ci [(1  2a ) s  (1  a )mb 3' n ]( s  mb 3' n )a 1

c  '

(1  a )(2  a ) 1  (6amb ( s  mb 3' n )a 1 /(1  a )(2  a )

 6 a m ( s  m  ' a 1
b 3n )

f '  sin 1  b
' a 1 
 2(1  a )( 2  a )  6 a mb ( s  m 
b 3n ) 

where:
c’ : effective coheson
f’ : effective friction angle
1’ & 3’ : effective principla stress
ci : UCS intact rock
mb , s and a : constanta rock massa Hoek & Brown
Hoek, Carranza-Torres and Corkum, 2002
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Intact rock properties

0.5
 σ3 ' 
σ1 '  σ 3 '  σ ci  mi  1 
 σ ci 
• The relationship between the principal stresses at
failure for a given rock is defined by two constants,
ci and mi.
• Wherever possible the values of these constants
should be determined by statistical analysis of the
results of a set of triaxial tests on carefully prepared
core samples.
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Intact rock properties

 y   xy   x y/n  x
0.5 σ2ci   
 σ3 '  n   x2  ( x)2/n  n
σ1 '  σ 3 '  σ ci  mi  1 
 σ ci 
 1   xy   x y/n
mi   2 
y  mσ cix  sσ ci σci   x  ( x)2/n 
x  σ3 '
y  σ1 ' σ 3 '2 2  xy   x y/n
r 
( x2  ( x)2 /n)( y2  ( y)2 /n)
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Intact rock properties

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methods
Hybrid numerical-empirical
 Model Mineralisasi vs. Rancangan Tambang vs.
Tegangan In-situ

Tegangan Utama Nilai (MPa) DD Dip

1 20 5o 85o
2 15 185o 5o
3 7 59o 0o 32
 Tegangan 3 Dimensi

• Kondisi tegangan pada sebuah titik dapat dinyatakan dengan

matriks tegangan [],

 x  xy  xz 
 
σ   yx  y  yz 
 zx  zy  z 


 Cos arah sumbu l: lx = cos al, ly = cos bl, lz = cos gl

 Cos arah sumbu m: mx = cos am, my = cos bm, mz = cos gm

 Cos arah sumbu n: nx = cos an, ny = cos bn, nz = cos gn

2-33
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Tegangan Utama-1

• Bidang utama (principal plane) adalah bidang

dimana tidak terdapat tegangan geser.

• Pada bidang ini hanya bekerja tegangan normal

yang merupakan tegangan utama (principal
stress), sedangkan normal dari bidang tersebut
merupakan arah dari sumbu utama (principal axis).

• Karena ada tiga rujukan arah maka akan terdapat

juga tiga sumbu utama.

• Maka, ada 3 tegangan utama & 3 sumbu utama

yang harus ditentukan untuk menggambarkan
kondisi tegangan di sebuah titik.

34
 Tegangan Utama-2

• Bidang ABC mempunyai orientasi sedemikian rupa sehingga resultan tegangan yang bekerja padanya
hanya tegangan normal p.
t x   x 
 t   σ  
• Komponen-komponen traksi pada bidang ABC adalah:  y p  y
 t z   z 

 Komponen2 traksi dengan kondisi tegangan & orientasi bidang: t x   x  xy  zx  x 

t    y

 yz  y 
 y   xy
 Dengan mengurangkan kedua persamaan di atas, diperoleh: t z   zx  yz  z  z 


 x  xy  zx   x  x  σ x  σ p  xy  zx   x 
 
  
 yz  y    p  y    xy σ y  σp  yz   y   0
 xy y
 zx   zx  yz σ z  σ p   z 
  yz  z  z  z  

 Persamaan matriks ini menunjukkan satu set dari tiga persamaan simultan yang homogen dalam x, y,
dan z.
 Persamaan tsb mempunyai solusi non-trivial jika determinan dari matriks koefisien = 0, yang
menghasilkan persamaan pangkat tiga.
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 Tegangan Utama-3

3p - I1 2p + I2 p - I3 = 0

I1 = x + y + z
I2 = xy + yz + zx – (2xy + 2yz + 2zx)
I3 = xyz + 2 xyyzzx – (x2yz + y2zx + z2xy)

I1 = Invariant tegangan (Stress invariant) pertama

I2 = Invariant tegangan (Stress invariant) kedua
I3 = Invariant tegangan (Stress invariant) ketiga

Setiap tegangan utama akan berhubungan dengan sumbu utama, yang cosinus
arahnya (x,y,z) dapat dicari langsung dari persamaan matriks.
Sifat dasar dari cosinus arah, yaitu: 2x + 2y + 2z = 1

σ1  σ 2  σ 3  σ x  σ y  σ z 36
Tegangan Utama-4

Menurut Brady & Brown (1993) cosinus arahnya untuk setiap tegangan
utama i (i =1,2,3) adalah:

A σ y  σi  yz
 xi  A
A 2 2
B C 
2 12  yz σ z  σi

 xy  yz
B B
 yi   zx σ z  σi
A 2 2
B C 
2 12

 xy σ y  σi
C
C  zx  yz
 zi 
A 2 2
B C 
2 12

37
Eigen Value & Eigen Vector
x = 7.825 MPa xy = 1.422 MPa

y = 6.308 MPa yz = 0.012 MPa

z = 7.866 MPa zx = -1.857 MPa

Tegangan i (MPa) DD Dip

1 41,4 323,38 28,93

2 18,0 62,18 15,47

3 3,1 356,86 30,35

Contoh σKE (MPa) DD Dip

AE-01 32,24 329 0

AE-02 17,50 59 5
AE-03 12,81 239 85
AE-04 31,98 282 32
AE-05 12,65 107 39
AE-06 31,45 11 39 38
Parameter Penting Pada Kurva Tegangan
Regangan Uji Kuat Tekan Batuan Utuh

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 0. 5
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 
 1   3   c  3 m i  1 Kriteria Runtuh Linear & Non Linear
 c 
' a
   Jikatan f  μ,maka 2c cos f 2c cos f
 1'   3 '   ci  3 m b  s  c  t 
  ci  σ c 1  Sinf

1 - sin f 1  sin f
Non Linear Failure Criterion σ t 1  Sinf
σc  σt
1  sin f 
Untukμ  1,f  45 0 ,makaσ c  8 σ t 1  c   3  
 1  sin f 

40
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Pertanyaan ?