Unit 7 : A/D and D/A Converter

Lesson 1 : Interfacing with the Analog World

1.1. Learning Objectives

On completion of this lesson you will be able to :

♦ learn about various terms of A/D and D/A converters.

1.2. Interfacing with the Analog World

A digital quantity will have a value that is specified as one of two

possibilities such as 0 or 1, LOW or HIGH, true or false, and so on. In
A digital quantity will have practice, the voltage representation a digital quantity such as a may
a value that is specified as actually have a value that is anywhere within specified ranges. For
one of two possibilities
example, for TTL logic :
such as 0 or 1.

0V to 0.8V = logic 0
2V to 5V = logic 1

Any voltage falling in the range 0 to 0.8 V is given the digital value 0,
and any voltage in the range 2 to 5 V is assigned the digital value 1. The
digital circuits respond accordingly to all voltage values within a given
range.

Most physical variables are analog in nature and can take on any value
Most physical variables within a continuous range of values. Examples include temperature,
are analog in nature and pressure, light intensity, audio signals, position, rotational speed, and
can take on any value flow rate. Digital systems perform all of their internal operations using
within a continuous range digital circuitry and digital operations. Any information that has to be
of values. inputted to a digital system must first be put into digital form. Similarly,
the outputs from a digital system are always in digital form.

1.2.1. Transducer

The physical variable is normally a nonelectrical quantity. A transducer

A transducer is a device is a device that converts the physical variable to an electrical variable.
that converts the physical Some common transducers include thermistors, photocells, photodiodes,
variable to an electrical flow meters, pressure transducers, and tachometers. The electrical output
variable. of the transducer is an analog current or voltage that is proportional to
the physical variable it is monitoring. For example, the physical variable
could be the temperature of water. Let’s say that the water temperature
varies from 80 to 1500 F and that a thermistor and its associated circuitry
convert this water temperature to a voltage ranging from 800 to
 Digital Systems and Computer Organization

1500mV. Note that the transducer’s output is directly proportional to

temperature; such that each 10 F produces a 10mV output. Analog-to-
digital converter (ADC) and digital-to-converter (DAC) are used to
interface a computer to the analog world so that the computer can
monitor and control a physical variable Fig. 7.1.
Analog
output
Analog 2 3 4
input
5
1
Physical Digital To
variable Transducer ADC DAC Actuator
System control
physical
variable

Digital Digital
inputs outputs

Fig. 7.1 : Interfacing with the analog world using Analog-to-Digital

Converter (ADC) and Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC).

1.2.2. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)

The transducer’s electrical analog output serves as the analog input to

The transducer’s electrical the ADC. The ADC converts this analog input to a digital output. This
analog output serves as digital output consists of a number of bits that represent the value of the
the analog input to the analog input. For example, the ADC might convert the transducer’s 800-
ADC. The ADC converts to 1500-mV analog values to binary values ranging from 01010000 (80)
this analog input to a to 10010110 (150). Note that the binary output from the ADC is
digital output. proportional to the analog input voltages so that each unit of the digital
output represents 10mV.

The digital representation of the analog vales is transmitted from the

ADC to the digital computer, which stores the digital value and
processes it according to a program of instructions that it is executing.

1.2.3. Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

This digital output from
the computer is connected This digital output from the computer is connected to a DAC, which
to a DAC, which converts converts it to a proportional analog voltage or current. For example, the
it to a proportional analog
computer might produce a digital output ranging from 0000000 to
voltage or current.
11111111, which the DAC converts to a voltage ranging from 0 to 10V.

1.2.4. Actuator
The analog signal from the
DAC is often connected to The analog signal from the DAC is often connected to some device or
some device or circuit that circuit that serves as an actuator to control the physical variable. For our
serves as an actuator to water temperature example, the actuator might be an electrically
control the physical controlled valve that regulates the flow of hot water into the tank in
variable. accordance with the analog voltage from the DAC. The flow rate would

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vary in proportion to this analog voltage, with 0 V producing no flow

and 10 V producing the maximum flow rate.

Thus we see that ADCs and DACs function as interfaces between a

completely digital system, like a computer, and the analog world.

1.3. Digital-to-Analog Conversion

Basically, D/A conversion is the process of taking a value represented in

D/A conversion is the digital code (such as straight binary or BCD) and converting it to a
process of taking a value voltage or current which is proportional to the digital value. Fig. 7.2
represented in digital shows the symbol for a typical 4-bit D/A converter. Now, we will
code. examine the various input/output relationships.

MSB

Digital D/A converter Vout

Analog
inputs (DAC) output
LSB

Fig. 7.2 : Four bit DAC with voltage output.

The digital inputs D,C,B, and A are usually derived from the output
register of a digital system. The 24 = 16 different binary numbers
represented by these 4 bits for each input number, the D/A converter
output voltage is a unique value. In fact, for this case, the analog output
voltage Vout is equal in volts to the binary number.

In general,
Analog output = K × digital input

where K is the proportionality factor and it is constant value for a given

DAC. The analog output can of course be a voltage or current. When it
is a voltage, K will be in voltage units, and when the output is current, K
will be in current units. For the DAC of K=1 V, so that

VOUT = (1 V) × digital input

We can use this to calculate VOUT for any value of digital input. For
example, with a digital input of 11002 = 1210, we obtain

VOUT = 1V × 12 = 12V

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Problem 1

A 5-bit DAC has a current output. For a digital input of 101000, an

output current of 10mA is produced. What will IOUT be for a digital
Problem 1 and Solution input of 11101?

Solution

The digital input 101002 is equal to decimal 20. Since IOUT = 10 mA for
this case, the proportionality factor as 0.5 mA. Thus, we can find for a
digital input such as 111012 = 2910 as follows :

IOUT = (0.5mA) × 29
= 14.5 mA

Remember, the proportionality factor, K, will vary from one DAC to

another.

Problem 2

What is the largest value of output voltage from an 8-bit DAC that
produces 1.0V for a digital input of 00110010?

Solution

001100102 = 5010
1.0 V = K× 50

Therefore,
K = 20 mV

The largest output will occur for an input of 111111112 = 25510.

VOUT(max) = 20mV×255
= 5.10 V

Analog Output

The output of a DAC is technically not an analog quantity because it can

take on only specific values like the 16 possible voltage levels for Vout.
Analog Output Thus, in that sense, it is actually digital. However, the number of
different possible output levels can be increased and the difference
between successive values can be decreased by increasing the number of
input bits. This will allow us to produce an output that is more and more
like an analog quantity that varies continuously over a range of values.

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Input Weights

For the DAC of it should be noted that each digital input contributes a
different amount to the analog output. This is easily seen if we examine
the cases where only one input is HIGH Table 7.1. The contributions of
each digital input are weighted according to their position in the binary
number.

D C B A VOUT (V)
0 0 0 1 → 1
0 0 1 0 → 2
0 1 0 0 → 4
1 0 0 0 → 8

Table 7.1

Thus, A, which is the LSB, has a weight of 1V, B has a weight of 2V, C
has a weight of 4 V, and D, the MSB, has the largest weight 8V. The
weights are successively doubled for each bit, beginning with the LSB.
Thus, we can consider VOUT to be the weighted sum of the digital inputs.
For instance, to find VOUT for the digital input 0111 we can add the
weights of the C, B, and A bits to obtain 4 V + 2V + 1V=7V.

Problem 3

A 5-bit D/A converter produces VOUT = 0.2 V for a digital input of 0001.
Input Weights Find the value of Vout for an input of 11111.
Problem 3 and Solution
Solution

Obviously, 0.2 V is the weight of the LSB. Thus, the weights of the
other bits must be 0.4 V, 0.8 V, 1.6 V, and 3.2 V respectively. For a
digital input of 11111, then, the value of VOUT will be 3.2 V + 1.6 V+
0.8V + 0.4V + 0.2 V = 6.2 V.

1.4. Resolution

Resolution of a D/A converter is defined as the smallest change that can

occur in he analog output as a result of a change in the digital input. We
Resolution of a D/A can see that the resolution is 1V, since VOUT can change by no less than
converter is defined as the 1 V when the digital input value is changed. The resolution is always
smallest change that can equal to the weight of the LSB and is also referred to as the step size. As
occur in he analog output the counter is being continually cycled through its 16 states by the clock
as a result of a change in signal, the DAC output is a staircase waveform that goes up 1 V per
the digital input.
step. When the counter is at 1111, the DAC output is at its maximum
value of 15 V; this is its full-scale output. When the counter recycles to

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0000, the DAC output returns to 0V. The resolution or step size of the
jumps in the staircase waveform; in this case, each step is 1 V.

Full-scale
(input = 1111) 15 V

4-bit
counter
10V
D
D/A
converter
C

V OUT 5V
B 4V Input
3V
Resolution 2V recycled to
A =1V 1V 0000
0V Time
Clock
Resolution = step size = 1 V

Fig. 7.3 : Output wave forms of a four bit DAC.

Note that the staircase has 16 levels corresponding to the 16 input states,
but there are only 15 steps or jumps between the 0-V level and full-scale,
In general, for an N-bit DAC the number of different levels will be 2N,
and the number of steps will be 2N - 1.

You may have already figured out the resolution (step size) is the same
as the proportionality factor in the DAC input/output relationship :

analog output = K × digital input

A new interpretation of this expression would be that the digital input is

equal to the number of the step, K is the amount of voltage (or current)
per step, and the analog output is the product of the two.

Problem 4

For the DAC of Example 3 determine VOUT for a digital input of 10001.

Solution

The step size is 0.2 V, which is the proportionality factor K. The digital
input is 10001 = 1710. Thus we have :

VOUT = (0.2 V) × 17
= 3.4V

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1.5. Percentage Resolution

Although resolution can be expressed as the amount of voltage or current

per step, it is also useful to express it as a percentage of the full-scale
output. To illustrate, in Fig. 7.3 the DAC has a maximum full-scale
output of 15 V (when the digital input is 1111). The step size is 1V,
which gives a percentage resolution.

step size
% resolution = × 100%
full scale ( F . S . )
1V
= × 100% = 6.67%
15 V
Percentage Resolution
Problem 5 and Solution Problem 5

A 10-bit DAC has a step size of 10 mV. Determine the full-scale output
voltage and the percentage resolution.

Solution

With 10 bits, there will be 210 - 1 = 1023 steps of 10mV each. The full-
scale output will therefore be 10mV × 1023 = 10.23 V and

10 mV
% resolution = × 100% ≈ 01%
.
10.23 V

Problem 4 helps to illustrate the fact that the percentage resolution

becomes smaller as the number of input bits is increased. In fact, the
percentage resolution can also be calculated from.

1
% resolution = × 100%
total number of steps

For an N-bit binary input code the total number of steps is 2N-1. Thus,
for the previous example,

1
% resolution = 10 × 100%
2 −1
1
= × 100%
1023
≈ 01%
.

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This means that it is only the number of bits which determines the
percentage resolution. Increase of the number of bits increases the
number of steps to reach full scale.

1.6. Exercise

1.6.1. Multiple choice questions

a) Each digital input of DAC are weighted according to their

position in the

i) binary number
ii) decimal number
iii) hexa- decimal number
iv) octal number.

b) The ADC converts analog input to a digital

i) input
ii) output
iii) number
iv) all of the above.

1.6.2. Questions for short answers

a) What is the function of a transducer and actuator?

b) What do you mean by input weights?
c) Define resolution. What is the full scale output?
d) What is the function of an ADC?
e) What function does a DAC perform?

1.6.3. Analytical question

a) “Five elements are involved when a computer is monitoring and

controlling a physical variable that is assumed to be analog.”
Illustrate the above situation.

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Lesson 2 : D/A Converter

2.1. Learning Objectives

On completion of this lesson you will be able to :

♦ design different types of D/A converter circuit and describe their

operation.
♦ understand the advantages, disadvantages, and limitation of several types
of digital-to-analog converters (DAC).

2.2. D/A Converter

The purpose of a digital-to-analog converter is to convert a binary word

The purpose of a digital- to a proportional current or voltage.
to-analog converter is to
convert a binary word to a The binary weighted resistors produce binary-weighted current which
proportional current or are summed up by the op-amp to produce proportional output voltage.
voltage.
The binary word applied to the switches produces a proportional output
voltage.

Several different binary codes such as straight binary, BCD and offset
binary are commonly used as inputs to D/A converters.

2.2.1. D/A-Converter Circuitry

D/A-Converter Circuitry There are several methods and circuits for producing the D/A operation. We
shall examine several of the basic schemes, to gain an insight into the ideas
used.
1K Rt = 1 K
MSB D

2K
C +Vs
- OP VOUT
4K amp
B +
-Vs
8K
LSB A

Digital inputs :
0 V or 5 V

Fig. 7.4 : DAC circuitry using op-amp with binary weighted resistors.

Fig. 7.4 shows the basic circuit of 4-bit DAC. The inputs A,B,C, and D are
binary inputs which are assumed to have values of either 0 V or 5 V. The
operational amplifier is employed as a summing amplifier, which produces

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the weighted sum of these input voltages. the summing amplifier multiplies
each input voltage by the ratio of the feedback resistor RF to the
corresponding input resistor RIN. In this circuit RF RIN 1kΩ and the input
resistors range from 1 to 8 kΩ . The D input has RIN = 1KΩ, so the summing
amplifier passes the voltage at D with no attenuation. The C input has RIN =
2 kΩ, so that it will be attenuated by. Similarly, the B input will be
attenuated by ¼ and the A input by 1/8. The amplifier output can thus be
expressed as

VOUT = - (VD +1/2 VC + ¼ VB + 1/8 VA)

The negative sign is present because the summing amplifier is a polarity-

inverting amplifier, but it will but concern us here.

Clearly, the summing amplifier output is an analog voltage which represents

a weighted sum of the digital inputs. The output is evaluated for any input
condition by setting the appropriate inputs to either 0 V or 5 V. For
example, if the digital input is 1010, then VD = VB = 5V and VC = VA = 0V.
Thus, using equation

VOUT = - (5V +OV + ¼ × 5V + OV)

= - 6.25V

The resolution of this D/A converter is equal to the weighting of the lSB,
which is 1/8 × 5V = 0.625 V. The analog output increases by 0.625 V as the
binary input number advances one step.

Problem 6

Problem 6 Assume VREF = 10 V and R = R = 10 kΩ. Determine the resolution and full-
Solution scale output for this DAC. Assume that RL is much smaller than R.

Solution

I0 = VREE/R = 1 mA. This is the weight of the MSB. The other three currents
will be 0.5, 0.25, and 0.125 mA. The LSB is 0.125 mA, which is also the
resolution.

The full-scale output will occur when the binary inputs are all HIGH so that
each current switch is closed and

IOUT = 1 + 0.5 + 0.25 + 0.125 = 1.875 mA

Note that the output current is proportional to VREF. If VREF is increased or

decreased, the resolution and full-scale output will change proportionally.

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2.3. R/2R Ladder

The DAC circuits we have looked at, has some practical limitations. The
biggest problem is the large difference in resistor values between the LSB
and MSB, especially in high-resolution DACs. One of the most widely used
DAC circuits that uses resistance’s fairly close in value is the R/2R ladder
R/2R Ladder
network. Here the resistance values span a range of only 2 to 1.

Note, how the resistors are arranged, and only two different values are used,
R and 2R. The current IOUT depends on the positions of the four switches,
and the binary inputs B3B2B1B0 control the states of the switches. This
current is allowed to flow through an op-amp current-to-voltage converter to
develop VOUT. It can be shown that the value of VOUT is given by the
expression.

− VREF
VOUT = × B.
8

where B is the value of the binary input, which can range from 000 (0) to
1111 (15).

+ VREF

2R
2R 2R 2R 2R
2R R R R
- VOUT
lOUT +

Bo B1 B2 B3
(LSB) (MSB)

Fig. 7.5 : R/2R ladder DAC.

2.4. DAC Specifications

2.4.1. Resolution

Resolution As mentioned earlier, the percentage resolution of a DAC is dependent

Accuracy on the number of bits. A 10-bit DAC has a finer (smaller) resolution than
an 8-bit DAC.

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2.4.2. Accuracy

There are several ways of specifying accuracy. The two most common
are called full-scale error and linearity error. which are normally
expressed as a percentage of the converter’s full-scale output (%F.S.)

Full-scale error is the maximum deviation of the DAC’s output from its
expected (ideal) value, expressed as a percentage of full scale. For
example, assume that the DCA has an accuracy of ± 0.01% F.S. Since
this converter has a full-scale output of 9.375 V, this percentage converts
to

± 0.01% × 9.375 V = ± 0.9375 mV

This means that the output of this DAC can, at any time, be off by as
much as 0.9375mV from its expected value.

Linearity error is the maximum deviation in step size from the ideal step
size. For example, the DAC has an expected step size of 0.625 V. If this
converter has a linearity error of ± 0.01F.S,, this would mean that the
actual step size could be off by as much as 0.9375 mV.

Problem 7
Example 7 and
A certain 8-bit DAC has a full-scale output of 2mA and a full-scale error
Solution
of ± 0.5% F.S. What is the range of possible outputs for an input of
10000000?

Solution

The step size is 2mA/255 = 7.84 µA. Since 10000000 = 12810, the ideal
output should be 128 × 7.84 µA. The error can be as much as

± 0.5% × 2mA = ± 10µA

Thus, the actual output can deviate by this amount from the ideal
1004µA , so the actual output can be anywhere from 994 to 1014 µA.

2.4.3. Offset Error

Ideally, the output of a DAC will be zero volts when the binary input is
all 0’s. In practice, however, there will be a very small output voltage for
Offset Error
this situation; this is called offset error. This offset error, if not
corrected, will be added to the expected DAC output for all input cases.
Offset error can be negative as well as positive.

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Many DACs will have an external offset adjustment that allows you to
zero the offset. This is usually accomplished by applying all 0s to the
DAC input and monitoring the output while an offset adjustment
potentiometer is adjusted until the output is as close to 0 V as required.

2.4.4. Settling Time

The operating speed of a DAC is usually specified by giving its settling

Settling Time time, which is the time required for the DAC output to go from zero to
full scale as the binary input is changed from all 0’s to all 1’s. Typical
values for settling time range from 50 ns to 10 µs.

2.4.5. Monotonicity

A DAC is monotonic if its output increases as the binary input is

incremented from one value to the next. Another way to describe this is
that the staircase output will have no downward steps as the binary input
is incremented from zero to full scale.
Monotonicity
DAC Applications
Control 2.5. DAC Applications

DACs are used whenever the output of a digital circuit has to provide an
analog voltage or current to drive an analog device. Some of the most
common applications are described in the following paragraphs.

2.5.1. Control

The digital output from a computer can be converted to an analog

control signal to adjust the speed of a motor or the temperature of a
furnace, to control almost any physical variable.

2.5.2. Automatic Testing

Computers can be programmed to generate the analog signals (through a

DAC) needed to test analog circuitry. The test circuit’s analog output
Automatic Testing response will normally be converted to a digital value by an ADC and
Signal Reconstruction fed into the computer to be stored, displayed, and sometimes analyzed.

2.5.3. Signal Reconstruction

In many applications, an analog signal is digitized, meaning that

successive points on the signal are converted to their digital equivalent
and stored in memory. This conversion is performed by an analog-to-
digital converter (ADC). A DAC can then be used to convert the stored
digitized data back to analog-one point at a time-thereby reconstructing
the original signal. This combination of digitizing and reconstruction is

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used in digital storage oscilloscopes, audio compact disk systems, and

digital audio and video recording.

2.6. Exercise

2.6.1. Multiple choice questions

a) Resolution of DAC is equal to the weight of

i) LSB
ii) MSB
iii) full scale output
iv) 1 volt.

b) When the binary input is all 0.s, ideally the output of a DAC will
be?

i) Zero volt
ii) Full scale output voltage
iii) 1 volt
iv) One step voltage.

2.6.2. Questions for short answers

a) Define full scale error and offset error.

b) What is the advantage of R/2R ladder DAC over the DAC that
uses binary weighted resistors?
c) An 8-bit DAC has an output of 3.92 mA for an input of 01100010.
What are the DAC’s resolution and full-scale output?
d) What is the percentage resolution of an 8-bit DAC?
e) How many different output voltages can a 12-bit DAC produce?
f) Define full-scale error.
g) What is settling time?
h) Describe offset error and its effect on a DAC output.

2.6.3. Analytical questions

a) Describe the operation of a DAC.

b) What is the advantage of R/2R ladder DACs over those that use
binary weighted resistors?
c) Discuss some of the DAC applications.

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Lesson 3 : A/D Converter

3.1. Learning Objectives

On completion of this lesson you will be able to :

♦ understand the operation of various types of analog-to-digital

converter circuitry such as the single ramp A/D, the digital ramp
A/D circuit.
♦ compare the advantages and disadvantages of different analog-to-
digital converter circuits

3.2. Analog-to-Digital Conversion

An analog-to-digital converter takes an analog input voltage and after a

An analog-to-digital certain amount of time produces a digital output code which represents
converter takes an analog the analog input. The A/D conversion process is generally more complex
input voltage and after a and time-consuming than the D/A process. The techniques that are used
certain amount of time provide and insight into what factors determine an ADCs performance.
produces a digital output
code which represents the Several important types of ADC utilize a DAC as part of their circuitry.
analog input. Fig. 7.6 is a general block diagram for this class of ADC. The timing for
the operation is provided by the input clock signal. The control unit
contains the logic circuitry for generating the proper sequence of
operations. The START COMMAND, initiates the conversion process,
The op-amp compactor has two analog inputs and a digital output that
switches states, depending on which analog input is greater.

The basic operation of ADCs of this type consists of the following steps:
The basic operation of
ADC. 1. The START COMMAND pulse initiates the operation.
2. At a rate determined by the clock, the control unit continually
modifies the binary number that is stored in the register.
3. The binary number in the register is converted to an analog voltage,
VAX, by the DAC.

VA 1
+ 0 Start command
Countrol
Op amp
-
unit Clock

Comparator EOC
(end of conversion)

D/A .
Register
VAX converter .
.
.

Digital result

Fig. 7.6 : Basic diagram of ADC.

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4. The comparator compares VAX with the analog input VA. As long as
VAX < VA1 the comparator output stays HIGH. When VAX exceeds VA
by at least an amount = VT ( threshold voltage), the comparator
output goes LOW and stops the process of modifying the register
number. At this point, VAX is a close approximation to VA. The digital
number in the register, which is the digital equivalent of VAX, is also
the approximate digital equivalent of VA1 within the resolution and
accuracy of the system.
5. The control logic activates the end-of-conversion signal, EOC, when
the conversion is complete.

3.3. Digital-Ramp ADC

One of the simplest versions of the general ADC of Fig. 7.7 uses a
Operation procedure of a binary counter as the register and allows the clock to increment the
digital-ramp ADC.
counter one step at a time until VAX ≥ VA. It is called a digital-ramp
ADC because the wave form at VAX is a step-by-step ramp (actually a
staircase) like the one shown in Fig. 7.7. It is also referred to as a
counter-type ADC. Fig. 7.7 is the diagram for a digital-ramp ADC. It
contains a counter, a DAC, an analog comparator, and a control AND
gate. The comparator output serves as the active-LOW end-of-
conversion signal, EOC . If we assume that VA, the analog voltage to be
converted, is positive, the operation proceeds as follows :

1. A START pulse is applied to reset the counter to zero. The HIGH at

START also inhibits clock pulse form passing through the AND gate
into the counter.
2. With all 0’s at its input, the DAC’s output will be VAX = 0V.
3. Since VA > VAX, the comparator output, EOC , will be HIGH.
4. When START returns LOW, the AND gate is enabled and clock
pulses get through to the counter.
5. As the counter advances, the DAC output, VAX, increases one step at
a time as shown in Fig. 7.7.
6. This continues unit VAX reaches a step that exceeds VA by an amount
equal to or greater than VT (typically 10 to 100 µV). At this point,
EOC will go LOW and inhibit the flow of pulses into the counter
and the counter will stop counting.
7. The conversion process is now complete as signaled by the HIGH-to-
LOW transition at EOC , and the contents of the counter are the
digital representation of VA.
8. The counter will hold the digital value until the next START pulse
initiates a new conversion.

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Clock

VA +
EOC
OP amp
-

Comparator START

VA
RESET
VAX
Conversion
complete.
VAX CLOCK counter stops
D/A .
Counter counting
converter
.
.
.
.
EOC

Digital
result tc
Start
Time
(a) (b)

Fig. 7.7 : Digital-ramp ADC.

Problem 8

Assume the following values for the ADC clock frequency = 1 MHz; VT
= 0.1 mV; DAC has F.S. output = 10.23 V and a 10-bit input. Determine
the following values.

Problem 8 and Solution a. The digital equivalent obtained for VA = 3.728 V.

b. The conversion time.
c. The resolution of this converter.

Solution

a. The DAC has a 10-bit input and a 10.23-V F.S. output. Thus, the
number of total possible steps is 210 - 1 = 1023, and so the step size is
10.23V
= 10mV
1023

This means that VAX increases in steps of 10 mV as the counter counts

up from zero. Since VA = 3.728 V and VT = 0.1 mV, VAX has to reach
3.7281 V or more before the comparator switches LOW. This will
require.

3.7281V
= 372.81 = 373 steps
10mV

At the end of the conversion, then, the counter will bold the binary
equivalent of 373, which is 0101110101. This is the desired digital
equivalent of VA = 3.728 V, as produced by this ADC.

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b. Three hundred seventy-three steps were required to complete the

conversion. Thus, 373 clock pulses occurred at the rate of one per
microsecond. This gives a total conversion time of 373 µs.
c. The resolution of this converter is equal to step size of the DAC,
which is 10mV. In percent it is 1/1023 × 100% ≈ 0.1%.

Problem 9

For the same ADC of problem 8 determine the approximate range of

Problem 9 and Solution analog input voltages that will produce the same digital result of
01011101012 = 37310.

Solution

Table 7.2 shows the ideal DAC output voltage, VAX, for several of the
steps on and around the 373rd. If VA is slightly smaller than 3.72 V (by
an amount < VT),

Step VAX (V)

371 3.71
372 3.72
373 3.73
374 3.74
375 3.75
Table 7.2

Then EOC won’t go LOW when VAX reaches the 3.72-V step, but will
go LOW on the 3.73-V step. If VA is slightly smaller than 3.73 V (by an
amount < VT), then EOC won’t go LOW until VAX reaches the 3.74-V
step. Thus, as long as VA is between approximately 3.72 V and 3.73-V,
EOC will go LOW when VAX reaches the 3.73-V step. The exact range
of VA values is

3.72 V - VT to 3.73 V - VT

but since VT is so small, we can simply say that the range is

approximately 3.72 V to 3.73 V - a range equal to 10 mV, the DAC’s
resolution.

3.4. A/D Resolution and Accuracy

Resolution of the ADC is equal to the resolution of the DAC that it

contains. The DAC output voltage VAX is a staircase waveform that goes
Resolution of the ADC is
up in discrete steps until it exceeds VA. Thus, VAX is an approximation to
equal to the resolution of
the DAC that it contains.
the value of VA, and the best we can expect is that VAX is within 10 mV
of VA if the resolution (step size) is 10 mV. We can think of the
resolution as being a built-in error that is often referred to as

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quantization error. This quantization error, can be reduced by increasing

the number of bits in the counter and DAC.

Problem 10

Acertain 8-bit ADC hs a full-scale input of 2.55 V (i.e., VA = 2.55 V

produces a digital output of 11111111). It has a specified error of 0.1%
Problem 10 and Solution F.S. Determine the maximum amount by which the VAX output can differ
from the analog input.

Solution

The step size is 2.55 V/ (28 - 1), which is exactly 10 mV. This means that
even if the DAC has no inaccuracies, the VAX output could be off by as
much as 10 mV because VAX. can change only in 10-mV steps; this is the
quantization error. The specified error of 0.1% F.S. is 0.1% × 2.55 V =
2.55 mV. This means that the VAX value can be off by as much as 2.55
mV because of component inaccuracies. Thus, the total possible error
could be as much as 10 mV + 2.55 mV = 12.55 mV.

3.5. Conversion Time, TC

The conversion time is the time interval between the end of the START
pulse and the activation of the EOC output. The counter starts
counting from zero and counts up until VAX exceeds VA, at which point
Conversion Time, TC EOC goes LOW to end the conversion process. It should be clear that
the value of conversion time, to, depends on VA. A larger value will
require more steps before the staircase voltage exceeds VA.

The maximum conversion time will occur when VA is just below full
scale so that VAX has to go to the last step to activate EOC . For an N-bit
converter this will be

tc (max) = 2N - 1 clock cycles

Sometimes, average conversion time is specified; it is half of the

maximum conversion time.

tc (max)
tc ( avg ) = ≈ 2 N − 1 clock cyles
2

The major disadvantage of the digital-ramp method is that conversion

time essentially doubles for each bit that is added to the counter, so that
resolution can be improved only at the cost of a longer tc. Applications,

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however, the relative simplicity of the digital-ramp converter is an

advantage over the more complex, higher-speed ADCs.

3.6. Applications

Almost any measurable quantity present as a voltage can be digitized by

an A/D converter and displayed. A/D converters are the heart of digital
voltmeters and digital MultiMate’s. Analog voice signals are converted
Applications to digital form for transmission over long distances. At their destination
they are reconverted to analog. In digital audio record- the analog audio
signal produced by a microphone is digitized (using an ADC), then
stored on some medium such as magnetic tope, magnetic disk or optical
disk. Later the stored data are played back by sending them to a DAC to
reconstruct the analog signal, which is fed to the amplifier and speaker
system to produce the recorded sound.

3.7. Exercise

3.7.1. Multiple choice question

a) The number of total steps of a 9-bit ADC is,

i) 255
ii) 256
iii) 511
iv) 512.

3.7.2. Questions for short answers

a) What do you know about quantization error?

b) Define conversion time.
c) What is the major disadvantage of the digital ramp type ADC?
d) What is the function of the comparator in the ADC?
e) What is the function of the comparator in the ADC?
f) Where is the approximate digital equivalent of VA when the
conversion is complete?
g) What is the function of the EOC signal?

3.7.3. Analytical question

a) Draw digital ramp ADC and write down its operation.

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