ELE 3310 Tutorial 10

Maxwell’s Equations & Plane

Waves
 Maxwell’s Equations
Differential Form Integral Form

∂B r ∂B
Faraday’s law ∇×E = −
∂t
∫CE ⋅ d l = − ∫S ∂ t ⋅ d s
∂D r ⎛ ∂D ⎞
Ampere’s law ∇×H = J +
∂t ∫CH ⋅ d l = ∫S ⎜⎝ ∂t ⎟⎠ ⋅ ds
J +

Gauss’s law ∇⋅D = ρ ∫ D ⋅ ds = Q

S

No isolated
magnetic charge
∇⋅B = 0 ∫ B ⋅ ds = 0
S

E = electric field intensity (V/m) ρ = volume density of free charge (C/m3)

H = magnetic field intensity (A/m) J = density of free current (A/m2)
D = electric flux density (C/m2)
B = magnetic flux density (T)
 Faraday’s law

∂B r ∂B
∇×E = −
∂t
∫CE ⋅ d l = − ∫S ∂ t ⋅ d s
„ This implies the electric field intensity in a region of
time-varying magnetic flux density is non-conservative
and cannot be expressed as the gradient of a scalar
potential.
r dΦ
V = ∫ E ⋅ dl = −
C dt

„ EMF (electromotive force) induced in a stationary closed

circuit is equal to the negative rate of increase of the
magnetic flux linking the circuit.
 Ampere’s law (modified)
∂D r ⎛ ∂D ⎞
∇×H = J +
∂t
∫C
H ⋅ dl = ∫ ⎜ J +
S
⎝
⎟ ⋅ ds
∂t ⎠
„ To be consistent with the conservation of charge, extra term,
∂D ∂t , is added. It is known as displacement current density
(A/m2).
„ This equation indicates that a time-varying electric field will
give rise to a magnetic field, even in the absence of current
flow.
„ J is the density of free current, which includes both convection
current (ρ u ) and conduction current (ε E ).
„ Convection current is due to the motion of free charge
distribution.
„ Conduction current is due to the presence of E-field in a
conducting medium.
 Gauss’s law and No isolated magnetic charge
∇⋅D = ρ ∫ D ⋅ ds = Q
S

„ ρ is volume density of free charge (C/m3).

„ Total outward flux of the electric displacement (or simply,
total outward electric flux) over any closed surface is equal to
the total free charge enclosed in the surface.

∇⋅B = 0 ∫ B ⋅ ds = 0
S

„ Isolated magnetic charge does not exist.

„ There are no magnetic flow sources, and the magnetic flux
lines always close upon themselves.
 Expression of E and H in potentials
See page 327
∂A of textbook
E = −∇V − for reference

B = ∇× A ∂t
1
H= ∇× A
μ
„ V and A can be obtained by solving wave equations with
appropriate boundary conditions. Then, E and H can be found.
„ Relation of V and A is expressed by:
Recall: we set
∂V ∇⋅A = 0
∇ ⋅ A = − με
∂t
(eq. 6-20 of textbook)
previously.

„ It is known as Lorentz condition for potentials (Lorentz

gauge).
„ This gauge enforces both V and A to propagate in speed of
light.
 Wave equations
„ Non-homogeneous wave equations for potential scalar V
and vector A
∂ 2
V ρ
2
∂ A
∇ V − με 2 = −
2 ∇ A − με 2 = − μJ
2

∂t ε ∂t
„ Solutions in free-space, for point source at origin (for given and J)

ρ (t − R u ) μ J (t − R u )
V (R, t ) = dv′ A(R, t ) =
1
4πε V∫′ R 4π ∫V ′ R dv′
„ Potential at a distance of R from the source at(t time
− R ut)depends on the
value of the charge density at an earlier time . It takes time
R/u for the effect of and J to arrive the points R away from the
origin. ρ
„ V and A are called retarded scalar potential and retarded vector
potential respectively. 1
wave speed in a medium : u = (ms-1 )
με
Wave equations

1 ∂ 2E 1 ∂ 2
H
∇ E− 2 2 = 0
2
∇ H− 2 2 =0
2
u ∂t u ∂t
„ Homogeneous vector wave equations

1
wave speed in a medium : u = (ms-1 )
με

„ This set of equations are valid only for source-free region.

(i.e.: ρ = 0 and J = 0 )
Time-Harmonic Fields (EM in frequency domain)
[ ]
E(x, y, z , t ) = Re E( x, y, z )e jωt = E( x, y, z ) cos ωt
„ In this topic, sinusoid with only a single frequency is considered.
„ In this case, E is expressed in terms of cos ωt s.t.:

„ Differentiating of a vector phasor w.r.t. t ⇒ × jω

1
„ Integrating a vector phasor w.r.t. t ⇒×
jω

„ Therefore, Maxwell’s Equations (phasor form) become:

∇ × E = − jωμ H ∇ × H = J + jωεE
∇⋅D = ρ ∇⋅B = 0
Time-Harmonic Fields (Wave equations)
„ Lorentz condition for potentials becomes: ∇ ⋅ A = − jωμεV
„ Non-homogeneous wave equations for potential scalar V
and vector A
ρ
∇ V +k V =−
2 2
∇ 2 A + k 2 A = − μJ
ε ρ
„ Solutions in free-space, for point source at origin (for given and J)
ρe − jkR μ Je − jkR
V (R ) =
1
4πε ∫
dv ′ A (R ) = ∫ dv ′
V′
R 4π V ′ R
Wavenumber
„ Expression of E and H ω
1 k = ω με =
E = −∇V − jωA H= ∇× A u
μ
„ Homogeneous vector wave equations
This definition is only
∇ E+k E = 0
2 2
∇ H+k H =0
2 2 valid when product of
ε and μ are real and
positive.
 Summery of the electromagnetic field equations

∇ × E = − jωμ H

Maxwell’s
∇ × H = J + jωεE
Equations

∇⋅D = ρ
These equations form the
∇⋅B = 0 foundation of electroma-
gnetic theory and can be
∂ρ used to explain all electr-
∇⋅J = − Equation of omagnetic phenomena
∂t continuity

F = Q(E + v × B ) Lorentz’s force

equation
 Plane Waves
„ A uniform plane wave is a particular solution of Maxwell’s equations
with E assuming the same direction, same magnitude, and same phase in
infinite planes perpendicular to the direction of propagation (similarly for
H).
„ In practice, plane wave does not exist because practical wave sources are
always finite in extent.
„ If we are far enough away from a source, the wavefront becomes almost
spherical; and very small portion of surface of a giant sphere is very
nearly a plane.
„ Solution of uniform plane wave characterized by Ex (uniform magnitude
& constant phase) over plane surfaces perpendicular to z-axis is in this
form:
[
a x E x ( z , t ) = a x Re E x 0 e j (ωt − k0 z +φ ) ]
The wave oscillate in x-direction Phase (φ ) is a constant.
(i.e.: polarized in x-direction), We usually put it to zero
but propagate at z-direction. for simplicity.
 Plane Waves
„ Uniform plane wave is usually expressed in phasor form :
E( z ) = E 0 e − jkz
where E0 is a constant vector, i.e.: it’s constant over a plane.
„ To be more general, uniform plane wave can be expressed by:
E( x , y , z ) = E 0 e
− jk x x − jk y y − jk z z

where k x2 + k y2 + k z2 = ω 2 με = k 2
„ ki and i, where i = x, y or z, can be expressed in scalar product of two
vectors, such that:
E(x, y, z ) = E(R ) = E 0 e − jk ⋅R
„ R is a position vector, describing an observation point in the space.
R = ax x + a y y + az z
„ k is a wavenumber vector, direction of which (an) aligns with the
propagating direction of the plane wave while magnitude of which (k)
is wavenumber in an direction.
k = ka n = a x k x + a y k y + a z k z
 Plane Waves
„ Since ∇ × E = − jωμ H , magnetic field intensity of a plane wave can be
expressed in terms of E, such that:
H (R ) = − ∇ × E(R )
1
jωμ
⇓
E are H are perpendicular to
H (R ) = a n × E(R )
1 each other, and both are
⇒
η transverse to propagation
direction. It is a transverse
electromagnetic (TEM) wave.
⇓
H (R ) = (a n × E0 )e − jka ⋅R
1 Example: if E is polarized in ax, and
⇒
n

η an = az, H will be polarized

in -ay.
Intrinsic impedance of the medium
Intrinsic impedance of free space
(wave impedance)
μ0
E ωμ μ η0 = ≅ 120π ≅ 377 (Ω)
η= = = (Ω ) ε0
H k ε
Examples
Examples