CHAPTER II

Data Collection, Sampling Techniques, Summarization of Data and Presentation of Data

Learning Objectives:
After students completed the learning materials, they will be able to:
 Distinguish the different methods of collecting data.
 Identify the sampling procedures and its uses.
 Differentiate probability sampling procedure from non-probability sampling procedures.
 Apply numerical methods, such as ratio, proportion and percentage in summarizing data.
 Explain and interpret ratio, proportion and percentage value.
 Organize table in summarizing data.
 Construct graph such as pie chart, bar chart and line graph.
 Classify the uses of frequency distribution table in summarizing data.

Data Collection
Introduction
Data can be collected in different ways. It can be obtained from original data or from
previous students.
Methods of Collecting Data
The methods of collecting data are:
1. Direct or interview method. This is a personal communication with the individual you
want to interview.
2. Indirect or questionnaires method. This is done by sending questionnaires to the person
from whom you would like to get the information.
3. Registration method. Utilizing existing records from various agencies.
4. Observation method. This can be done directly or indirectly.
5. Experiment method. This is done with the participation of a certain researcher. In other
words, there is a human intervention occur during the process of data collection.

Two Documented Sources of Data

1. Primary Data. Data documented by the primary source.
2. Secondary Data. Data documented by a secondary source.
Sampling Techniques
The study of the entire population of interest in some situations is impractical or even
impossible to include the entire population. Thus, take a part of a population, the so-called sample.

Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting the sample or the study units from a previously defined
population.
Sampling Error
Sampling error is the difference or deviation of the sample from the population with respect
to the characteristics of interest in the study.
Sampling Frame
The list of units from which the sample were drawn in any sampling procedure.
Sampling Procedure
Sampling procedure refers to the manner in which the members of the population are
selected as part of the sample. These are classified into probability or random sampling and non-
probability sampling procedures.
Sample Size Determination
An important aspect of the sampling design is the sample size. The number of members
that you include in the study must not be too small in order to come up with reliable estimates.
According to some researchers and statisticians suggest, Slovin’s formula is an alternative
approach to computing the sample size. The formula is given below;
𝑁
𝑛=
1 + 𝑁𝑒 2
Where;
n – the sample size N – the population size e – the desired margin of error
Probability Sampling Procedures
These comprise all sampling methods done when there is a sampling frame which ensures
that all the probable sampled have an equal chance or probability of being selected for the study.
Types of Probability Sampling Procedures
Simple Random Sampling
This is the basic method on which all other methods of probability sampling are built. Each
member of the population has an equal and independent chance of being selected.
Systematic Sampling
This is done by selecting a sampling interval k and using the sampling frame, the researcher
selects every kth member of the population beginning at some random point and cycling through
the list.
Stratified Sampling
The members of the population are classified into non-overlapping groups or strata on the
basis of characteristics to be properly represented in the sample.
Cluster Sampling
This is usually used in studies of huge populations where the sampling frame may be too
large to study or too time-consuming that is better to divide them first into clusters or groups and
randomly select a sample cluster of choice.
Multistage Sampling
This is usually done in big community-based studies in which selection of the sampling
unit is done by stages.
Non-probability Sampling Procedures
These are methods that do not include random sampling at some stage in the process.
Further, these are applicable when there is no sampling frame available.
Types of Non-Probability Sampling Procedures
Convenience Sampling
In this method, the sample consists of elements that are most accessible or easiest to
contact.
Judgement or Purposive Sampling
In this method, the researcher chooses a sample that agrees with his/her subjective
judgment of a representative sample.
Quota Sampling
Is the non-probability sampling wherein the researcher just sets a quota or number of
sampling units to be included in each grouping but uses convenience sampling to select the units
within each grouping.
Snowball Sampling
Also called chain referral and referential sampling. This is used to find members of a
group not otherwise visibly identified.
Numerical Methods of Summarizing Data
Percentages & Proportions
These are the most commonly used numerical measures for summarizing data. The
formulas are given below.
𝑓
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑝) =
𝑁

𝑓
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (%) = 𝑥100
𝑁
Where;
f – the frequency or the number of cases in any category
N- the total number of cases in all categories.
Ratio
Used to compare categories in terms of relative frequency. The formula is given below;
𝑓1
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑓2
Where;
𝑓1 - the number of cases in the first category
𝑓2 - the number of cases in the second category
Rates
Rates are defined as the number of actual occurrences of some phenomenon divided by the
number of possible occurrences per some unit of time. The formula is given below;
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑥10𝑛
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
Crude birth 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑥1000
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

Crime 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥100,000

Rate of change or percentage change

Is useful for comparing the actual change between time periods.
𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑤 −𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑑
Rate of change= 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝑥100
Where;
𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑤 – frequency at the new/current time period
𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑑 – frequency at the old/previous time period

Tabular Methods of Presenting Data

The most common method of organizing and presenting data is through construction of
tables.
Frequency Distribution Tables
The most commonly used way to tabulate data is to construct a frequency distribution
table. This could be done by grouping the data into different categories along with the number of
observations falling into each category.
Distribution
Refers to the pattern of variation of the variable being measured.
Types of Frequency Distribution Tables
Simple Frequency Distribution
This type of table provides a useful way to present data when the dependent measure is
discrete or nominal level variable.
Regular or Ungrouped Frequency Distribution
Is used when there is a small number of observations especially quantitative data.
Grouped Frequency Distribution
This refers to the arrangement of data that shows the frequency of occurrence of values
falling with each class interval.
When the researchers gather the needed data, the next task is to organize and present them
with the use of appropriate tables and graphs. This section explains how to organize and display
data in a presentable and understandable manner. The students will learn on how to prepare
frequency distribution tables for quantitative and qualitative data.
Types of tabular presentation
Types of tabular presentation may include simple frequency distribution, ungrouped
frequency distribution and grouped frequency distribution.
Simple frequency distribution
 This is also called categorical frequency distribution. This is used for data that can be place
in categories. In other words, the qualitative data or categorical data is the appropriate in this type
of tabular presentation.
Consider the following data give the results of a sample survey. The letters A, B, and C
represent three categories. Construct a frequency distribution table from the given data below;
A B A A C C A C C C
C B C B B C B B B C
B C C A C C C B C A
Solutions: the categories are the three letters A, B, and C, so the simple frequency distribution
table is
Category Frequency Percentage
A 6 20%
B 9 30%
C 15 50%
Total 30 100%

Grouped Frequency Distribution

This is one technique used to facilitate the description of important features of the data.
Grouped frequency Distribution is utilized in presenting data sets by sorting them into classes and
showing the frequency of occurrences in each class.
Basic Terminology
Before constructing grouped frequency distribution table let us familiarized all the features
on it.
Class intervals or class limits
This refers to the grouping defined by lower class limit and upper class limit. Sometimes,
the class limits is not defined.
Class boundaries
These are used to separate the classes so that these are no gaps in the frequency distribution
table. In continuous like test scores, weights, heights, etc. is supposed to starts and ends with an
accurate class limits by at least 0.5.
Class Marks or class midpoint
This is the value of a class interval or classes. This is obtained by finding the average of
the lower class limit and upper class limit.
Class size or class width
 Class size or class width is the difference between the upper class limit/boundary and lower
class limit/boundary. The ratio of two values that is, the range divided by desired number of
classes.
Class frequency
This means the number of observations belonging to a class interval.
Steps in Constructing the Grouped frequency Distribution
1. Determine the range (R) of the distribution.
2. Decide the number of classes. According to Herbert Sturges, the author of Sturges’ Rule,
suggested that the number of classes to tabulate n items should be approximately 1 + 3.3
log (n). The class intervals, normally is not less than 5 and not more than 20.
3. Determine the class size (i). This is obtained by dividing the range by the desired number
of class interval. The class width should be an odd number. This ensures that the midpoint
of each class has the same place value as the data.
4. Select a starting point, either the lowest score or the lower class limit. Add the class width
to the starting point to get the second lower class limit. Then enter the upper class limit.
5. Find the class boundaries by subtracting 0.5 from each lower class limit and adding 0.5 to
the upper class limit.
6. Represent each score by a tally that fall within the class interval.
7. Count the number of frequency for each class. Finally, get sum to determine the total
frequency.

Example: When 40 people were surveyed at Dipolog City, they reported the distance they drove
to the mall, and the results (kilometers) are given below.
2 8 1 5 9 5 14 10 31 20
15 4 10 6 5 5 1 8 12 10
25 40 31 24 20 20 3 9 15 15
25 8 1 1 16 23 18 25 21 12
Construct a grouped frequency distribution table.
Solutions: Follow the steps:
1. Range = highest score – lowest score = 40 – 1 = 39
2. Class intervals = 1 + 3.3 log (40) ≈ 6.28 rounded of 6.
𝑅 39
3. Class width = = = 6.5 = 7 class size
𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 6
4. Determine the lower class limit. In this example the lower class limit is 1. So, add the class width
to the lower class limit to get the next lower limit (8).

Table 1 Grouped Frequency Distribution for a distance of 40 People drove

Distance Class boundaries Class midpoint Frequency Less than Cumulative Tally
frequency
1-7 0.5 – 7.5 4 12 12 11111-
11111-11

8-14 7.5 – 14.5 11 11 23 11111-

11111-1

15-21 14.5 – 21.5 18 9 32 11111-1111

22-28 21.5 – 28.5 25 5 37 11111-

29-35 28.5 – 35.5 32 2 39 11

36-42 35.5 – 42.5 39 1 40 1

Total 40

5. Determine the class boundaries. This will be obtained by adding 0.5 for each upper class limit and
subtract 0.5 for each lower class limit.
6. Tally the scores.
7. Determine the class midpoint for each class interval.
8. Construct cumulative frequency (less than).

Bivariate or Two-way Tables

These are tables which result from crosstabulation of data from two variables that are
summarized and presented simultaneously.
To summarize, one should bear in mind that tables should display data in logical, consistent
format that allows the reader to read and interpret easily and accurately the information it
contained. The table must contain the following essential parts, such as; table number, title, column
headings, row headings, and the body. Further, the table may contain footnotes which should be
place below the bottom rule of table.

Graphical presentation of data

Graphs, charts or diagrams are generally considered effective means of presenting the
essential features of a set of data. They provide a visual picture of the general characteristics of the
given data set.
Bar Graphs
Bar graphs are essentially consisting of bars to depict the data portrayed. The bars maybe
drawn horizontally or vertically depending on available space or number of categories or groupings
of variables. The frequencies or rates or relative frequencies are represented by bars or rectangles
whose lengths or heights are proportional to their values. Example of bar graph is shown below;

Admission Test Scores

20

15

10

0
20-29 30 - 39 40 - 49 50 - 59 60 - 69 70 - 79

Male Female
Figure 1
Admission Test Scores of Entering Freshmen Students in JRMSU by Sex
Histogram
Used to compare absolute or relative frequencies of a continuous variable or measurement.
Consists of bars whose heights depict frequency or percentage of each category. The horizontal
axis is a continuous scale showing units of measurement of the variable under study. Example of
histogram is shown below;

Histogram
10
Frequency

0
0-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46 and
Above
Bin

Figure 2 Histogram showing the Number of Person by Age

Pie Chart
To show the composition of a group or whole into its component parts where there are not
too many categories of the variables. A circle representing the whole is divided into sectors which
are proportional in size to the corresponding frequencies or the relative contribution of the
component to the whole. Example of pie chart is shown below;
 1%

39%

60%

Single Married Widowed

Figure 3 Distribution of Female Faculty in JRMSU by Civil Status

Line graph of Times Series graph
Use to portray trend data or changes in the variable with time, such as population growth,
inflation rates, birth and death rates. Consists of line segments joining points plotted depicting the
changes of the relative frequencies or rates on the vertical axis over time on the horizontal axis.
Illustration of line graph is shown below;

150

100

50

0
1 2 3 4 5

Food Beverage and Tobacco Clothing

Housing and Repairs Services
All Items

Legend:1-1999: 2-2000: 3 – 2001: 4 -2004: 5-2005

Figure 4 Inflation Rate (in percent) by Commodity Group in the Philippines

Textual Presentation
Insert important data figures or summary measures within the paragraph of text to
support our conclusions and answers to the research problem.