Computer 20’ - 2018

Computer - Chapter Two

The System Unit: Processing and Memory
 Data and Program Representation
1) Digital Data Representation
- In order to be understood by a computer, data and programs need to be represented appropriately
- Coding systems: Used to represent numeric, text-based, and multimedia data, as well as to represent
programs
- Digital computers: Can only understand two states, off and on (0 and 1)
- Digital data representation: The process of representing data in digital form so it can be used by a computer
- Bit: The smallest unit of data that a binary computer can recognize (a single 1 or 0)
- Byte = 8 bits
- Byte terminology used to express the size of documents and other files, programs, etc.
- Prefixes are often used to express larger quantities of bytes: kilobyte (KB), megabyte (MB), gigabyte (GB)

2) The Binary Numbering System

- Numbering system: A way of representing numbers
a. Decimal numbering system
- Uses 10 symbols (0-9) (the numbers which we use in our daily life)
b. Binary numbering system
- Uses only two symbols (1 and 0) to represent all possible numbers (used for computers)
- In both systems, the position of the digits determines the power to which the base number (such as 10 or
2) is raised

3) Coding Systems for Text-Based Data

- ASCII and EBCDIC
- ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange): coding system traditionally used with PCs
- It’s a 7-bit code then extended to 8-bit code
- EBCDIC (Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code): developed by IBM, primarily for mainframe use
- It’s a 8-bit code
- Both ASCII and EBCDIC can represent ONLY 256 possible values
- Unicode: newer code (32 bits per character is common); universal coding standard designed to represent
text-based data written in any language
- It’s consist of 1 to 4 bytes (8 to 32 bit) which can represent over 1 million possible value

1|Page
Ahmed Naser
 Computer 20’ - 2018

4) Coding Systems for Other Types of Data

1. Graphics
- Graphics (still images such as photos or drawings)
- Bitmapped images: an image made up of a grid of small dots called (Pixels) and are colored
appropriately to represent an image
- the color to be displayed at each pixel is represented by combination of 0s and 1s
- A variety of bit depths are possible (4, 8, 24 bits)
- Images that use 24-bit to represent a pixel color are called true color image
- Vector-based images: Use mathematical formulas to represent images rather than a map of pixels

2. Audio Computer
- Audio data: Must be in digital form in order to be stored on or processed by a PC
- Often compressed when sent over the Internet
- MP3 files
- The actual storage size required depends on the bit rate which is the number of bits to be transferred per
second when the file is played

3. Video Data
- Video data: Displayed using a collection of frames, each frame containing a single graphical image
- When the frames are projected one after the other (typically at a rate of 24 frames per second (fps) for
film based video, the illusion of movement is created.
- Amount of data can be substantial, but can be compressed
- MPEG-2 files

5) Representing Programs: Machine Language

- Machine language: Binary-based language for representing computer programs the computer can
execute directly
- Early programs were written in machine language.
- Today’s programs still need to be translated into machine language in order to be understood by the
computer
- Most program are written in other programming languages
- Language translators are used to translate the programs into machine language (compiler)

 Inside the System Unit

- System unit: The main case of a computer
- Houses the processing hardware for a computer
- Also contains memory, the power supply, cooling fans, and interfaces to connect peripheral devices
- Houses the drive bays in which storage devices (hard drives, DVD drives, etc.) are located
- With a desktop PC, usually looks like a rectangular box

2|Page
Ahmed Naser
 Computer 20’ - 2018

1) The Motherboard
- It's a circuit board is a thin board containing computer chips and other electronic components
- Computer chip: A very small pieces of silicon or other semi-conducting material onto which integrated
circuits are embedded
- Circuit board: A thin board containing computer chips and other electronic components
- Motherboard or system board: The main circuit board inside the system unit
- All computer components must connect to the motherboard
- External devices (monitors, keyboards, mice, printers) typically connect by plugging into a port exposed
through the exterior of the system unit

2) The CPU
- Central processing unit (CPU): circuitry and components packaged together and attached to the
motherboard
- Does the vast majority of processing for a computer
- Also called a processor; called a microprocessor when talking about PCs
- Dual-core CPU: Contain the processing components (cores) of two separate processors on a single CPU
- Quad-core CPU: Contains 4 cores
- Typically designed for desktop PCs, portable PCs, or servers
- Often made by Intel or AMD

A. Processing Speed
- CPU clock speed: One measurement of processing speed
- Measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz)
- Higher CPU clock speed = more instructions processed per second
- Alternate measure of processing speed is the number of instructions a CPU can process per second
- Megaflops, gigaflops, teraflops
- Other factors (CPU architecture, memory, bus speed, etc.) also affect the overall processing speed of a
computer
- Benchmark tests: Can be used to evaluate overall processing speed

B. Word Size and Cache Memory

- Word size: The amount of data that a CPU can manipulate at one time
- Typically 32 or 64 bits
- Cache memory: Special group of very fast memory chips located on or close to the CPU
- Cache memory is used to speed up processing by storing the data and instructions that may be needed
next by the CPU in handy locations
- More cache memory typically means faster processing
- Usually internal cache today (built right into the CPU chip)
- Level 1 is fastest, then Level 2, then Level 3

3|Page
Ahmed Naser
 Computer 20’ - 2018

C. Bus Width, Bus Speed, and Bandwidth

- Bus: An electronic path over which data can travel
- Bus width: The number of wires in the bus over which data can travel
- Bus width and speed determine the throughput (or bandwidth) of the bus
- bandwidth: the amount of data that can be transferred via the bus in a given time period
- throughput: the amount of data actually transferred under real-life conditions

3) Memory
A. RAM (random access memory)
- Temporary memory that the computer uses
- also called main memory or system memory
- Consists of chips connected to a memory module which is connected to the motherboard
- Holds data and program instructions while they are needed.
- Each location in memory has an address. Whenever a block of data, instruction, program, or result of a
calculation is stored in memory, it is usually stored in one or more consecutive addresses
- Volatile: Contents of RAM is lost when the computer is shut off
- Data in RAM is also deleted when it is no longer needed
- SIMM(single in-line memory modules), DIMM (dual in-line memory modules)
- Some forms of nonvolatile RAM (NVRAM) are under development
- RAM capacity is measured in bytes (Giga Bytes)
- RAM Speed is measured in Megahertz (MHz)

B. Registers
- High-speed memory built into the CPU; used by the CPU
- Registers are the fastest type of memory used by the CPU, even faster than Level 1

C. ROM (read-only memory)

- consists of nonvolatile chips that permanently store data or programs
- Read-only chips located on the motherboard into which data or programs have been permanently stored
- Retrieved by the computer when needed
- Content can't be changed or erased
- Being replaced with flash memory

D. Flash memory
- Type of nonvolatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed
- Some flash memory chips are used by the PC (Boot)
- Flash memory chips are also used in flash memory storage media (sticks, cards, and drives)

4) Fans, Heat Sinks, and Other Cooling Components

- Heat: A continuing problem for CPU and computer manufacturers
- Fans: Used on most PCs
- Heat sinks: Small components typically made out of aluminum with fins that help to dissipate heat
- Water cooling systems: Cool the PC with liquid-filed tubes
- Other cooling methods (such as ion pump cooling systems) are under development

4|Page
Ahmed Naser
 Computer 20’ - 2018

5) Expansion Slots, Expansion Cards, and ExpressCards

- Expansion card (interface card) : A circuit board used to add additional functionality or to attach a
peripheral device
- Expansion slot: A location on the motherboard into which expansion cards are inserted
- ExpressCard modules: Designed for notebook computer expansion

6) Buses
- Bus: An electronic path within a computer over which data travels
- System bus: Moves data back and forth between the CPU and memory
- Expansion buses: Connect the CPU to peripheral (typically input and output) devices
a. PCI (peripheral component interconnect) and PCI Express (PCIe) bus
b. AGP (Accelerated graphics port) bus
c. HyperTransport bus
d. Universal Serial Bus (USB)
e. FireWire/IEEE 1394 bus

7) Ports and Connectors

- Port: A connector on the exterior of a PC’s system unit to which a device may be attached
- the parallel ports are now considered
- A wired or wireless hub can connect many devices to a single USB or FireWire port
- Notebook computers have ports similar to desktop PCs, but often not as many
- Handheld computers and mobile devices typically have less ports
- An SD slot is common for both memory cards and to connect peripheral devices

Serial Connects a scanner or a monitor DB-9 or DB-25

Parallel Connects a printer (legacy ports)
Network are used to connect a computer to a computer network via a networking cable
Keyboard/Mouse PS/2 connectors to Connect a keyboard or a mouse
Monitor (VGA, DVI,
are used to connect a monitor to a computer
HDMI)
Modem/Phone Connects the pc to a phone jack (RJ-45)
USB are used to connect USB devices
FireWire are used to connect FireWire devices to the computer via a FireWire connector
SCSI Used for hard disk and tape drivers but it can connect a printer or scanner
MIDI Allow connecting musical instruments
IrDA (Infrared Data
ports and Bluetooth ports are used to receive wireless transmissions from devices
Association)
Game Used to connect a joystick, game pad, wheel
eSATA are used to connect external SATA devices

5|Page
Ahmed Naser
 Computer 20’ - 2018

 How the CPU Works

- CPU: Consists of a variety of circuitry and components packaged together
- Transistor: Key element of the microprocessor
- Made of semi-conductor material that acts like a switch controlling the flow of electrons inside a chip
- Today’s CPUs contain hundreds of millions of transistors; the number doubles about every 18 months
(Moore’s Law)

1) Typical CPU Components

1. Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU): Performs the arithmetic & logical operations, as directed by the control unit
2. Floating Point Unit (FPU): Performs decimal arithmetic operations
3. Control unit: Is in charge of the entire process, making sure everything happens at the right time. It
instructs the ALU, FPU, and registers what to do, based on instructions from the decode unit.
4. Pre-fetch unit: Requests instructions and data from cache or RAM and makes sure they are in the proper
order for processing; it attempts to fetch instructions and data ahead of time so that the other
components don’t have to wait.
5. Decode unit: Takes instructions from the pre-fetch unit and translates them into a form that the control
unit can understand.
6. Internal cache: is used to store instructions and data for the CPU that are used frequently in order to
avoid retrieving them from RAM or the hard drive.
7. Registers: The ALU and FPU use registers to store data, intermediary calculations, and the results of
processing temporarily.
8. Bus interface unit: allows the core to communicate with other CPU components,.
-
2) The System Clock and the Machine Cycle
a. System clock
- Small quartz located on the motherboard which sends out a signal on a regular basis to all other
computer components that synchronizes the computer’s operations
- Each signal is a cycle & it's measured in Number of cycles per second = hertz (Hz)
- instruction set: the collection of basic machine language commands that the CPU can understand
- microcode : when an instruction is broken down into several smaller instructions
- Many PC system clocks run at 200 MHz
- Computers can run at a multiple or fraction of the system clock
- with a CPU clock speed of 2 GHz, the CPU clock “ticks” 10 times during each system clock tick
- During each CPU clock tick, one or more pieces of microcode are processed
- Superscalar: is when CPU process more than one piece of microcode at one time

b. Machine cycle
- The series of operations involved in the execution of a single machine level instruction
- Fetch: The program instruction is fetched
- Decode: The instructions are decoded so the control unit, ALU, and FPU can understand them
- Execute: The instructions are carried out
- Store: The original data or the result from the ALU or FPU execution is stored either in the CPU’s registers
or in memory, depending on the instruction

6|Page
Ahmed Naser
 Computer 20’ - 2018

 Making Computers Faster and Better Now and in the Future

1) Improving performance today
a. Add more memory
b. Perform system maintenance
- Uninstall programs properly - Consider placing large files on external storage devices
- Delete temporary files - Arrange files efficiently
- Scan for viruses and spyware - Empty the Recycle Bin
c. Buy a larger or second hard drive
d. Upgrade your Internet connection
e. Upgrade your video graphics card

2) Strategies for Making Faster and Better Computers

a. Improved architecture: Smaller components, faster bus speeds, multiple CPU cores, etc. (lithography)
b. Improved materials: New backing materials, flexible circuits, etc.
c. Pipelining: Allows multiple instructions to be processed at one time
d. Multiprocessing and parallel processing: Use multiple processors to speed up processing
- Multiprocessing (where each processor or core typically works on a different job)
- Parallel Processing (where multiple processors or cores work together to make one single job)

3) Future Trends
a. Nanotechnology: The science of creating tiny computers and components less than 100 nanometers in size
- Carbon Nano-tubes (CNT) used in many products today
- Nanoparticles and Nano-crystals
- In the future, components may be built by working at the individual atomic and molecular levels

b. Quantum computing: Applies the principles of quantum physics and quantum mechanics to computers
- Utilizes atoms or nuclei working together as quantum bits (qubits)
- Qubits function simultaneously as the computer’s processor and memory and can represent more than two
states
- Expected to be used for specialized applications, such as encryption and code breaking

c. Optical computer: Uses light, such as from laser beams or infrared beams, to perform digital computations
- Opto-electronic computers use both optical and electronic components

d. Silicon photonics: The process of making optical devices using silicon manufacturing techniques
- Hybrid silicon laser

e. Tera-scale computing: The ability to process one trillion floating-point operations per second (teraflops)
- Expected to be needed for future applications

f. 3D chips: Contain transistors that are layered to cut down on the surface area required

End of chapter :’)

7|Page
Ahmed Naser