TUTORIAL ON BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

INTEGRATED
WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

The interactive version of the tutorial is on available at www.cap-net.org. You can download it and use it offline
or adapt it for your own use. The tutorial is also available on CD-ROM on request to [email protected].

In collaboration with

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 Table of Contents

WHY IS WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IMPORTANT TO YOU? .............................................3

IWRM Tutorial - structure .......................................................................................................................4

1. What is Integrated Water Resources Management?........................................................................5

2. Why IWRM? Key issues in water management ................................................................................5

3. Water Management Principles ...........................................................................................................7

4. The water users, good and bad points..............................................................................................9

5. Implementing IWRM.......................................................................................................................... 10

6. Policy and legal framework.............................................................................................................. 11

7. Institutional framework..................................................................................................................... 12

Think About It........................................................................................................................................ 13

A. Environment ..................................................................................................................................... 14
A1. How does the environment use water?......................................................................................... 14
A2. Why is the environment important? .............................................................................................. 14
A3. How is the environment affected by water use in other sectors?.................................................. 16
A4. Impact of the environment on water use by other sectors ............................................................ 16
A5. Benefits of IWRM to the environmental sector.............................................................................. 17
A6. Barriers to implementing IWRM in the environmental sector ........................................................ 17
A7. Implications for change within the environmental sector: legal, institutional, human resources.... 18

Think About it........................................................................................................................................ 19

B. Food/Agriculture .............................................................................................................................. 20
B1. How does the agricultural sector use water? ................................................................................20
B2. Why is the agricultural sector important........................................................................................ 21
B3. How is the agricultural sector affected by water use in other sectors? ......................................... 22
B4. Impact of agriculture on water use by other sectors ..................................................................... 23
B5. Benefits of IWRM to the agricultural sector................................................................................... 24
B6. Barriers to implementing IWRM in the agricultural sector ............................................................. 25
B7. Implications for change within agricultural sector: legal, institutional, human resources .............. 25

Think About it........................................................................................................................................ 27

C. Water Supply and Sanitation........................................................................................................... 28

C1. How does the water supply and sanitation sector use water? ...................................................... 28
C2. Why is the water supply and sanitation sector important?............................................................ 29
C3. How is the water supply and sanitation sector affected by water use in other sectors? ............... 30
C4. Impact of water supply and sanitation on water use by other sectors .......................................... 31
C5. Benefits of IWRM to the water supply and sanitation sector......................................................... 32
C6. Barriers to implementing IWRM in the water supply and sanitation sector ................................... 33
C7. What would be the main changes to take place in the water supply and sanitation sector to
introduce IWRM? ................................................................................................................................ 34

Think About it........................................................................................................................................ 35

8. References and links ........................................................................................................................ 36

Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................. 38

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 WHY IS WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IMPORTANT TO YOU?

We can virtually take it for granted these days that any international conference or ministerial
meeting involved with sustainable development will result in recommendations for more and
better “integrated water resources management” (IWRM). Governments are repeatedly urged
to introduce or extend IWRM, as a vital component of their sustainable development agenda.

So, what is meant by integrated water resources management? Why is it so important? What
are we losing without it? What are the gains to be made from introducing it? If it is so good,
why isn’t everybody doing it already? What are the obstacles that prevent IWRM from
becoming universal? What do we need to do to spread its application and reap the benefits?

This brief introductory tutorial is aimed at policy makers, water managers, trainers and
educators who want a basic understanding of IWRM principles. It provides the case for IWRM
and the arguments against those who may oppose it on institutional or sectoral grounds. More
detailed courses are available for those who will be directly involved in practical
implementation of IWRM (information on these courses may be found on www.cap-net.org). If
you come at IWRM from a sectoral perspective, the tutorial provides the opportunity to look at
the specific implications of IWRM in your own field, or, equally importantly, to recognise the
key issues in the other sectors (environment, agriculture, domestic/municipal water supply
and wastewater treatment).

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IWRM Tutorial - structure

CORE
IWRM flow
Environment Food/ Agriculture Water Supply and
1. What is IWRM?
Sanitation
2. Why IWRM? Water A1. How does the B1. How does C1. How does the
resource problems in environment use agriculture use WSS sector use
general water? water? water?
3. Water A2. Why is the B2. Why is C2. Why is the WSS
management environment agriculture important? sector important?
principles important?
A3. How is the B3. How is C3. How is the WSS
4. The water users - environment affected agriculture affected sector affected by
good and bad points by water use in other by water use in other water use in other
sectors? sectors? sectors?
A4 Impact of the B4. Impact of C4. Impact of water
5. Implementing environment on water agriculture on water supply and sanitation
IWRM use by other sectors use by other sectors on water use by other
sectors
A5. Benefits of IWRM B5. Benefits of IWRM C5. Benefits of IWRM
6. Policy and legal
to the environmental to the agricultural to WSS
framework
sector sector
A6. Barriers to B6. Barriers to C6. Barriers to
7. Institutional implementing IWRM implementing IWRM implementing IWRM
framework in the environmental in agricultural sector in WSS sector
sector.
A7. Implications for B7. Implications for C7. Implications for
change within the change within the change within WSS
8. References and
environmental sector: agricultural sector: sector: legal,
links
legal, institutional, legal, institutional, institutional, human
HRD HRD resources HRD

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1. What is Integrated Water Resources Management?

At its simplest, integrated water resources management is a logical and intuitively appealing
concept. Its basis is that the many different uses of water resources are interdependent. That
is evident to us all. High irrigation demands and polluted drainage flows from agriculture mean
less freshwater for drinking or industrial use; contaminated municipal and industrial
wastewater pollutes rivers and threatens ecosystems; if water has to be left in a river to
protect fisheries and ecosystems, less can be diverted to grow crops. There are plenty more
examples of the basic theme that unregulated use of scarce water resources is wasteful and
inherently unsustainable.

Integrated management means that all the different uses of water resources are considered
together. Water allocations and management decisions consider the effects of each use on
the others. They are able to take account of overall social and economic goals, including the
achievement of sustainable development. As we shall see, the basic IWRM concept has been
extended to incorporate participatory decision-making. Different user groups (farmers,
communities, environmentalists, …) can influence strategies for water resource development
and management. That brings additional benefits, as informed users apply local self-
regulation in relation to issues such as water conservation and catchment protection far more
effectively than central regulation and surveillance can achieve.

Management is used in its broadest sense. It emphasises that we must not only focus on
development of water resources but that we must consciously manage water development in
a way that ensures long term sustainable use for future generations.

Integrated water resources management is therefore a systematic process for the sustainable
development, allocation and monitoring of water resource use in the context of social,
economic and environmental objectives. It contrasts with the sectoral approach that applies in
many countries. When responsibility for drinking water rests with one agency, for irrigation
water with another and for the environment with yet another, lack of cross-sectoral linkages
leads to uncoordinated water resource development and management, resulting in conflict,
waste and unsustainable systems.

2. Why IWRM? Key issues in water management

Facts
ƒ Global water: 97% seawater, 3% freshwater. Of the freshwater 87% not accessible, 13%
accessible (0.4% of total).
ƒ Today more than 2 billion people are affected by water shortages in over 40 countries.
ƒ 263 river basins are shared by two or more nations;
ƒ 2 million tonnes per day of human waste are deposited in water courses
ƒ Half the population of the developing world are exposed to polluted sources of water that
increase disease incidence.
ƒ 90% of natural disasters in the 1990s were water related.
ƒ The increase in numbers of people from 6 billion to 9 billion will be the main driver of
water resources management for the next 50 years.

Urgency of action
Water is vital for human survival, health and dignity and a fundamental resource for human
development. The world’s freshwater resources are under increasing pressure. Growth in
population, increased economic activity and improved standards of living lead to increased
competition for, and conflicts over, the limited freshwater resource. A combination of social
inequity and economic marginalisation forces people living in extreme poverty to overexploit
soil and forestry resources, with damaging impacts on water resources. Here are a few
reasons why many people argue that the world faces an impending water crisis:

¾ Water resources are increasingly under pressure from population growth, economic
activity and intensifying competition for the water among users;

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¾ Water withdrawals have increased more than twice as fast as population growth and
currently one third of the world's population live in countries that experience medium to
high water stress;
¾ Pollution is further enhancing water scarcity by reducing water usability downstream;
¾ Shortcomings in the management of water, a focus on developing new sources rather
than managing existing ones better, and top-down sector approaches to water
management result in uncoordinated development and management of the resource.
¾ More and more development means greater impacts on the environment.
¾ Current concerns about climate variability and climate change demand improved
management of water resources to cope with more intense floods and droughts.

Water governance crisis

Sectoral approaches to water resources management have dominated in the past and are still
prevailing. This leads to fragmented and uncoordinated development and management of the
resource. Moreover, water management is usually in the hands of top-down institutions, the
legitimacy and effectiveness of which have increasingly been questioned. Thus, increased
competition for the finite resource is aggravated by inefficient governance. IWRM brings
coordination and collaboration among the individual sectors, plus a fostering of stakeholder
participation, transparency and cost-effective local management.

Securing water for people

Although most countries give first priority to satisfying basic human needs for water, one fifth
of the world’s population is without access to safe drinking water and half of the population is
without access to adequate sanitation. These service deficiencies primarily affect the poorest
segments of the population in developing countries. In these countries, meeting water supply
and sanitation needs for urban and rural areas represents one of the most serious challenges
in the years ahead. Halving the proportion of the population lacking water and sanitation
services by 2015 is one of the Millennium Development Goals1. Doing so will require a
substantial re-orientation of investment priorities, which will be very much more readily
achieved in those countries that are also implementing IWRM. (Read more in C2. Why is the
water supply and sanitation sector important?)

Securing water for food production

Population projections indicate that over the next 25 years food will be required for another 2-
3 billion people. Water is increasingly seen as a key constraint on food production, equivalent
to if not more crucial than land scarcity. Irrigated agriculture is already responsible for more
than 70% of all water withdrawals (more than 90% of all consumptive use of water). Even with
an estimated need for an additional 15-20% of irrigation water over the next 25 years - which
is probably on the low side – serious conflicts are likely to arise between water for irrigated
agriculture and water for other human and ecosystem uses. IWRM offers the prospect of
greater efficiencies, water conservation and demand management equitably shared among
water users, and of increased recycling and reuse of wastewater to supplement new resource
development. (Read more in section B2. Why is the agricultural sector important)

Protecting vital ecosystems

Terrestrial ecosystems in the upstream areas of a basin are important for rainwater infiltration,
groundwater recharge and river flow regimes. Aquatic ecosystems produce a range of
economic benefits, including such products as timber, fuel wood and medicinal plants, and
they also provide wildlife habitats and spawning grounds. The ecosystems depend on water
flows, seasonality and water-table fluctuations and are threatened by poor water quality. Land
and water resources management must ensure that vital ecosystems are maintained and that
adverse effects on other natural resources are considered and where possible reduced when
development and management decisions are made. IWRM can help to safeguard an
“environmental reserve” of water commensurate with the value of ecosystems to human
development. (Read more in section A2. Why is the environment important?)

1
The Millennium Development Goals are an ambitious agenda for reducing poverty and improving
lives that world leaders agreed on at the Millennium Summit in September 2000. For each goal one or
more targets have been set, most for 2015, using 1990 as a benchmark. More information can be found
on the UNDP website at http://www.undp.org/mdg/.

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Gender disparities
Water management is male dominated. Though their numbers are starting to grow, the
representation of women in water sector institutions is still very low. That is important because
the way that water resources are managed affects women and men differently. In the
agriculture sector, for example, dams and canals can deliver large amounts of vital irrigation
water to rich, predominantly male, farmers. At the same time, they block or divert the precious
silt that has historically enriched the fertility of floodplains where poorer, mainly women,
subsistence farmers earn just enough to live on. As custodians of family health and hygiene
and providers of domestic water and food, women are the primary stakeholders in household
water and sanitation. Yet, decisions on water supply and sanitation technologies, locations of
water points and operation and maintenance systems are mostly made by men. The Gender
and Water Alliance cites the example of a well meaning NGO that helped villagers to install
pour-flush latrines to improve their sanitation and hygiene, without first asking the women
about the extra two litres of water they would have to carry from distant sources for every
flush. A crucial element of the IWRM philosophy is that water users, rich and poor, male and
female, are able to influence decisions that affect their daily lives.
(www.genderandwateralliance.org)

3. Water Management Principles

A meeting in Dublin in 19922 gave rise to four principles that have been the basis for much of
the subsequent water sector reform (see panel).
ƒ Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development and
the environment.
Since water sustains life, effective management of water resources demands a holistic
approach, linking social and economic development with protection of natural
ecosystems. Effective management links land and water uses across the whole of a
catchment area or groundwater aquifer.
ƒ Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach,
involving users, planners and policymakers at all levels.
The participatory approach involves raising awareness of the importance of water among
policy-makers and the general public. It means that decisions are taken at the lowest
appropriate level, with full public consultation and involvement of users in the planning
and implementation of water projects.
ƒ Women play a central part in the provision, management and safeguarding of water.
This pivotal role of women as providers and users of water and guardians of the living
environment has seldom been reflected in institutional arrangements for the development
and management of water resources. Acceptance and implementation of this principle
requires positive policies to address women’s specific needs and to equip and empower
women to participate at all levels in water resources programmes, including decision-
making and implementation, in ways defined by them.
ƒ Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognised as an
economic good.
Within this principle, it is vital to recognise first the basic right of all human beings to have
access to clean water and sanitation at an affordable price. Past failure to recognise the
economic value of water has led to wasteful and environmentally damaging uses of the
resource. Managing water as an economic good is an important way of achieving efficient
and equitable use, and of encouraging conservation and protection of water resources.

Finite resource
The notion that freshwater is a finite resource arises as the hydrological cycle on average
yields a fixed quantity of water per time period. This overall quantity cannot yet be altered
significantly by human actions, though it can be, and frequently is, depleted by man-made
pollution. The freshwater resource is a natural asset that needs to be maintained to ensure
that the desired services it provides are sustained.

2
The International Conference on Water and Environment, Dublin, Ireland, January 1992.

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This principle recognises that water is required for many different purposes, functions and
services; management therefore, has to be holistic (integrated) and involve consideration of
the demands placed on the resource and the threats to it.
The integrated approach to management of water resources necessitates co-ordination of the
range of human activities which create the demands for water, determine land uses and
generate waterborne waste products. The principle also recognises the catchment area or
river basin as the logical unit for water resources management.

Participatory approach
Water is a subject in which everyone is a stakeholder. Real participation only takes place
when stakeholders are part of the decision-making process. The type of participation will
depend upon the spatial scale relevant to particular water management and investment
decisions. It will be affected too by the nature of the political environment in which such
decisions take place.
A participatory approach is the best means for achieving long-lasting consensus and common
agreement. Participation is about taking responsibility, recognizing the effect of sectoral
actions on other water users and aquatic ecosystems and accepting the need for change to
improve the efficiency of water use and allow the sustainable development of the resource.
Participation does not always achieve consensus, arbitration processes or other conflict
resolution mechanisms also need to be put in place.
Governments have to help create the opportunity and capacity to participate, particularly
among women and other marginalised social groups. It has to be recognised that simply
creating participatory opportunities will do nothing for currently disadvantaged groups unless
their capacity to participate is enhanced.

Important role of women

It is widely acknowledged that women play a key role in the collection and safeguarding of
water for domestic and – in many cases – agricultural use, but that they have a much less
influential role than men in management, problem analysis and the decision-making
processes related to water resources. The fact that social and cultural circumstances vary
between societies suggests that the need exists to explore different mechanisms for
increasing women’s access to decision-making and widening the spectrum of activities
through which women can participate in IWRM.
IWRM requires gender awareness. In developing the full and effective participation of women
at all levels of decision-making, consideration has to be given to the way different societies
assign particular social, economic and cultural roles to men and women. There is an
important synergy between gender equity and sustainable water management. Involving men
and women in influential roles at all levels of water management can speed up the
achievement of sustainability; and managing water in an integrated and sustainable way
contributes significantly to gender equity by improving the access of women and men to water
and water-related services to meet their essential needs

Economic good
Water has a value as an economic good as well as a social good. Many past failures in water
resources management are attributable to the fact that the full value of water has not been
recognised. In order to extract maximum benefits from available water resources, there is a
need to change perceptions about the value of water.
Value and charges are two different things and we have to distinguish clearly between valuing
and charging for water.
The value of water in alternative uses is important for the rational allocation of water as a
scarce resource, whether by regulatory or economic means.
Charging (or not charging) for water is applying an economic instrument to support
disadvantaged groups, affect behaviour towards conservation and efficient water usage,
provide incentives for demand management, ensure cost recovery and signal consumers’
willingness to pay for additional investments in water services.
Treating water as an economic good is an important means for decision making on the
allocation of water between different water use sectors and between different uses within a
sector. This is particularly important when extending supply is no longer a feasible option.
In IWRM, economic valuation of alternative water uses gives decision makers important
guides to investment priorities but it should not be the only consideration. Social goals are

8
important too. In a water-scarce environment, would it be right, for example, that the next
water resource developed should be assigned to a steel-manufacturing plant because the
manufacturer can afford to pay more for the water than the thousands of poor people who
have no access to safe water? Social, economic and environmental goals all play a part in
IWRM decision-making.

4. The water users, good and bad points

• Agriculture
• Water supply & wastewater
• Mining, industry
• Environment
• Fisheries
• Tourism
• Energy
• Transport

Each of the water uses identified above has valuable positive impacts. Most also have
negative impacts which may be made worse by poor management practices, lack of
regulation or lack of motivation due to the water governance regimes in place. Water
management within government structures is distributed across many agencies and tends to
be dominated by sectoral interests.
Each country has its priority developmental and economic goals set according to
environmental, social and political realities. Problems and constraints arise in each water use
area, but the willingness and ability to address these issues in a coordinated way is affected
by the governance structure of water. Recognising the inter-related nature of different sources
of water and thus also the inter-related nature and impacts of the differing water uses is a
major step to the introduction of IWRM.

Table. Impacts of the water use sectors on water resources

Positive impacts Negative impacts

Environment
Purification
Read more in section A4.
Storage
Impact of the environment on
Hydrological cycle
water use by other sectors
Agriculture Return flows Depletion
Read more in section B4. Increased infiltration Pollution
Impact of agriculture on Decreased erosion Salinisation
water use by other sectors Groundwater recharge Water logging
Nutrient recycling Erosion
Water supply & sanitation
High level of water security
Read more in section C4.
required
Impact of water supply and Nutrient recycling
Surface and groundwater
sanitation on water use by
pollution
other sectors

What do you think? Add your own ideas in the table cells (remember we are recording only
impacts on water resources, not health, nutrition or socio-economic impacts).

Social and economic benefits from water use sectors

These are generally obvious in terms of food production, energy production, drinking water,
jobs, recreation, etc, but the relative value of these benefits is more difficult to assess. When
there is competition for water resources it brings into the open the need to justify the
allocation of water to one user rather than to another. This value assessment should take into
account both the benefits and the negative impacts. The input from users, politicians and
society in general is necessary as the allocation may not be most efficient when valued in
economic terms alone or acceptable when made only on political grounds.

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Table. Benefits of IWRM to the sectors

Sector Benefits

- A voice for environmental needs in water allocation

Environment
- Raising awareness among other users of the needs of
(Read more in
ecosystems
section A5.
- More attention to an ecosystem approach to water
Benefits of IWRM
management
to the
- Protecting upper catchments, pollution control, and
environmental
environmental flows
sector)
- Safeguarding common resources such as forests, wetlands
and fishing grounds on which communities depend

- Implications for agriculture of water use by other sectors

Agriculture considered in the management process
(Read more in - Rational decision making on water use in which costs and
section B5. benefits are considered
Benefits of IWRM - More effective use of water within the sector and hence
to the agricultural increased returns
sector) - Multi-purpose water resource development and cross-
sectoral recycling (e.g. use of reclaimed municipal
wastewater for irrigation)

Water supply &

- Increased security of domestic water supplies
sanitation
- Reduced conflicts between water users
(Read more in
- Increasing recognition of the economic value of water
section C5.
leading to more efficient use
Benefits of IWRM
- Increased use of water demand management
to the water supply
- Improved waste management considering environmental
and sanitation
effects and human health and hygiene
sector)
- Reduced costs of providing domestic water services

5. Implementing IWRM

The case for IWRM is strong – many would say uncontestable. The problem for most
countries is the long history of unisectoral development. As the Global Water Partnership puts
it:
“IWRM is a challenge to conventional practices, attitudes and professional
certainties. It confronts entrenched sectoral interests and requires that the water
resource is managed holistically for the benefits of all. No one pretends that
meeting the IWRM challenge will be easy but it is vital that a start is made now to
avert the burgeoning crisis.”

IWRM is, above all, a philosophy. As such it offers a guiding conceptual framework with a
goal of sustainable management and development of water resources. What it does demand
is that people try to change their working practices to look at the bigger picture that surrounds
their actions and to realise that these do not occur independently of the actions of others. It
also seeks to introduce an element of decentralised democracy into how water is managed,
with its emphasis on stakeholder participation and decision making at the lowest appropriate
level.
All of this implies change, which brings threats as well as opportunities, There are threats to
people’s power and position; and threats to their sense of themselves as professionals.
IWRM requires that platforms be developed to allow very different stakeholders, often with

10
apparently irreconcilable differences to somehow work together.

Because of the existing institutional and legislative frameworks, implementing IWRM is likely
to require reform at all stages in the water planning and management cycle.
An overall plan is required to envisage how the transformation can be achieved and this is
likely to begin with a new water policy to reflect the principles of sustainable management of
water resources. To put the policy into practice is likely to require the reform of water law and
water institutions. This can be a long process and needs to involve extensive consultations
with affected agencies and the public.
Implementation of IWRM is best done in a step-by-step process, with some changes taking
place immediately and others requiring several years of planning and capacity building.

Figure. IWRM and its linkage to the sub-sectors (GWP)

Policy and legal Integrated management

framework

Management
instruments

Water Supply
Infrastructure and Water & Water & Water for
Wastewater Agriculture Environment other uses

Institutional
framework

6. Policy and legal framework

Bringing some of the principles of IWRM into a water sector policy and achieving political
support may be challenging, as hard decisions have to be made. It is therefore not surprising
that major legal and institutional reforms are unlikely to take place until serious water
management problems have been experienced.

In some cases, IWRM may be seen as a threat to donor-supported capital investment

programmes. Some developing countries tend to be more concerned with increasing supplies
through new infrastructure rather than with water efficiency or managing water demand.
Indeed they fear that the new agenda of IWRM will lead to a reduction in capital investment
for such projects. Attitudes are changing though. Officials are becoming more aware of the
need to manage resources efficiently. They see too that the construction of new infrastructure
has to take into account environmental and social impacts and the fundamental need for
systems to be economically viable for maintenance purposes. However, they may still be
inhibited by the political implications of such a change. The process of revising water policy is
therefore a key step, requiring extensive consultation and demanding political commitment.

Read more about the potential barriers to implementing IWRM in each sector:

A6. Barriers to implementing IWRM in the environmental sector

B6. Barriers to implementing IWRM in the agricultural sector
C6. Barriers to implementing IWRM in the water supply and sanitation sector

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Water legislation converts policy into law and should:
ƒ Clarify the entitlement and responsibilities of users and water providers;
ƒ Clarify the roles of the state in relation to other stakeholders;
ƒ Formalise the transfer of water allocations;
ƒ Provide legal status for water management institutions of government and water user
groups;
ƒ Ensure sustainable use of the resource.

7. Institutional framework

For many reasons, developing country governments consider water resources planning and
management to be a central part of government responsibility. This view is consistent with the
international consensus that promotes the concept of government as a facilitator and
regulator, rather than an implementor of projects. The challenge is to reach mutual agreement
about the level at which, in any specific instance, government responsibility should cease, or
be partnered by autonomous water services management bodies and/or community-based
organisations.

The concept of integrated water resources management has been accompanied by promotion
of the river basin as the logical geographical unit for its practical realisation. The river basin
offers many advantages for strategic planning, particularly at higher levels of government,
though difficulties should not be underestimated. Groundwater aquifers frequently cross
catchment boundaries, and more problematically, river basins rarely conform to existing
administrative entities or structures.

In order to bring IWRM into effect, institutional arrangements are needed to enable:
ƒ The functioning of a consortium of stakeholders involved in decision making, with
representation of all sections of society, and a good gender balance;
ƒ Water resources management based on hydrological boundaries;
ƒ Organisational structures at basin and sub-basin levels to enable decision making at the
lowest appropriate level;
ƒ Government to co-ordinate the national management of water resources across water
use sectors.

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Think About It

Having gone through the Main section of this tutorial you will probably be able to assess the
situation in your own country when it comes to implementation of IWRM. Some of the questions
you may want to answer are:

‰ What are the main sectors involved in the exploitation of water resources in my country
and what are the interactions between these sectors?

‰ Is there an urgency to manage water resources in an integrated manner and how is this
best done? What will be the benefits for the different sectors?

‰ How are men and women affected differently by changes in water resources
management?

‰ Considering the government structures in my country, what institutional and legal reforms
are needed to implement IWRM and what are the requirements to make it effective?

‰ What is the general attitude towards integrated water management in my country and what
sectoral barriers have to be taken before IWRM can be implemented?

13
A. Environment

A1. How does the environment use water?

• Terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems need water to maintain their functioning: plants
evaporate and transpire water; animals drink water; fish and amphibians need water
to live in. Water is also used by upper-watershed ecosystems, like forests, shrublands
and woodlands.

• Downstream, wetlands, floodplains, and mangroves need freshwater inputs. This

water is used to maintain a (semi)-natural dynamic, often of a seasonal nature. To
prevent degradation and destruction of ecosystems, it is important to have enough
water of the right quality and with the right seasonal variability.

A2. Why is the environment important?

• Ecosystems provide goods and services (functions) (see Table 1) that benefit people
and their livelihoods. These benefits are often not fully recognised in planning and
managing water resources. The total benefits are estimated to be USD 8.8 billion per
year (IUCN).

• Destruction of ecosystems penalises the poor most. They are the ones who benefit
from the “free” common resources (fuel wood, water, fisheries, fruits). They can also
contribute to ecosystem degradation through over-exploitation. That is why it is
important that user communities are involved in water management decisions.

14
Table 1 Natural ecosystems provide many goods and services to humankind that are often neglected in planning and decision making.

1. REGULATION FUNCTIONS 2. HABITAT FUNCTIONS 3. PRODUCTION FUNCTIONS 4. AESTHETIC/RECREATIONAL

The capacity of natural and semi- Providing refuges for wild plants Resources provided by natural FUNCTIONS
natural ecosystems to regulate and animals (and native people) in and semi-natural ecosystems Providing opportunities for
essential ecological processes order to maintain biological and reflection, spiritual enrichment
and life support systems genetic diversity and cognitive development
Maintenance of biogeochemical Refuge function Food (e.g. edible plants and animals) Aesthetic appeal (e.g. valued
cycling (e.g. air-quality regulation (for resident & migratory species) scenery)
and CO2-buffering)
Climate regulation (e.g. buffering Nursery function Raw materials (e.g. thatch, fabrics) Recreation and (eco-) tourism
extremes) (reproduction habitat for harvestable
species)
Water regulation (e.g. flood Fuel and energy (renewable energy Cultural & artistic inspiration (i.e.
protection) resources) nature as a motive and source of
inspiration for human culture and art)
Water supply (filtering & storage) Fodder and fertiliser (e.g. krill, litter) Spiritual and historic values (based
on ethical considerations and
heritage values)
Soil retention (e.g. erosion control) Medicinal resources (e.g. drugs, Scientific educational support (i.e.
models, test organisms) nature as a natural field laboratory
and reference area)
Soil formation & maintenance of Genetic resources (e.g. for crop
fertility resistance)
Bio-energy fixation Ornamental resources (e.g.
aquarium fish, souvenirs)
Nutrient cycling (i.e. maintenance of
the availability of essential nutrients)
Waste treatment (e.g. water
purification)
Biological control (e.g. pest control
and pollination)

15
A3. How is the environment affected by water use in other sectors?

The needs of water for nature, or the environment, are too easily neglected in considerations
of water allocations. But if too much water is allocated for other sectors, the impacts on
ecosystems can be devastating.

• The agriculture sector is most important as a user of water and impacts most heavily
on ecosystems’ ”water share”. Abstraction of water for agriculture is leading to dried
up rivers, falling ground water tables, salinated soil and polluted waterways. Carefully
considered multipurpose projects can combine irrigation with aquifer recharge, land
drainage and ecosystem sustenance.

• Urban water uses, in particular wastewater effluents, pollute downstream ecosystems

if not sufficiently treated. The treatment of effluents is often costly and, especially in
developing countries, not considered a high priority given other needs. When due
consideration is given to the value of ecosystems, effluent recycling and reuse are
often seen to be cost-effective conservation measures.

• The hydropower sector affects downstream ecosystems by changing the water and
sediment regime and blocking migratory movements of fish and amphibians. In some
cases reservoirs have provided new habitats for animals and investments have been
made in environmental protection upstream. Combining considerations of power
generation, flood control and ecosystem protection can mean new operational rules
for reservoir releases.

• Industry often has substantial impacts on ecosystems downstream through water use
and pollution. Mining, for example, has affected many waterways in Latin America. In
Western Europe industrial pollution has taken its toll on aquatic ecosystems during
the last century. Transfer of recycling technologies to developing countries could help
to pre-empt ecosystem damage from industrial development.

A4. Impact of the environment on water use by other sectors

• Water assigned for ecosystem protection is not available for other uses. In this sense
the environment can be seen as a competitor by other users. It is true to say that a
proportion of the total water available needs to be assigned to ecosystems, but the
synergies with other uses can also boost the total resource by encouraging multiple
use and reuse.

• Well functioning ecosystems provide benefits downstream, for example, flood

attenuation by a floodplain wetland, or the cleansing of limited amounts of pollution.
Protection of upper-catchments is also known to provide benefits for flood peak
reduction, especially at local scales.

• Ecosystems maintained in a healthy state can provide good quality water that can be
used by any other user. Clean rivers, non-polluted groundwater sources, fresh
mountain springs are easily disrupted by inappropriate water and land-use.

16
A5. Benefits of IWRM to the environmental sector

• Ecosystems can benefit from applying an integrated approach to water management

by giving environmental needs a voice in the water allocation debate. At present
these needs are often not represented at the negotiating table.

• IWRM can assist the sector by raising awareness among other users of the needs of
ecosystems and the benefits these generate for them. Often these are undervalued
and not incorporated into planning and decision-making.

• The ecosystem approach provides a new framework for IWRM that focuses more
attention on a system approach to water management. It provides an alternative to a
sub-sector competition perspective, with more emphasis on maintaining the
underlying ecosystem as a factor that can join stakeholders in developing a shared
view and joint action.

• An ecosystem approach to water management focuses on several field level

interventions: protecting upper catchments (e.g. reforestation, good land husbandry,
soil erosion control), pollution control (e.g. point source reduction, non-point source
incentives, groundwater protection) and environmental flows (e.g. through reducing
abstractions, special releases from reservoirs, river restoration).

• Most importantly, the IWRM concept can bring together communities, industrialists,
water managers and opinion formers (teachers, religious leaders, media
representatives) in a common cause to achieve sustainability by conserving both
water and ecosystems.

A6. Barriers to implementing IWRM in the environmental sector

Of all the sectors, the environment is probably the one with most to gain from implementation
of IWRM. Usually at the end of the queue (if not missing altogether) when water allocations
are made, it is suffering the consequences of water scarcity and poor awareness. The desire
for an IWRM approach is therefore very strong in the environment sector, but there are some
stumbling blocks to be overcome:

• Lack of awareness among all water users is the biggest obstacle to change.
Especially in the developing world, the impacts of poor water management are only
just starting to be noted. Floods, pollution and depleted rivers are beginning to get a
bit more public attention, but freshwater biodiversity is still outside the sphere of
interest of most people.

• Lack of political will to combat vested interests is also an important barrier. Fishes
have no voice, farmers do. Often the interest of farmers and other water users prevail
over the water needs of ecosystems.

• Lack of human and financial resources causes ecosystems not to be taken into
account in planning and development. A lack of capacity in government agencies and
an overall lack of financial resources to invest in sustainable practices, e.g. in upper
catchments, causes ecosystems to be degraded. Though the effects are then felt in
lost supplies from springs and in declining fish stocks, the chain of command is often
ephemeral and it is no-one’s responsibility to take action.

17
A7. Implications for change within the environmental sector: legal, institutional,
human resources

From the environmental perspective, a major requirement of water sector reform is to provide
recognition of ecosystem needs alongside the demands of domestic, industrial and
agricultural water users. In many countries, that involves significant strengthening of the
status, human and financial resources and political representation of environment agencies,
not just at national level, but regionally and locally too – and, particularly in the context of
IWRM, at river basin level.

• National legislation often needs to be harmonised and strengthened to include an

environmental perspective into water management and other relevant sectoral
policies and legal arrangements. At present many conflicting arrangements exist.

• Water departments need to function more and more as brokers between various
other departments and stakeholders, rather than stand-alone units. They will have a
major role in facilitating negotiations between various water users. There is also an
important regulation and monitoring function in relation to environmental standards.
Participatory decision-making is a crucial part of IWRM, but it has to be in a
framework that protects common interest from self interest. It is the role of
government (local or national as appropriate) to set and maintain standards that
prevent upstream users from depleting or degrading the water resources of
downstream users.

• The above requires a substantive capacity building in facilitation, mediation,

negotiation and surveillance. At present, staff are often not well equipped to take on
these responsibilities as they require knowledge and skills beyond those traditionally
taught to an engineer or hydrologist.

18
Think About it

Consider the situation in your own country. You can probably readily identify the agencies
responsible for providing people with drinking water and dealing with wastewater. Similarly, it is
likely to be apparent which organisations are responsible for estimating and meeting demand for
irrigation water.

But, who computes and delivers the river water needed to preserve ecosystems?
And, if you can identify them, what powers and resources do they have in comparison with other
sectors?
If water is short, who makes the environmental case?

19
B. Food/Agriculture

B1. How does the agricultural sector use water?

Without water there is no food production. Water is used for crop production, livestock
husbandry and aquaculture.

Crops
• Crops grow best and produce most when they have an adequate supply of water
available to them. Water is mainly used for transpiration and smaller amounts are
stored in plant tissues.

• Sources of water for crop production are rainfall, shallow groundwater and irrigation
water, which is water diverted from surface flows or groundwater. Often in marginal
rainfall areas, irrigation supplements rainfall.

• A special form of crop production takes place under recession farming. This is a
hybrid form of rainfed and irrigated agriculture. Crops are planted following the
recession line after high water peaks in a river or lake.

• Crops rely on residual moisture stored in the soil. As well as the usual irrigation
water sources, water harvesting (capture of rainfall runoff)is increasingly becoming
an important source of water for agriculture.

Table 1. Total amount of water needed to produce a kilogramme of some staple crops
and soybean oil.

Production of 1 kg of: Amount of water required (m3)

Wheat 1.3
Rice 3.0
Soybean oil 22
Source: FAO (1997), Waterhouse (1982) – note this is not the amount
transpired, but the total required for production

Livestock

• Like humans, animals need water for their metabolic processes. Livestock water
requirements are mainly provided by direct water intake and partly by the moisture
content of their forage. Livestock production requires large quantities of forage.

• Where livestock does not have access to grazing pastures or where forage cannot
be grown under rainfed conditions, fodder is often grown under irrigation. The
production of forage requires substantial amounts of water.

Table 2: Estimates of livestock water requirements

Type of Animal Water Consumption

(litres/day/animal)
Dairy cows (drinking only) 40 – 50
Beef cattle and steers 45 – 55
Horses in pasture 28
Horses at work 45 – 55
Pigs 14 – 18
Goats 10
Sheep 6–9
Chickens 0.25 – 0.5
Source: Waterhouse, J. (1982)

20
Aquaculture

• In aquaculture, fish or other marine organisms are grown for human consumption.
Water requirements are small in quantitative terms but the produce are extremely
sensitive to the reliability and quality of the water supply. As aquaculture sites are
usually close to agricultural land, agricultural runoff largely determines the quality of
incoming water.

• Integration of aquaculture, agriculture and animal husbandry on farms in Asia

creates systems that closely resemble the nutrient recycling pathways of natural
ecosystems. However, concerns have been raised about more intensive
aquaculture operations that divert water from rivers and produce nutrient pollution.

B2. Why is the agricultural sector important

Agriculture is important because it provides food, and is a major part of the world
economy. Access to food is a basic human right. Undernourished people never reach full
physical and mental potential and succumb more easily to disease. Globally, agriculture has
been remarkably successful in its capacity to keep pace with human food and fibre demands.
Over the last century, as the human population has risen, tremendous efforts have been
made to ensure that enough food is produced to feed people. As the global population will
continue to expand, from 6 billion today to 8.1 billion by 2030, the demand for food will
increase.

• It is estimated that 40% of world food supplies are grown on irrigated land. Irrigation
is therefore extremely important for global food security. To meet the future food
needs of a rapidly increasing population, irrigated agriculture will need to grow at a
rate of about 4% per year. In this respect, providing food for the growing population
is a major challenge, as agriculture is already by far the largest consumer of water
withdrawn in most regions in the world, except North America and Europe. On a
global basis, agriculture accounts for more than 70 percent of all water withdrawals.

• Improved food security remains a major target for nearly all developing countries
and in many places it is unreliability of water resources that is the primary (though
not only) constraint to food security. The productive use of water both in irrigated
and rainfed agriculture is a key factor in achieving food and water security.

• Agriculture is particularly important in developing countries because over 70% of the

population in these countries live in rural areas and derive their livelihoods directly
from agriculture and related activities. For this reason, growth in the agricultural
sector is perceived by many as a pre-requisite for economic development. Although
water is one of many inputs in agricultural production, it is, perhaps together with
land resources, the most critical input. Agricultural water management is thus also a
key factor in poverty alleviation.

• Agriculture has the potential to contribute enormously to improving the situation of

women in developing countries. Some 70% of agricultural workers are women, and
women’s small-scale agriculture feeds the vast majority of the world’s poorest
people. Regrettably, current irrigation and land-management practices strongly
favour men. Land tenure, water rights and credit systems are all biased towards
males and the institutional framework of irrigation water management means that
the small-scale, predominantly women, farmers are at the end of the line.

21
B3. How is the agricultural sector affected by water use in other sectors?

There is competition for water between agriculture and other sectors such as domestic
water use, industry and mining. Although in the developing world agriculture consumes far
more water than other sectors, in the developed world industry consumes more water than
agriculture.

• Industrial effluents and untreated domestic waste flowing into rivers, lakes and
aquifers can pollute the water to such an extent that it becomes unsuitable for
agricultural purposes.

• The industrial sector may also affect agriculture indirectly through the production of
air pollution. Acid rain, or other dissolved pollutants can damage crops directly, or
contaminate lakes used as water sources.

• By modifying rainfall, temperature and evaporation anticipated global warming will

affect not only water availability and the water demand of rainfed crops but also
water resources. In arid and semi-arid areas, relatively small changes in climate
could have significant effects on groundwater recharge and river flows so greatly
affecting the feasibility of irrigation.

• A problem for the agricultural sector of treating water as an “economic good” is that
agricultural products generally have a very low economic value as well as a high
water demand. Consequently, when in
competition with other sectors for Think about it for a moment. If it takes
scarce water supplies, the other sectors 3m3 (3 tonnes) of water to produce 1kg
can often demonstrate a better cost- of rice (see Table 1), how much can
you charge the farmer for irrigation
benefit ratio than agriculture. water?

• In some instances water resource developments for other sectors can provide
benefits for agriculture, particularly if the requirements of both sectors are managed
in an integrated manner. In other cases, water resource schemes developed
primarily for irrigation, are only economically viable because the dams constructed
also enable the production of hydropower.

• Wastewater from other sectors can sometimes also be beneficial for agriculture, e.g.
using domestic wastewater for irrigation. This practice not only provides water, but
also nutrients for the crops or forage. Research has shown that the use of
wastewater for irrigation can support livelihoods and generates considerable
benefits in urban and peri-urban agriculture if carefully managed to avoid the
negative health impacts.

• Degradation of aquatic environments is the greatest direct threat to inland fish

production. Water quality degradation also affects crop production in a variety of
ways. These range from direct toxicity of certain elements to plant growth, to a more
complex situation where irrigation infrastructure is used for multiple purposes. (See
the Egypt example in box 1)

22
 BOX 1
Use of agricultural drainage water for irrigation is a policy to augment Egypt's
limited fixed freshwater resources and to close the gap between supply and
demand. Pollution of the main drains as a result of large-scale urbanisation and
industrialisation is a growing concern, as irrigation canals are also a main source
of water for: municipal and rural water supply; industrial water supply; nature;
fisheries; bathing and washing. Since the 1990s, many re-use mixing stations
have been under increasing pressure as a result of water quality deterioration.
Indeed, 4 of the 22 main re-use mixing stations have been entirely or periodically
closed since 1992. (Kielen, 2002)

B4. Impact of agriculture on water use by other sectors

Unfortunately agricultural water resources are often overused and misused, especially in
irrigated agriculture. This has not only resulted in large-scale waterlogging, salinity and
overexploitation of groundwater resources, but also in the depriving of downstream users of
sufficient water and in the pollution of fresh water resources with contaminated return flows
and deep percolation losses.

• Between 30% and 60% of the water abstracted for agriculture is returned to rivers.
In many instances this water is polluted with salts, fertilisers and pesticides and so is
only of limited, if any, value to other sectors. Leaching of excess nutrients from
farms into water sources causes eutrophication, which damages aquatic flora and
fauna by producing algal blooms and depressing dissolved oxygen levels. The
presence of agro-chemicals in drinking water is a recognised health hazard,
requiring sophisticated and expensive treatment processes.

• In some places where irrigation is dependent on groundwater, water is being

abstracted faster than the rate of recharge. As well as depriving other sectors of
water, such declines can have devastating environmental consequences.

• Agriculture also affects other sectors indirectly through the impacts of land-use
change on water resources. Conversion of grassland and forests to pasture and
arable land alters the hydrological regime of a catchment by modifying infiltration
rates, evaporation and runoff.

• Land-use change may also contribute to climate change, not only by altering
radiation balances and evaporation, but also through increasing CO2 emissions. As
with industrial emissions, in the long-term this may bring about changes in water
resources that affect all sectors.

• Increased sediment loads in rivers arising from erosion of agricultural land have a
negative impact on downstream aquatic ecosystems and also result in increased
siltation in downstream channels, reservoirs and other hydraulic infrastructure.

• Water resource development for irrigation can provide benefits for other sectors. In
arid and semi-arid countries, there are often large areas where groundwater is
brackish and where people have to obtain water from irrigation canals for all
domestic uses. Better coordination with other sectors can mean that benefits such
as these are more effectively targeted.

• Many types of aquaculture can contribute positively to environmental improvement.

Recycling of nutrients and organic matter through integrated farming systems is well
recognised.

23
B5. Benefits of IWRM to the agricultural sector

As the single largest user of water and the major non-point source polluter of surface and
groundwater resources, agriculture has a poor image. Taken alongside the low value added
in agricultural production, this frequently means that, especially under conditions of water
scarcity, water is diverted from agriculture to other water uses. However, indiscriminate
reduction in water allocation for agriculture may have far-reaching economic and social
consequences (see the California example in Box 2). With IWRM, planners are encouraged to
look beyond the sector economics and take account of the implications of water management
decisions on employment, the environment and social equity.

• By bringing all sectors and all stakeholders into the decision-making process, IWRM
is able to reflect the combined “value” of water to society as a whole in difficult
decisions on water allocations. This may mean that the contribution of food
production to health, poverty reduction and gender equity, for example, could over-
ride strict economic comparisons of rates of return on each cubic metre of water.
Equally, IWRM can bring into the equation the reuse potential of agricultural return
flows for other sectors and the scope for agricultural reuse of municipal and
industrial wastewaters.

• IWRM calls for integrated planning so that water, land and other resources are
utilised in a sustainable manner. For the agricultural sector IWRM seeks to increase
water productivity (i.e. more crop per drop) within the constraints imposed by the
economic, social and ecological context of a particular region or country. A major
shift in focus under IWRM is the concept of demand management (i.e. managing
water demand rather than simply looking for ways to increase supply).

BOX 2
Successful management
In physical water scarce countries like Israel, Cyprus and Malta, governments have
successfully moved their population into other activities, including industry, commerce and
tourism. Agriculture is mainly restricted to high value export crops and most food is imported
rather than produced within the countries. (GWP, 2000)

Unsuccessful management
In 2001 farmers south of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, California received the lowest
amounts of water since 1994 as a result of changing priorities and scant precipitation.
Central Valley Project agricultural customers in the region received only 45 percent of the
contracted supply. The water shortage has triggered a domino effect of fallow fields, lost
jobs and troubled towns dependent on the income that farming provides. The city of
Mendota for example thrives when area crops receive adequate water. Virtually every job is
tied to agriculture, and the unemployment rate of the city can increase to more than 40
percent when times for agriculture are tough. (Morris, 2001)

24
B6. Barriers to implementing IWRM in the agricultural sector

Successful IWRM requires consideration of a wide range of social, economic and political
issues at a variety of different scales. Barriers to successful implementation of IWRM within
the agricultural sector include:

• Incompleteness in water management policy and legal and regulatory frameworks.

This is particularly the case in developing countries where water policies are often
rudimentary, and the regulatory mechanisms for implementing and enforcing them are
weak.
• Demographic pressures. Population growth, primarily in developing countries, linked to
poverty, is in many places driving inappropriate and non-sustainable agricultural
practices and associated water utilisation. However, often communities even when they
understand the long-term consequences of their actions feel that they have no
alternative.
• Lack of understanding of IWRM principles and practices. In many instances, only a few
people in the hierarchy of water management know and understand IWRM and often
there is insufficient technical support to operationalise IWRM within the agricultural
sector.
• Inadequate information and data on how water is used in agriculture. Despite the
recognised need for demand management, in many places the data required for
analysing water use patterns in detail (e.g. temporal and spatial variation in quantities of
water diverted and return flows) is lacking. Of all the sectors agriculture is most often the
one for which there is least quantitative information on exactly how much water is being
used.
• Lack of understanding of the inter-relationships between biophysical and socio-
economic aspects of a system. Successful IWRM requires the integration of
environmental, social and economic factors, but in any specific situation the relationships
between biophysical and socio-economic systems are even less well understood than
the biophysical alone. Consequently, the social implications of management decisions
are often impossible to predict.
• Market-failure. Despite the wide-spread recognition that water should be treated as an
economic good, in many places water is provided to the agricultural sector at very
subsidised rates. In part this is because of the perceived need by many governments for
nations to be self-sufficient in food production. The result is that there is little economic
incentive for farmers to change long established agricultural practices.
• Entrenched agricultural practices. Very often farmers, like other groups, are unwilling to
change practices, if they believe that others will simply continue doing what they have
always done.

B7. Implications for change within agricultural sector: legal, institutional, human
resources

IWRM promotes judicious and sustainable use of water resources. As agriculture will
always use more water than any other sector, governments need to review carefully their
agricultural and food policies. Clearly, in many places there is a need for both time and
resources to improve the policy and institutional framework, as well capacity to facilitate
management across sectors.

• In regions facing water stress, governments may want to take the political decision
to forego domestic self-sufficiency and instead aim for food security through trade,
thereby recognising the value of “virtual water”. Policies will also need to focus on
increasing the crop productivity per drop of water and per unit of investment.
Basically, this means that yields need to be raised in both irrigated and rainfed
farming.

25
• The main institutional challenge in irrigated agriculture is to transform inefficient,
supply-driven, central irrigation bureaucracies into vibrant, demand-driven locally
based authorities answerable to the farmers. A starting point is to transfer
management of irrigation from government agencies to water users associations
(WUA) or other private sector organisations. Irrigation management transfer (IMT)
may be done managerially and/or hydraulically. In the former, management
authority and responsibility is shared between the government and WUAs. In the
latter only certain sub-levels are transferred to WUAs. Various forms and examples
of IMT exist around the world. It is through WUAs and the institutional reforms that
make them effective that governments can strengthen the influence of women in
IWRM, with potentially a major impact on water-use efficiency in agriculture.

• The institutional and managerial reforms have far reaching consequences for
Human Resources Development. Irrigation agencies need to undertake strategic
planning to restructure and identify new roles to take on. To reorient their
relationships with farmers into new partnerships, they will require service
agreements backed by irrigation management audits. Irrigation managers need to
understand the concept of service, and what type of service is desirable and
possible within their irrigation system.

• Farmers need extensive training and long-term support to make WUAs sustainable
by enhancing local management capacity and creating group orientation.

BOX 3

The Tieshan Irrigation District in China was transformed into the Tieshan General Water
Supply Company in 1992 under a World Bank-funded modernisation project. The general
company consists of various individual companies including the 1 and 2 Farming Water
Supply Companies. These two companies are responsible for the management,
operation and maintenance of the 2 main canals up to the branch canal off-takes from
where the Water Users Associations (WUAs) take over responsibilities. On a yearly
basis, WUAs submit a request for bulk supply of irrigation water to the company. In March
of each year an agreement is signed between the WUAs and the company for the
delivery of irrigation water. The water price from the company is fixed at 0.032 RMB/m3.
The actual amount paid to the company depends on the actual water consumption.
WUAs pay 40 percent of the water fee up-front and the remainder is paid according to the
actual use. The WUAs establish their own price to be charged to the individual water
users. The water fees include the cost for maintenance, bulk water supply cost, operation
and management and occasional pumping from the canals if the supply is insufficient. For
larger investments such as the construction of new canals the WUAs depend on
government funds. WUAs are members of the board of the company.

26
Think About it

As is the case in most countries, the agriculture sector in your country may be the most
important user of water resources. When you think of agricultural water use in your country you
may want to consider the contribution of the sector to the livelihood and food security of the
population. But you may also ask yourself:

‰ Are these water resources used effectively and efficiently or are there alternative means of
production?

‰ What are the impacts of water use for agricultural production on water availability and
quality?

‰ How can IWRM improve the performance of the agricultural sector in my country?

‰ What institutional arrangements have to be made within agriculture for the implementation
of IWRM?

27
C. Water Supply and Sanitation

C1. How does the water supply and sanitation sector use water?

The water supply and sanitation sector has two main categories of water users: domestic; and
industrial/commercial. Domestic water users need dependable supplies of “safe” water for
drinking, cooking, bathing, washing and basic household cleaning. They also have to dispose
of human waste and washwater in ways which do not create health risks or environmental
damage.

Industrial users frequently need large quantities of water for cooling and other processes, but
do not “consume” much of it. Their residual water is returned, often in contaminated form to
water courses. Some industries (chemicals, fertilisers, coffee processing, …) produce highly
toxic or biologically polluting effluents.

In developing countries there are big differences between urban and rural areas in both water
use and wastewater disposal. Only better-off urban residents can afford what is seen as the
classic domestic water cycle in the industrialised world: house connections to deliver enough
high-quality treated water for all their lifestyle needs and sewer connections to take away the
wastewater for centralised treatment and return to water courses. In many crowded peri-
urban settlements, construction of water mains and conventional sewers is unaffordable and
impractical. There, residents depend on communal water points or water vendors, and on a
range of often unhygienic ways of disposing of solid and liquid human waste.

In rural areas, water systems are primarily community-based. Hundreds of millions of people
are served by handpumps on boreholes or dugwells; others have standposts or yardtaps fed
by elevated tanks and distribution networks. Groundwater is a primary source of supply and
the daily task of fetching and carrying water remains a major burden for women and girls
throughout the developing world. Rural sanitation is very much an individual household
responsibility, and one that has historically been a very low priority. Its neglect has meant that
millions of people die unnecessary deaths each year from diarrhoeal diseases, and that life is
squalid, unhealthy and undignified for vast numbers of the world’s poorest people. That
situation is changing: one of the Millennium Development Goals that has received high
publicity, is the aim to halve by 2015 the proportion of people who lack access to hygienic
means of sanitation (2.4 billion people, or almost half the world’s population had no such
access in the year 2000, according to official WHO/UNICEF statistics).

Another important domestic use of water is for productive purposes around the household.
This includes activities such as growing vegetables and fruit trees, giving water to livestock,
making bricks, and running a range of small-scale processing and other industrial activities.

The quantities of water used for domestic water supply and sanitation are relatively small
compared with water use for industry or agriculture. Box 4 shows one calculation for
domestic household needs. Different countries have different norms but most domestic use
can be adequately covered by a water supply in the range 25-50 lpd (litres per person per
day). If household productive uses are taken into account, this increases to 50-200 lpd .

Industrial water use varies enormously from industry to industry and from country to country.
Among the biggest water consumers are the pulp and paper industry and steel manufacture.
Environmental pressures and water pricing have stimulated an increasing amount of recycling
and reuse by industries in the developed world, but so far there is much less progress in
developing countries. Two examples are quoted by the Worldwatch Institute: “In China, the
amount of water needed to produce a ton of steel ranges from 23 to 56 cubic metres,
whereas in the US, Japan, and Germany, the average is less than 6 cubic metres. Similarly, a
ton of paper produced in China requires around 450 cubic metres of water, twice as much as
used in European countries.”

28
 Box 4. Basic needs: a traditional approach
The traditional approach to ‘basic needs’ excludes water for productive activities
within the household. Typically, it proposes 50 litres per person per day as a
recommended minimum based on the following figures.

Recommended
Purpose minimum (litres per
person per day)
Drinking water 5
Sanitation services 20
Bathing 15
Cooking and kitchen 10
Total 50

In different countries there are different ‘basic needs’ targets. Sometimes these are
as low as 25 litres per person per day (e.g. rural South Africa), or as high as 55 litres
(India’s recently revised target). Targets are best reviewed and revised to suit
circumstances. For example, South Africa proposed short, medium and long-term
targets to pragmatically address water supply backlogs.

Combining projections of demographic and industrial growth, the World Resources Institute
estimated in 1997 that demand for municipal water supplies could rise by a factor of five or
more in the next four decades.

Two more factors distinguish domestic water supplies from those in other sectors: quality and
reliability.

• Quality: The quality of drinking water is critical for human health and well-being.
Quality is assured by treatment, but also by the quality of the source. The lower the
quality of the source, the higher the treatment costs. There is debate about the
delivery of unlimited high quality domestic water through house connections, when
only about 5% -10% of piped water is actually used for drinking.

• Reliability of source: Domestic supplies must be absolutely reliable. Lack of water

even for a few days kills people. Failure to keep water supply networks pressurised
allows polluted water to force its way into leaky pipes. The source must therefore
be reliable to a very high level of certainty (for example 1 in 20 years), both in its
inherent ability to supply water and also in terms of any possible competing claims.

Treating wastewater from sewerage systems is expensive and therefore often not done, even
in middle-income countries. Typically, it may cost up to $1,500 per household to collect and
treat the wastewater of a Third World city. Yet the costs of non-treatment are huge, in terms
of both human health and the lost potential for reuse downstream.

C2. Why is the water supply and sanitation sector important?

Water is a basic human right

Without safe and sufficient drinking water and sanitation, people cannot live healthy and
productive lives. Water is firstly crucial to keep the human organism alive and healthy. This
takes 2-5 litres of clean water per person per day (depending on climate and activities).
However, having enough water to drink but not enough to wash will lead to ill health or death,
less directly but no less certainly than lack of water to drink. Hence the need for water for
bathing and personal hygiene (such as hand washing after defecation). Domestic water is
also critical for waste disposal – through sewers or into septic tanks or latrines. All of these
uses, as well as small quantities for cooking and cleaning/washing are so essential to human
well-being that they are universally acknowledged as being both a need and a right. While

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planning for access and use has to be integrated with other sectors and users, water for
domestic purposes is universally acknowledged as having priority in water resource
allocation.

In addition to these critical domestic requirements, there is an increasing recognition of the

important role in economic well-being and poverty reduction that a supply of water for
productive use can provide at the household level. It has been argued that because of the
range of economic and social benefits, including income generation, food security, and
improved nutritional status this additional quantity of water should be included with the core
domestic requirement as a key priority and right in water resource allocation.

Gender equity
Lack of convenient access to water and sanitation adds enormously to women’s domestic
burdens. It also disproportionately affects their health and that of their children. The water and
sanitation sector has long recognised the major benefits that improved basic services can
bring to women’s lives and to girls’ education when they are freed from the daily chore of
fetching water. Gender perspectives are comparatively well developed in the sector and are
seen as an entry point for poverty alleviation as well as bringing health and lifestyle benefits.

C3. How is the water supply and sanitation sector affected by water use in other
sectors?

The WATSAN (Water Supply and Sanitation) sector is most critically affected by other water
uses in terms of competing or conflicting use and pollution. The first affects the quantity and
reliability of domestic water supplies, the second the quality and associated costs of
treatment.

Competition
Water is a critical economic resource and hence often in great demand. As a result
competition exists on many levels within and between sectors. Most of the examples of
conflicting water use impacting on domestic water supply needs come from the agricultural
sector (water for irrigation). From California to India, cases of competition between irrigated
agriculture and domestic water supply are becoming increasingly common and well known.
The example in Box 5 from Andhra Pradesh is typical. It illustrates competition at a basin
scale – perhaps the most widely reported. However competition occurs at a local scale too,
for example when over-use of groundwater for irrigated agriculture leads to rapidly falling
groundwater tables that in turn lead to domestic supply wells failing – as is the case in much
of India.

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 Box 5
Farmers storm Kurnool ZP office

KURNOOL, APRIL 15. Farmers under the Gajuladinne Project canal stormed the Zilla Parishad
office here on Monday, demanding release of water beyond the scheduled closure to save the
standing crops. A large contingent of farmers arrived at the Zilla Parishad and a few of them
barged into the hall as the meeting was in progress. Their supporters outside created a noisy
scene by banging the windows and doors. Some of the leaders picked up an argument with the
Collector and others. The Collector told the farmers that the Irrigation Advisory Board had
formally decided to close the canal by April 9. Any decision to reopen the canal had to be taken
by the Government, he said.

The farmers got angry with the argument of the officials saying that they were more concerned
about supplying drinking water to Kurnool town rather than saving the crops. They said the
crops required watering for 20 days more and demanded supply of 100 cusecs. The farmers'
leaders argued that priority be given to farmers under the project and the drinking water
requirement of Kurnool should come next. One of the farmers threatened to poison the GDP
water to make it unfit for consumption.
adapted from THE HINDU, Tuesday April 16, 2002

Pollution
Pollution of sources from which domestic supplies are derived is a critical issue, leading in the
worst case to serious health problems and in the best to increased water treatment costs.
Pollution is a problem for water from both surface and sub-surface sources, although it is the
former where the problem is more widely recognised. The quality of river water can be
negatively affected by pollution from either agriculture or industries (pesticide or fertiliser
runoff, discharges of hazardous materials etc.), or indeed untreated human effluent. Equally,
aquifers can be polluted by excess fertiliser application, or improper disposal of hazardous
materials from industry or from municipal dumping or poorly constructed septic tanks.
Groundwater pollution problems can be particularly difficult to identify and then to remedy, as
much industrial pollution calls for very costly treatment. Finally, the environment itself can be
an important source of pollution in water sources, with the example of arsenic contamination
of groundwater in Bangladesh being perhaps the most widely known recent example.
The fact that the water supply sector is itself most often responsible for polluting drinking
water sources, especially for downstream users, highlights an internal management problem
or discontinuity in management structures.

C4. Impact of water supply and sanitation on water use by other sectors

Allocation issues
It is frequently wrongly assumed that because allocations for domestic water resources are
‘small’ they will have little impact on those for other uses. However, because of the critical
importance of an uninterrupted supply, the need to safeguard adequate buffers in the
catchment or aquifer systems to ensure this supply at all times, and the seasonal nature of
much water demand (particularly for irrigation), serious conflict can and does occur between
allocation for domestic and other needs.
This competition for allocation and the priority normally given to domestic use can result in
conflict, especially when urban piped systems are accused of “losing” as much as 50% of the
piped water and using water wastefully.

Pollution
Improperly treated human waste is a major source of environmental pollution, leading to
problems for both other humans and the environment as a whole. Pollution of rivers and
streams by untreated or inadequately treated municipal and industrial effluents can render the
watercourses unsuitable for use as sources of irrigation water and damage aquatic
ecosystems.

31
The reuse of municipal wastewater for irrigation, carried out in the peri-urban zones of many
developing country cities has both positive and negative impacts. The recycled water and
nutrients are important for water conservation, but the health risks are significant unless there
are tight controls. Not only are the farmers themselves exposed to high risk from pathogens,
but their produce is then exported to a wider public who may also suffer.

C5. Benefits of IWRM to the water supply and sanitation sector

Water Security
Above all, properly applied IWRM would lead to the water security of the world’s poor and
unserved being assured. The implementation of IWRM based policies should mean increased
security of domestic water supplies, as well as reduced costs of treatment as pollution is
tackled more effectively. Conflict between water users is reduced.
Participatory IWRM, especially at basin or catchment level, can include and empower
previously disadvantaged, poor and voiceless people, and provide opportunities for further
development, in the form of jobs, newly acquired skills, etc.
Recognizing the rights of people, and particularly women and the poor, to a fair share of water
resources for both domestic and household-based productive uses, leads inevitably to the
need to ensure proper representation of these groups on the bodies that make water resource
allocation decisions. This is one of the great challenges for the next years – to change
institutions that have until now typically existed to serve the interests of relatively small,
powerful and effectively organised groups, to serve a large, diffuse, group of often poor users.

Efficient use
An increasing recognition of the economic value of water is in part behind current moves to
more efficient use. Greater integration in management of water resources will help to reduce
conflict between water users by ensuring agreed efficiency of use in competing sectors. For
the domestic water supply sector the costs of delivering the small quantities of water required
greatly outweigh the actual cost of the resource itself, the increased use of demand
management and other measures aimed at more efficient use typically have more to do with
the ever increasing costs of developing new sources and removing pollution. The focus on
integrated management and efficient use should also be a stimulus to the sector to push for
recycling, reuse and waste reduction by industrial users. High pollution charges backed by
rigid enforcement have led to impressive improvements in industrial water-use efficiencies in
the industrialised countries, with benefits for domestic water supplies and the environment.

Improved waste management

Major blind spots exist due to failure to coordinate effectively with other sectors. The issue of
wastewater disposal provides a good example. Here, rather than working together with other
sectors to exploit a potentially important economic resource, the attitude tends to be one of
out of sight, out of mind.
Past sanitation systems often focused on removing the waste problem from the areas of
human occupation, thus keeping the human territories clean and healthy, but merely replacing
the waste problem, with often detrimental environmental effects elsewhere. Introduction of
IWRM will improve the opportunity for introduction of sustainable sanitation solutions that aim
to minimise waste-generating inputs, and reduction of waste outputs, and to solve sanitation
problems as close as possible to where they occur.

Economic and coverage benefits

At a practical local level, improved integration of water resource management could lead to
greatly reduced costs of providing domestic water services, if for instance more irrigation
schemes were designed with a domestic water component explicitly involved from the start.
The irrigation sector will be encouraged to recognise that improving people’s wealth and
nutrition status through irrigation will not have the desired impact on poverty if people are
constantly sick due to lack of domestic water and sanitation facilities.

32
Participation and gender equity
Social inclusivity and women’s influence in decision-making have been seen as desirable for
some time in the water and sanitation sector. However, because of the community-based
nature of this sector, the adoption of inclusive approaches has had only local effect and local
impact. The basin-wide approaches of IWRM will be able to build on these local successes
and extend successful participatory approaches to higher levels of decision-making.
Communities will thus be made more aware of the implications of their activities on others and
be able to work together on unified plans for catchment protection, water conservation and
demand management.

C6. Barriers to implementing IWRM in the water supply and sanitation sector

Willingness to change
Domestic water, sanitation and hygiene are often divided over a number of government
departments, such as water affairs, health, local government, and / or public works, and over
the last two decades much experience has been gained in practical ways to work together
effectively across departmental lines. Equally, the WATSAN sector has been focusing on
grassroots led development for decades, and has been at the forefront of decentralisation
efforts. More than the other sectors, water and sanitation are local issues requiring local
solutions by local people.
WATSAN professionals are perhaps more removed than any other water sub-sector from
IWRM as it is currently practised. Typically they focus on the management of the supply
system (reticulation) rather than the resource base itself, which tends to be taken for granted.
Equally they are already involved in trying to work together effectively with a range of actors
from different backgrounds – many of whom have nothing to do with water at all. A focus on
health has led to a number of failures, perhaps most important the stubborn blind spot that
persist as far as productive uses at the household level are concerned. Starting to work with
other water sub-sectors environment, food / agriculture or other sectors, who are equally often
divided over the departments presents a considerable challenge.

Lack of tools and systems for integration

The core of this challenge is finding effective tools and processes to achieve greater
coordination and cooperation without incurring such high transaction costs that the entire
process becomes wasteful. IWRM could on the one hand increase co-operation and improve
coordination between the various departments (i.e. through introduction of inter-departmental,
or regional task teams), but on the other hand could disrupt systems that have been in
existence for a long time, and therefore meet with a lot of frustration and negativity of the
officials within the various departments. Furthermore, institutional reforms are often very
costly – costs that have to be won back through improved efficiency and effectiveness of the
new IWRM-based system.

Summary of barriers
There is much good-will surrounding the concept of IWRM, but formidable barriers remain.
These include:
• A failure on the behalf of the WATSAN sector to engage meaningfully with the other
sectors involved in IWRM
• A lack of models of how to go about integration.
• A critical lack of both policy and the personnel to implement it. Conflict between
decentralisation and the desire to maintain central power and influence.
• The difficulty of getting the large, diffuse group represented by the WATSAN sector
to interact meaningfully with the small, well-organised lobbies of big agriculture and
industry.
• An unwillingness to deal with the implications of the critical need for reliability (and
hence often large reserves and buffers) in domestic supplies, and the implications
this has on the availability of water for other sectors

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C7. Implications for change within the water supply and sanitation sector: legal,
institutional, human resources

The changes will be greatest for those who currently work most narrowly within a sectoral
remit. NGOs for example, who have for years worked in a holistic and multidisciplinary
manner to address poverty and human development will have little difficulty adapting to the
concepts of IWRM. On the other hand highly centralised line ministries will need huge
adjustments and may not in the end manage the change of mindset and working style that
IWRM implies.

While for some organisations and institutions the above implications for change will be very
real and substantial, many sector organisations have already adopted IWRM as the best
option for sustainability, and have opened up to look for opportunities to work with sector role-
players from the other water sectors.

To start with the current ‘water and sanitation sector’ should cease to be considered as a
separate autonomous sector. The focus should shift to one of scale and type of supply, with
those working in the current WATSAN sectors teaming up with others involved in efforts to
tackle poverty through the effective use of water resources. The rights of the poor (and
indeed all people) to an equitable share of available resources will require both legislation and
new models of stakeholder involvement, as well as concerted advocacy. Only when this right
has been satisfied to an acceptable level of certainty should excess resources be made
available for other uses.

In addition a completely new approach to dealing with wastewater will be required – one that
focuses on waste as a resource, and that seeks to maximise the value of the resource to the
community as a whole.

The requirement of IWRM to allow stakeholder representation will require wholesale

reorientation in many existing organisations used to seeing themselves as ‘experts’ and
‘managers’. They will need to change to being facilitators, enablers, and regulators. This will
require a shift in the skills base, with a particular focus on the use of participatory techniques.

Finally, IWRM can only be built on experimentation. There are no blue prints, regionally,
national, or even sub-nationally. People must be given the freedom to experiment and find
solutions that suit them and their environment.

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 Think About it

In many countries urban water supply is the first priority when it comes to water allocation. How
is the situation in your country? And more specifically you may want to consider the following
questions:

‰ What is the water security situation in my country and how can it be improved through
IWRM?

‰ How is water supply being affected by use of water resources by other sectors?

‰ How is our wastewater being managed and is there room for improvement?

‰ What is the relation between water availability and people’s livelihood and well-being?

‰ What are we doing at home to make wise use of the water resources?

35
8. References and links

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Links

Cap-Net - International Network for Capacity Building in Integrated Water Resources

Management – www.cap-net.org

HR Wallingford Ltd. – www.hrwallingford.co.uk

IRC – International Water and Sanitation Centre – www.irc.nl

IUCN – The World Conservation Union – www.iucn.org

IWMI – International Water Management Institute – www.lk.iwmi.org

WSSCC – Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council – www.wsscc.org

Acknowledgements

Cap-Net wishes to express its gratitude to all of those who contributed to the preparation of
this tutorial. Thanks are directed in particular to Patrick Moriarty of IRC for coordinating the
module on water supply and wastewater, Tom Brabben of HR Wallingford for organising the
module on agriculture, and Ger Bergkamp of IUCN for his inputs for the module on
environment. The contributions of Darren Saywell of WSSCC in the module on water supply
and wastewater, and Doug Merrey, Matthew McCartney, Hilmy Sally and Aidan Senzaje of
IWMI in the module on water and food are highly appreciated. Ton Schouten is thanked for
reviewing the draft version thoroughly.

38