Chapter 2 - Protocol
Chapter 2 - Protocol
Chapter 2: Protocol
What is a Protocol?
A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers on a network. In order
for two computers to talk to each other, they must be speaking the same language. Many different types
of network protocols and standards are required to ensure that your computer (no matter which operating
system, network card, or application you are using) can communicate with another computer located on
the next desk or halfway around the world. The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model
defines seven layers of networking protocols. The complexity of these layers is beyond the scope of this
tutorial; however, they can be simplified into four layers to help identify some of the protocols with
which you should be familiar (see fig 1).
Fig 1. OSI model related to common network protocols
Figure 1 illustrates how some of the major protocols would correlate to the OSI model in order to
communicate via the Internet. In this model, there are four layers, including:
Ethernet (Physical/Data Link Layers)
IP/IPX (Network Layer)
TCP/SPX (Transport Layer)
HTTP, FTP, Telnet, SMTP, and DNS(combined Session/Presentation/Application Layers)
Assuming you want to send an email message to someone in Italy, we will examine the layers "from the
bottom up" beginning with Ethernet (physical/data link layers).
Ethernet (Physical/Data Link Layers)
The physical layer of the network focuses on hardware elements, such as cables, repeaters, and network
interface cards. By far the most common protocol used at the physical layer is Ethernet. For example, an
Ethernet network (such as 10BaseT or 100BaseTX) specifies the type of cables that can be used, the
optimal topology (star vs. bus, etc.), the maximum length of cables, etc. (See the Cabling section for
more information on Ethernet standards related to the physical layer).
The data link layer of the network addresses the way that data packets are sent from one node to another.
Ethernet uses an access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection).
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This is a system where each computer listens to the cable before sending anything through the network.
If the network is clear, the computer will transmit. If some other node is already transmitting on the
cable, the computer will wait and try again when the line is clear. Sometimes, two computers attempt to
transmit at the same instant. When this happens a collision occurs. Each computer then backs off and
waits a random amount of time before attempting to retransmit. With this access method, it is normal to
have collisions. However, the delay caused by collisions and retransmitting is very small and does not
normally effect the speed of transmission on the network.
Ethernet
The original Ethernet standard was developed in 1983 and had a maximum speed of 10 Mbps
(phenomenal at the time) over coaxial cable. The Ethernet protocol allows for bus, star, or tree
topologies, depending on the type of cables used and other factors. This heavy coaxial cabling was
expensive to purchase, install, and maintain, and very difficult to retrofit into existing facilities.
The current standards are now built around the use of twisted pair wire. Common twisted pair standards
are 10BaseT, 100BaseT, and 1000BaseT. The number (10, 100, 1000) ands for the speed of transmission
(10/100/1000 megabits per second); the "Base" stands for "baseband" meaning it has full control of the
wire on a single frequency; and the "T" stands for "twisted pair" cable. Fiber cable can also be used at
this level in 10BaseFL.
Fast Ethernet
The Fast Ethernet protocol supports transmission up to 100 Mbps. Fast Ethernet requires the use of
different, more expensive network concentrators/hubs and network interface cards. In addition, category
5 twisted pair or fiber optic cable is necessary. Fast Ethernet standards include:
100BaseT 100 Mbps over 2pair category 5 or better UTP cable.
100BaseFX 100 Mbps over fiber cable.
100BaseSX 100 Mbps over multimode fiber cable.
100BaseBX 100 Mbps over single mode fiber cable.
Gigabit Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet standard is a protocol that has a transmission speed of 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps). It can be
used with both fiber optic cabling and copper. (see the Cabling section for more information).
1000BaseT 1000 Mbps over 2pair category 5 or better UTP cable.
1000BaseTX 1000 Mbps over 2pair category 6 or better UTP cable.
1000BaseFX 1000 Mbps over fiber cable.
1000BaseSX 1000 Mbps over multimode fiber cable.
1000BaseBX 1000 Mbps over single mode fiber cable.
The Ethernet standards continue to evolve. with 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10,000 Mbps) and 100 Gigabit
Ethernet (100,000 Mbps),
Ethernet Protocol Summary
Older Network Protocols
Several very popular network protocols, commonly used in the 90's and early 21st century have now
largely fallen into disuse. While you may hear terms from time to time, such as "Localtalk" (Apple) or
"Token Ring" (IBM), you will rarely find these systems still in operation. Although they played an
important role in the evolution of networking, their performance and capacity limitations have relegated
them to the past, in the wake of the standardization of Ethernet driven by the success of the Internet.
IP and IPX (Network Layer)
The network layer is in charge of routing network messages (data) from one computer to another. The
common protocols at this layer are IP (which is paired with TCP at the transport layer for Internet
network) and IPX (which is paired with SPX at the transport layer for some older Macintosh, Linus,
UNIX, Novell and Windows networks). Because of the growth in Internetbased networks, IP/TCP are
becoming the leading protocols for most networks.
Every network device (such as network interface cards and printers) have a physical address called a
MAC (Media Access Control) address. When you purchase a network card, the MAC address is fixed
and cannot be changed. Networks using the IP and IPX protocols assign logical addresses (which are
made up of the MAC address and the network address) to the devices on the network, This can all
become quite complex suffice it to say that the network layer takes care of assigning the correct
addresses (via IP or IPX) and then uses routers to send the data packets to other networks.
TCP and SPX (Transport Layer)
The transport layer is concerned with efficient and reliable transportation of the data packets from one
network to another. In most cases, a document, email message or other piece of information is not sent
as one unit. Instead, it is broken into small data packets, each with header information that identifies its
correct sequence and document.
When the data packets are sent over a network, they may or may not take the same route it doesn't
matter. At the receiving end, the data packets are reassembled into the proper order. After all packets are
received, a message goes back to the originating network. If a packet does not arrive, a message to "re
send" is sent back to the originating network.
TCP, paired with IP, is by far the most popular protocol at the transport level. If the IPX protocol is used
at the network layer (on networks such as Novell or Microsoft), then it is paired with SPX at the transport
layer.
HTTP, FTP, SMTP and DNS (Session/Presentation/Application
Layers)
Several protocols overlap the session, presentation, and application layers of networks. There protocols
listed below are a few of the more wellknown:
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DNS Domain Name System translates network address (such as IP addresses) into terms
understood by humans (such as Domain Names) and viceversa
DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol can automatically assign Internet addresses to
computers and users
FTP File Transfer Protocol a protocol that is used to transfer and manipulate files on the Internet
HTTP HyperText Transfer Protocol An Internetbased protocol for sending and receiving
webpages
IMAP Internet Message Access Protocol A protocol for email messages on the Internet
IRC Internet Relay Chat a protocol used for Internet chat and other communications
POP3 Post Office protocol Version 3 a protocol used by email clients to retrieve messages
from remote servers
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol A protocol for email messages on the Internet
Table of Contents
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Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Glossary
Florida Center for Instructional Technology
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Dr. Roy Winkelman, Director
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