Introduction

Contents:

o Introduction to Computing & Computers

o History of Computer
o Generation of Computer
o Classification of Computer
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING & COMPUTER

 WHY TO STUDY COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY?

The computer is a truly amazing machine. Few tools can help us perform so
many different tasks. Equally amazing is the fact that the computer has taken on
a role in nearly every aspect of our lives, for example:

- Tiny embedded computers control our alarm clocks, entertainment centres

and home appliances.
- Today’s automobiles could not even start, let alone run efficiently, without
embedded computer systems.
- People use email for personal communications nearly ten times as often as
ordinary mail, and nearly five times more often than the telephone.
- People do an ever increasing amount of shopping online.
- Routine, daily tasks are affected by computer technologies such as banking at
Automated Teller Machine (ATM), talking over digital telephone networks,
and paying for groceries with the help of computerized cashiers.

 COMPUTERS IN OUR LIVES

- Millions of people use handheld computers to manage their schedules, send

email and faxes, create documents, and many more.
- Using 3D CAD tools, designers can create photorealistic three dimensional
renderings of a finished building’s interior and exterior.
- Factories use computerized robotic arms to do physical work that is
hazardous or highly repetitive.
- Computers have become a creative tool for musicians. The Musical
Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) allows different electronic instruments to
be connected to one another, as well as to computers.
- The military is often at the forefront of technology. They use Airborne
Warning & Aircraft Control (AWAC) system to track the in flight progress of
missiles and jets.
- Science and engineering has been benefited from the ancient age of counting
to the age of advance space program like today.
- Many movies and television productions now use motion capture technology
to enable computer generated characters to move realistically.
 DEFINITION OF COMPUTER & BASIC TERMINOLOGIES

Computer is a machine that accepts data through some input devices and does
certain manipulations on the data according to certain prescribed sequence of
instructions (program) and displays the results of those operations on output
devices.

INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT

UNITS UNIT UNITS

MEMORY

Fig: Fundamental Illustration of Computer System

Computers are also known as data processor. It can accept input, which may be
either data or instruction or both. The accepted input is stored in memory and
then the computer processes the stored input by performing calculations or by
making logical comparison or both. Finally, it gives out the result as output
information.

o Information: Knowledge that is communicated.

o Data: The representation of information in a formalized manner suitable
for communication, interpretation and processing, generally by computer
system. The term ‘raw data’ refers to unprocessed information.
o Process: A systematic series of actions a computer uses to manipulate
data.
o Peripheral Devices: Any piece of equipments in a computer system that
is not actually inside the computer itself.

 BASIC DESCRIPTION OF COMPUTER COMPONENTS

Computers are made up of two parts: the hardware and the software.

o Hardware: The physical equipments required to create, use, manipulate

and store electronic data.
o Software: The computerized instructions that operate a computer,
manipulates the data and execute particular functions or tasks.
 COMPUTER HARDWARE
All computers require the following hardware components:
1) Input Devices
- The devices that allow data and instructions to enter a computer, e.g.
keyboard, mouse, scanner etc.
- Input means any resource required for the functioning of a process, in the
course of which it will be transformed into one or more outputs.

2) Processing Unit & Memory

- The chip or chips at the heart of a computer that enable it to process data.
- It is also known as processor or central processing unit (CPU) and
consists of memory.
- Memory is an area within a computer system that holds data waiting to be
processed.
- The CPU carries out all of the instructions given in a program, e.g. word
processing or spreadsheet program.
o Chip: A small piece of semiconducting material (e.g. silicon) about 1
cm (1/4 inch) square on which an integrated circuit (IC) is
embedded. And IC is a number of electronic components joined
together to form a path for electricity.

3) Output Devices
- The devices that allow information to be represented (that is given out) to
the user, e.g. display screen or printer.
- Output refers to the product of transformation of inputs by a process.

 COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Software is the computerized instructions that operate the computer, execute the
particular functions or tasks and manipulates the data. For software to perform
various functions, it must be programmed. That is, instructions need to be
written in a programming language that the computer can understand. Without a
program, a computer is useless.

o Programming Language: An artificial set of rules, vocabulary and

syntax used to instruct the computer to execute certain tasks.
o Computer Program: A sequence of instructions that can be executed
by a computer to carry out a process.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER

1. Speed

Computer can work very fast; it takes only few seconds for calculations that
we take hours to complete. Computer can perform millions of instructions
and even more per second.

Example: The weather forecasting is the results of compilation and analysis

of huge amount of data on temperature, humidity, pressure etc of various
places on computers. The speed of computers is measured in terms of
microsecond or nanosecond.

1ms (milli second) = 10-3 sec

1s (micro second) = 10-6 sec
1ns (nano second) = 10-9sec
1ps (pico second) = 10-12sec

2. Accuracy
Computer should have accuracy or correctness in computing. The degree of
accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed with
the same accuracy. The accuracy level is determined on the basis of design of
computer. The errors in computer are due to human and inaccurate data.

3. Diligence
Computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue etc. It can
work for hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be
performed, a computer will perform every calculation with the same
accuracy. Due to this capability it overpowers human being in routine type of
work.

4. Versatility
Versatility is the capacity to perform completely different type of work. We
may use our computer to prepare payroll slips and on the next moment we
may use it for inventory management or to prepare electric bills.

5. Power of Remembering
Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data and
they can be stored and recalled as long as we require it, for any numbers of
years. It depends entirely upon us how much data we want to store in a
computer and when to lose or retrieve these data.
 6. No IQ & No Feeling
Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction
from the user. It performs the instruction at tremendous speed and with
accuracy. It is us to decide what we want to do and in what sequence. So,
computer cannot take its own decision as we can.
It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it
does not get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish
between users.

7. Storage
The computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of
data. We can also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies,
CDs, DVDs and Flash Drives etc. that can be kept outside our computer and
can be carried to other computers. Sizes of the storage or memory are
defined in Bytes. A bit is a small memory size consists of 0s and 1s.

1 b (bit) = 0 or 1
1 Nibble = 4 b
1 B (Byte) = 2 Nibble/1 Character
1 KB (Kilo Byte) = 1024 B
1 MB (Mega Byte) = 1024 KB
1 GB (Giga Byte) = 1024 MB
1 TB (Terra Byte) = 1024 GB

 APPLICATIONS/USES OF COMPUTER

Computer Technologies has been incorporated into almost every aspect of

society. They now play a role in how we learn, how we take care of our money,
and how we are entertained. Today, there is probably no better indication of how
advanced a society is than how computerized it is.

In our society, computers are now a fundamental component of our jobs, our
schools, our stores, our means of transportation, and our health care. Our
complex system of banking and investment could not operate without computers.
Essentially, all of our medical and scientific facilities now depend entirely upon
incredibly complex computer based system.

1. Banking & Finance

Computers have become an indispensable tool in the handling of money and
finances. Example: Computerized ATM (Automated Teller Machine) and
Credit Card Machines that provide our interface with the banks’ computers.
2. Education
Computers can be found in every school. From kindergarten to graduate
school, the computer is being used for learning, for record keeping and for
research. Example: A variety of Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) &
Multimedia-Based Learning System (MBLS) programs are now being used to
facilitate the learning of nearly every educational topic. They can deliver
information to students in the form of sound and video in addition to text
and pictures.

3. Health & Medicine

Computer technology is radically changing the tools of medicine. All medical
information can now be digitized. Software is now able to compute the risk
of disease. Example: A patient paralysed by a stroke has received an implant
that allows communication between his brain and a computer; as a result, he
can move a cursor across a screen by brainpower and convey simple
messages.

4. Science
Scientists have long been users of computers. Each and every sector of
science and engineering are totally benefited by the use of computers.
Example: An Internet Based Collaborative Laboratory (IBCL) or Collaborator,
in which researchers all over the world can work easily together even at a
distance. Space Physics is an example, where space physicists are allowed to
band together to measure the earth’s ionosphere from instruments on four
parts of the world.

5. Government
Various departments of the government use computer for their planning,
control and law enforcement activities. To name a few – Traffic, Tourism,
Information & Broadcasting, Education, Aviation and many others.

6. Recreation & Entertainment

Our entertainment and pleasure time have also been affected by
computerization. For example:
 In movies, computer generated graphics give freedom to designers so
that special effects and even imaginary characters can play a part in
making movies , videos and commercials
 In sports, computers compile statistics, sell tickets, create training
programs and diets for athletes, and suggest game plan strategies based
on the competitor’s past performance.
 In restaurants, rather to order by indicating choices on cash register;
the device directly enters the actual data into a computer, and calculates
the cost and then print a receipt.
HISTORY OF COMPUTER

The development of computer has a long historical background. It took thousands of

years for the computer to be developed into the present state. People started
counting with the help of their fingers, stones and through scratch marking on the
trees or on the walls of their caves that was very tedious and very slow. Later on
when men became more civilized, they started it with various counting devices.
Over the centuries, the development of computing and calculating has been changed
dramatically. Today, we have computers, calculators etc to solve even very difficult
problems accurately within a short time. The development sequence of the
computer from early counting to the present state can be categorized broadly into
two types.
 Mechanical Era, and
 Electromechanical & Electronic Era

1. MECHANICAL ERA
The need for counting, computing or processing data has been with man from
the beginning. The most significant developments in this era are described here
shortly.

a) Abacus (Before 3000 Years)

Abacus was the first computing tool used for
counting about 3000 years ago and consisted of
a wooden rack holding parallel rods on which
beads were strung. This simple device was used
for addition and subtraction. It is still used in
China, Japan and some other countries.

b) Napier’s Bone (1550 – 1617)

A Scottish scholar, John Napier invented a calculating device called Napier’s Bone.
It consists of nine pieces of square cards with numbers covered on them. It is
used for multiplication and division. He also evolved the system of algorithms
which greatly assisted in arithmetic calculations.
c) Slide Rule (1618 – 1622)
The slide rule was invented by William Oughtred in 1620 which was made by
using the principle of logarithms. A simple slide rules consists of two graduated
scales of which one scale slips upon the other. With the proper alignment of the
two rulers, the user can perform simple multiplication and division problems.

d) Pascaline ( 1623 – 1662)

A significant advance in the evolution of computing systems was the invention of
a mechanical adding machine in 1642 by the French scientist Blaise Pascal.
Pascaline contains eight dials, gears and wheels. The numbers were entered by
dialling a series of numbered wheels where the movement of wheels started at 9
and moved to 0. An automatic carry over system was accomplished by rotating
the adjacent wheel by one digit. This machine was capable of doing only addition
and subtraction. Multiplication could be performed by repeated addition and
division performed by repeated subtraction.

a) Stepped Reckoner (1663 – 1700)

Goth Friend Von Leibnitz, a German mathematician invented improved form of

Pascaline in 1671. It was incorporated with additional sets of wheels that could
perform addition, subtraction as well as multiplication and division. The
numbers were moved in steps from one column to other when the multiplication
or the division of two numbers was performed.
b) Jacquard’s Loom ( 1701 – 1800)
A French inventor Joseph Marie Jacquard invented a loom in 1801. This loom
used punched cards to produce certain pattern in the woven cloth. The
function of that loom depended upon the absence or presence of holes on the
punched cards. This concept gave the idea of binary digits: Yes or No, or 1 or
0. It could be considered as a first programmable device.

c) Difference & Analytical Engine ( 1801 – 1850)

Charles Babbage was an English mathematician. He invented an automatic
mechanical calculating machine called Difference Engine in 1822. That device
was able to store program, perform calculation and print the result
automatically.
After working on his Difference Engine, Babbage was encouraged and came
up with another device called Analytical Engine in 1833. It was the first fully
complete his engine due to lack of required technologies. All the modern
computers are based on Babbage’s idea and technology. And he is also known
as Father of Modern Computer Science.
 Lady Ada Augusta Lovelance: She was the student
of Charles Babbage who helped to correct some
errors in the Babbage’s work. She suggested him to
use binary number system instead of decimal
number system. She is known as first computer
programmer. She made some programs for
Analytical Engine. 1979, the US Defence Department
named a programming language ADA in her honour.

d) Herman Hollerith & Tabulating Machine (1850 – 1900)

Dr. Herman Hollerith was an American Census Statistician. He developed
Tabulating Machine in 1887. The machine was used to tabulate US Census
Record. His tabulating system made practical use of the punched card in data
processing and became the nucleus of today’s computing fields.
Hollerith established the Tabulating Machine Company in 1986 to
manufacture his inventions. This company later merged with other
companies to form a big International Business Machine (IBM) corporation
which is largest computer manufacturing company in the world.
2. ELECTRO-MECHANICAL & ELECTRONIC ERA
The electronic era was the time when computers were made with electronics
components. Following are some of the historical key inventions in this era.

a) MARK – I
In 1937, Howard Aiken, professor of Harvard University developed an
Automatic Calculating Machine called MARK – I. This was completed after
seven years in 1944. It is also called Automatic Sequence Controlled
Calculator. It was the first electromechanical computer. It was huge in size
and had 1800 vacuum tubes to store data in the memory. It used a program
to guide it through a long series of calculations.

b) ABC
ABC is the short form of Atansoff Berry Computer. It was the first digital
computer designed by Dr. John Atansoff and his assistant Clifford Berry in
1942. It used vacuum tubes as a main memory. This computer was designed
for solving System of Simultaneous Linear Equations. This machine was
mainly used by military to computer firing and ballistic.
c) ENIAC
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator) was the first
electronic general purpose computer invented by John W Mauchly and John
Presper Eckert in 1946. It was 10 feet tall and occupied a space of 30 X 30
feet. It contained 1800 vacuum tubes as main memories. It required about
150 KW of power. It could perform many complex arithmetic operations in
few seconds.

d) EDSAC
EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer) was the first
operational stored program computer. It was invented by Maurice Wickes at
Cambridge University, in 1949. It contained 3, 000 vacuum tubes and it
required 30 KW of electric power. In this computer programs were input
using paper tape and output results were printed on a teletype page printer.

e) UNIVAC – I
UNIVAC – I(Universal Automatic Computer – I) was developed by John
Mauchly and John Presper Eckert in 1951. It was the first general purpose
electronic digital computer. This computer consisted of magnetic tape for
data input and output. It had 10, 000 vacuum tubes. This computer was used
for data processing till 1963 in the USA.
f) EDVAC
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was designed by
Moore School personnel and the Ballistics Research Laboratory of the US
Army in 1952. It was able to store programs. This concept was introduced by
a Hungarian mathematician John Von Newmann in 1947.

STORED PROGRAM CONCEPT & VON NEWMANN ARCHITECTURE

Since, the task of entering and altering the programs for the ENIAC was
extremely tedious. The programming process could be facilitated if the program
could be facilitated if the program could be represented in a form suitable for
storing in memory alongside the data. Then a computer could get its instructions
by reading them from the memory and a program could be set or altered by setting
the values of a portion of memory. This approach was based on “Stored
Program Concept” and was first adopted by John Von Neumann. The
general structure of Von Neumann’s machine is shown below.

Memory
(Data + Program) The main memory is used to store
both data and instructions. The
Control Arithmetic &
arithmetic logic unit is capable of
Unit Logical Unnit performing arithmetic and logical
Accumulator operations on binary data. The
program control unit interprets the
instructions in memory and causes
I/P O/P them to be executed. The I/O unit
gets operated from the control unit.
Fig: Von Neumann Archiecture & Stored
Program Concept
GENERATION OF COMPUTER

Generation refers to the state of improvement in the development of a product. In

computer science, this term is used in the different advancements of computer
technology.

Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development

that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly
smaller, cheaper, and more powerful, and more efficient and reliable devices. New
discoveries are constantly being made that affect the way we live, work and play.

FIRST GENERATION (1945 – 1954: VACUUM TUBES)

 The first generation computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry as a switching
device and magnetic drums for memory and were often enormous, taking up
entire rooms. (A magnetic drum is a metal cylinder coated with magnetic iron-
oxide material on which data and programs can be stored)

 They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of
electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.

 They relied on machine language to perform operations, and they could only
solve a problem at a time. Every CPU has its own unique machine language,
therefore, to run on different types of computers program must be rewritten or
recompiled. (Input was based on punched cards and paper tape and output was
displayed on printouts)

 Example: UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business

client. ENIAC was the world’s first operational electronic digital computer
targeted to the field of weather forecasting, atomic energy calculation and for
other scientific applications. As the need arose for faster computing speeds,
ENIAC was obsolete by EDVAC, IBM 701, IBM 704 and IBM 709.
SECOND GENERATION (1955 – 1964: TRANSISTORS)

 Transistors replaced vacuum tubes in the second generation computers. It is a

device composed of semiconductor material that amplifies a signal or opens or
closes a circuit.

 Transistors were far superior to the vacuum tubes, allowing computers become
smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than the first
generation predecessors.

 They still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damages
and relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.

 Second generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to

symbolic or assembly languages, which allowed programmers to specify
instructions in words. High level programming languages were also being
developed at this time such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN.

 Example: IBM 1620, IBM 7090, PDP – I, PDP – 8

THIRD GENERATION (1965 – 1980: INTEGRATED CIRCUITS)

 The development of Integrated Circuits (ICs) was the hallmark of the third
generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon
chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and
efficiency of computers.
 A typical chip can contain millions of electronic components (transistors,
capacitors, diodes, resistors) and the technology was called SSI (Small Scale
Integration). Computers consist of may chips placed on electronic boards called
printed circuit boards.
 Instead of punched cards and printouts, user interacted with third generation
computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating
system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time
with a central program that monitored the memory. Computer for the first time
became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper
than their predecessors.
FOURTH GENERATION (1981 – PRESENT: MICROPROCESSORS)

 The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands

of integrated circuits were built onto a single chip. Microprocessors also control
the logic of almost all digital devices, from clock radios to fuel-injection systems
for automobiles.

 With the advancement in IC technology, LSI (Large Scale Integration) chips were
developed which was possible to integrate over 30,000 or more components on
a single chip and with the VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) technology more
than one million components could have been possible to integrate in a single
chip.

 Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors:

o Instruction Set: The set of instruction that the microprocessor can execute.
o Bandwidth: the number of bits processed in a single instruction.
o Clock Speed: Determines how many instructions per second the processor
can execute.

 The 32 – bit and 64 – bit computers are available today. The clock frequency is
more than 3 GHz. The high level languages like C, C++, Java, VB, VB.net, C# are
used for programming.

 Examples: Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium IV, DEC’s Alpha, SUN’s ULTRASPARC
etc.

FIFTH GENERATION (PRESENT AND BEYOND: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE)

 Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still

under development, though there are some applications, such as voice
recognition, that are being used today.

 Artificial Intelligence is the branch of computer science concerned with making

computers behave like humans. The term was coined in 1956 by John McCarthy
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
 Programming languages like LISP (List Processor) and PROLOG (Programming
with Logic) will be used for artificial intelligence with ULSI (Ultra Large Scale
Integration) technology.

 AI includes:
o Games Playing: Programming computers to play games such as chess and checkers.
o Expert systems: Programming Computers to make decisions in real life situations
(for example, some expert systems help doctors diagnose disease based on
symptoms)
o Natural Language: Programming computers to understand natural human
languages.
o Neural Networks: Systems that simulate intelligence by attempting to reproduce
the types of physical connections that occur in animal brains.
o Robotics: Programming computers to see hear and react other sensory stimuli.

 Currently, no computers exhibit full artificial intelligence (i.e. are able to

simulated human behaviour). The greatest advances have occurred in the field
of game playing. The best computer chess programs are now capable of beating
humans. In May, 1997, an IBM super-computer called Deep Blue defeated world
chess champion Gary Kasparov in chess match.

 In the area of robotics, computers are now widely used in assembly plants, but
they are capable only of very limited tasks. Robots have great difficulty
identifying objects based on appearance of feel, and they still move and handle
objects clumsily.

 Natural Language Processing offers the greatest potential rewards because it

would allow people to interact with computer without needing any specialized
knowledge. You could simply walk up to a computer and talk to it. Unfortunately,
programming computers to understand natural languages has proved to be
more difficult than originally thought.

MOORE’S LAW:
In 1965, Gordon E. Moore (one of the founders of Fairchild Semiconductors, USA)
predicted, based on data available at that time that the density of transistors in ICs will
double at regular intervals of around 2 years. The observation of Moore has been called
“Moore’s Law”. Based on the experience from 1965 to date, it has been found that his
prediction has been surprisingly accurate. In fact, the number of transistors per
integrated chip has approximately doubled every 18 months.
COMPUTER GENERATION: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

Generation First Second Third Fourth Fifth

Present -
Years 1945 - 1954 1955 - 1964 1965 - 1980 1980 - Present
Beyond

SSI Circuits LSI, VLSI Circuits ULSI

Switching Device Vacuum Tubes Transistors
Circuits
(IC) (Microprocessor)

Magnetic Drum Magnetic Tape/Disk High Speed Magnetic Disk Semiconductor Memory Bio
Storage Device
(1KB) Chips
(100 KB) (100/1 MB) (100/10GB)

Switching Times 0.1-1ms 1-10 us 0.1-1 us 1-100 ns -

Very High Level

Assembly Language: High Level Language: LISP,
Software/Program Machine Language Language:
FORTRAN, COBOL, FORTRAN, ADA, PROLOG
C, C++, JAVA, PROLOG

EDVAC, IBM 701, Pentium II, Pentium III,

IBM 1620, IBM 7090,
Examples IBM 704 and IBM - Pentium IV, DEC’s Alpha, -
PDP – I, PDP – 8
709 SUN’s ULTRASPARC

Table: Computer Generation: A Comparative Analysis

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

We need different types of computer according to nature of work. For example, the
computer we use in printing and publishing differs from the computers we use in
space technology. Today all computers use microprocessors as their CPU.
Technology, however, has changed, so computers can be classified on the basis of
their mode of use. The classification of computer can be best understood from the
following chart.

Computer

Mode of Use

Work Analog Digital Hybrid

Size Super Mainframe Mini Micro Workstation

Brand IBM PC IBM Compatible Apple/Macintosh

Model XT Computer AT Computer PS/2 Computer

Fig: Classification of computers on the basis of mode of use

1. ON THE BASIS OF WORK/OPERATION

a. Analog Computer
An analog computer is a form of computer that uses continuous physical
phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model
the problem being solved

Thermometer Multimeter Fuel Meter Speedometer

 b. Digital Computer
A computer that performs calculations and logical
operations with quantities represented as digits,
usually in the binary number system.

c. Hybrid Computer
A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in
both digital and analog signals. A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost
effective method of performing complex simulations.

2. ON THE BASIS OF SIZE

a. Super Computer
It is the fastest type of computer. Supercomputers are very expensive and are
employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of
mathematical calculations. For example, weather forecasting requires a
supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers include animated graphics,
fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, and petroleum
exploration.

The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a

supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as
fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many
programs concurrently.
b. Mainframe Computer
It is a very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds,
or even thousands, of users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts
with a simple microprocessor (in watches, for example) at the bottom and
moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just below
supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than
supercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs. But
supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe.

c. Mini Computer
It is a midsized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie between
workstations and mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction between
large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has
the distinction between small minicomputers and workstations. But in
general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of
supporting from 4 to about 200 users simultaneously.
d. Micro Computer
 Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit
on a desk.

 Laptop Computer: a portable

computer complete with an
integrated screen and keyboard. It
is generally smaller in size than a
desktop computer and larger than a
notebook computer.

 Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary/Notebook/PDAs: a hand-sized

computer. Palmtops have no keyboard but the screen serves both as
an input and output device.

e. Workstations
It is a terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context,
workstation is just a generic term for a user's machine (client machine) in
contrast to a "server" or "mainframe."
3. On the basis of brand
a. IBM PC

The microcomputers of IBM

(International Business Machine: Est.
1824, USA) are called IBM PC (Personal
Computer). IBM is one of the leading
companies in computer manufacturing.
They are reliable, strong and possess
higher storage and high speed
processing. These computers are based
on microprocessor developed by INTEL
corporation, USA.

b. IBM Compatible

IBM compatible has same functions and

principles as IBM PC has. That’s why these
computers are called duplicated of IBM PC.
They are cheaper and their parts are easily
available in the market. Therefore, they are
very popular all over the world. IBM
compatible computers used in Nepal are:
AST, SCAN, ALR (Advanced Logic
Research), Compaq, Wang, Laser etc.

c. Apple Macintosh

These computers are

manufactured by Apple Company,
which was established in the USA
in 1970. These computers have
their own software and hardware.
The system unit and monitor are
attached in Apple Computer.

The new brand of Apple Company manufacturer is popularly known as

Macintosh. They are mostly used in Desktop Publishing because they are easy to
handle and also give better graphic print quality. Mouse is essential for these
computers.
4. On the basis of model
a. XT Computer
XT refers Extended Technology. These computers have 8086 or 8088
microprocessor and processing speed up to 4.77MHz. This model is
comparatively slower than other models. It cannot run latest version of
softwares and programs.

b. AT Computer
AT refers Advanced Technology. These computers have 80286-
microprocessor and have more storage capacity as well as faster operating
speed than that of XT. They used Pentium series advanced microprocessors
like Intel 80286, 80336, 80486 and 80586. Today, most of the
microcomputer used AT computers.

c. PS/2 Computer
PS/2 refers Personal System – 2. It is another model manufactured by IBM
Company in 1990. These computers have more advanced architectural
design than AT computer. Laptop computers also belong to this mode. Since
they are made in small size sometimes they are also called as Notebooks. It
can run almost all latest versions of softwares and programs.