Chapter 4

The Electric Potential

4.1 The Important Stuff

4.1.1 Electrical Potential Energy
A charge q moving in a constant electric field E experiences a force F = qE from that field.
Also, as we know from our study of work and energy, the work done on the charge by the
field as it moves from point r1 to r2 is
Z r2
W = F · ds
r1

where we mean that we are summing up all the tiny elements of work dW = F · ds along the
length of the path. When F is the electrostatic force, the work done is
Z r2 Z r2
W = qE · ds = q E · ds (4.1)
r1 r1

In Fig. 4.1, a charge is shown being moved from r1 to r2 along two different paths, with
ds and E shown for a bit of each of the paths.
Now it turns out that from the mathematical form of the electrostatic force, the work
done by the force does not depend on the path taken to get from r1 to r2. As a result we say

r2
q

E
ds
ds
E

q
r1

Figure 4.1: Charge is moved from r1 to r2 along two separate paths. Work done by the electric force
involves the summing up E · ds along the path.

53
54 CHAPTER 4. THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

that the electric force is conservative and it allows us to calculate an electric potential
energy, which as usual we will denote by U. As before, only the changes in the potential
have any real meaning, and the change in potential energy is the negative of the work done
by the electric force: Z r2
∆U = −W = −q E · ds (4.2)
r1

We usually want to discuss the potential energy of a charge at a particular point, that
is, we would like a function U(r), but for this we need to make a definition for the potential
energy at a particular point. Usually we will make the choice that the potential energy is
zero when the charge is infinitely far away: U∞ = 0.

4.1.2 Electric Potential

Recall how we developed the concept of the electric field E: The force on a charge q0 is
always proportional to q0, so by dividing the charge out of F we get something which can
conveniently give the force on any charge. Likewise, if we divide out the charge q from
Eq. 4.2 we get a function which we can use to get the change in potential energy for any
charge (simply by multiplying by the charge). This new function is called the electric
potential, V :
∆U
∆V =
q
where ∆U is the change in potential energy of a charge q. Then Eq. 4.2 gives us the difference
in electrical potential between points r1 and r2 :
Z r2
∆V = − E · ds (4.3)
r1

The electric potential is a scalar. Recalling that it was defined by dividing potential
energy by charge we see that its units are CJ (joules per coulomb). The electric potential is
of such great importance that we call this combination of units a volt1 . Thus:

1 volt = 1 V = 1 CJ (4.4)

Of course, it is then true that a joule is equal to a coulomb-volt=C · V. In general,

multiplying a charge times a potential difference gives an energy. It often happens that we
are multiplying an elementary charge (e) (or some multiple thereof) and a potential difference
in volts. It is then convenient to use the unit of energy given by the product of e and a volt;
this unit is called the electron-volt:

1 eV = (e) · (1 V) = 1.60 × 10−19 C · (1 V) = 1.60 × 10−19 J (4.5)

Equation 4.3 can only give us the differences in the value of the electric potential between
two points r1 and r2 . To arrive at a function V (r) defined at all points we need to specify
1
Named in honor of the. . . uh. . . French physicist Jim Volt (1813–1743) who did some electrical experi-
ments in. . . um. . . Bologna. That’s it, Bologna.
4.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 55

a point at which the potential V is zero. Often we will choose this point to be “infinity”
(∞) that is, as we get very far away from the set of charges which give the electric field, the
potential V becomes very small in absolute value. However this “reference point” can be
chosen anywhere and for each problem we need to be sure where it is understood that V = 0
before we can sensibly talk about the function V (r). Then in Eq. 4.3 equal to this reference
point and calculate an potential function V (r) for all other points. So we can write:
Z r
V (r) = − E · ds (4.6)
rref

4.1.3 Equipotential Surfaces

For a given configuration of charges, a set of points where the electric potential V (r) has a
given value is called an equipotential surface. It takes no work to move a charged particle
from one point on such a surface to another point on the surface, for then we have ∆V = 0.
From the relations between E(r) and V (r) it follows that the field lines are perpendicular
to the equipotential surfaces everywhere.

4.1.4 Finding E from V

The definition of V an integral involving the E field implies that the electric field comes from
V by taking derivatives:

∂V ∂V ∂V
Ex = − Ey = − Ez = − (4.7)
∂x ∂y ∂z

These relations can be written as one equation using the notation for the gradient:

E = −∇V (4.8)

4.1.5 Potential of a Point Charge and Groups of Points Charges

Using Eq. 4.3, one can show that if we specify that the electrical potential is zero at “infinity”,
then the potential due to a point charge q is

q 1 q
V (r) = k = (4.9)
r 4π0 r

where r is the distance of the charge from the point of interest. Furthermore, for a set of
point charges q1, q2, q3, . . . the electrical potential is
X qi X 1 qi
V (r) = k = (4.10)
i ri i 4π0 ri

where ri is the distance of each charge from the point of interest.

56 CHAPTER 4. THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Using Eq. 4.10, one can show that the potential due to an electric dipole with magnitude
p at the origin (pointing upward along the z axis) is
1 p cos θ
V (r) = (4.11)
4π0 r2
Here, r and θ have the usual meaning in spherical coordinates.

4.1.6 Potential Due to a Continuous Charge Distribution

To get the electrical potential due to a continuous distribution of charge (with V = 0 at
infinity assumed), add up the contributions to the potential; the potential due to a charge
1 dq
dq at distance r is dV = 4π0 r
so that we must do the integral

1 dq 1 ρ(r)dτ
Z Z
V = = (4.12)
4π0 r 4π0 V r
In the last expression we are using the charge density ρ(r) of the distribution to get the
element of charge dq for the volume element dτ .

4.1.7 Potential Energy of a System of Charges

The potential energy of a pair of point charges (i.e. the work W needed to bring point
charges q1 and q2 from infinite separation to a separation r) is
1 q1 q2
U =W = (4.13)
4π0 r
For a larger set of charges the potential energy is given by the sum
1 X qi qj
U = U12 + U23 + U13 + . . . = (4.14)
4π0 pairs ij rij

Here rij is the distance between charges qi and qj . Each pair is only counted once in the
sum.

4.2 Worked Examples

4.2.1 Electric Potential

1. The electric potential difference between the ground and a cloud in a partic-
ular thunderstorm is 1.2 × 109 V. What is the magnitude of the change in energy
(in multiples of the electron-volt) of an electron that moves between the ground
and the cloud?
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 57

The magnitude of the change in potential as the electron moves between ground and
cloud (we don’t care which way) is |∆V | = 1.2 × 109 V. Multiplying by the magnitude of the
electron’s charge gives the magnitude of the change in potential energy. Note that lumping
“e” and “V” together gives the eV (electron-volt), a unit of energy:

|∆U| = |q∆V | = e(1.2 × 109 V) = 1.2 × 109 eV = 1.2 GeV

2. An infinite nonconducting sheet has a surface charge density σ = 0.10µC/m2

on one side. How far apart are equipotential surfaces whose potentials differ by
50 V?

In Chapter 3, we encountered the formula for the electric field due a nonconducting sheet
of charge. From Eq. 3.5, we had: Ez = σ/(20 ), where σ is the charge density of the sheet,
which lies in the xy plane. So the plane of charge in this problem gives rise to an E field:
σ
Ez =
20
(0.10 × 10−6 mC2
= C2
= 5.64 × 103 N
C
2(8.85 × 10−12 N·m2
)

Here the E field is uniform and also Ex = Ey = 0.

Now, from Eq. 4.7 we have
∂V
= −Ez = −5.64 × 103 N
C
.
∂z
and when the rate of change of some quantity (in this case, with respect to the z coordinate)
is constant we can write the relation in terms of finite changes, that is, with “∆”s:
∆V
= −Ez = −5.64 × 103 N
C
∆z
and from this result we can find the change in z corresponding to any change in V . If we
are interested in ∆V = 50 V, then
∆V (50 V)
∆z = − =− = −8.8 × 10−3 m = −8.8 mm
Ez (5.64 × 103 N
C
)

i.e. to get a change in potential of +50 V we need a change in z coordinate of −8.8 mm.
Since the potential only depends on the distance from the plane, the equipotential surfaces
are planes. The distance between planes whose potential differs by 50 V is 8.8 mm.

3. Two large, parallel conducting plates are 12 cm apart and have charges of
equal magnitude and opposite sign on their facing surfaces. An electrostatic
force of 3.9 × 10−15 N acts on an electron placed anywhere between the two plates.
58 CHAPTER 4. THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

(Neglect fringing.) (a) Find the electric field at the position of the electron. (b)
What is the potential difference between the plates?

(a) We are given the magnitude of the electric force on an electron (whose charge is −e).
Then the magnitude of the E field must be:

F F (3.9 × 10−15 N)
E = = = = 2.4 × 104 N
C
= 2.4 × 104 V
m
|q| e (1.60 × 10−19 C)

(b) The E field in the region between two large oppositely–charged plates is uniform so in
that case, we can write
∆V
Ex = −
∆x
(where the E field points in the x direction, i.e. perpendicular to the plates), and the
potential difference between the plates has magnitude

|∆V | = |Ex ∆x| = (2.4 × 104 V

m
)(0.12 m) = 2.9 × 103 V

4. The electric field inside a nonconducting sphere of radius R with charge spread
uniformly throughout its volume, is radially directed and has magnitude
qr
E(r) = .
4π0 R3

Here q (positive or negative) is the total charge within the sphere, and r is the
distance from the sphere’s center. (a) Taking V = 0 at the center of the sphere,
find the electric potential V (r) inside the sphere. (b) What is the difference in
electric potential between a point on the surface and the sphere’s center? (c) If
q is positive, which of those two points is at the higher potential?

(a) We will use Eq. 4.6 to calculate V (r) using r = 0 as the reference point: V (0) = 0. The
electric field has only a radial component Er (r) so that we will evaluate:
Z r Z r
V (r) = − E · ds = − Er (r0 )dr0
rref 0

Using the given expression for Er (r0 ) (which one can derive using Gauss’(s) law) we get:

qr0
r q r
Z Z
V (r) = − dr = − r0 dr0
0 4π0 R 3 4π0R3 0
2
q r
= −
4π0R3 2
qr2
= −
8π0R3
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 59

x
r’= r r’= 4
Figure 4.2: Path of integration for Example 5. Integration goes from r0 = ∞ to r0 = r.

(b) Using the result of part (a), the difference between values of V (r) on the sphere’s surface
and at its center is
qR2 q
V (R) − V (0) = − = −
8π0R3 8π0R

(c) For q positive, the answer to part (b) is a negative number, so the center of the sphere
must be at a higher potential.

5. A charge q is distributed uniformly throughout a spherical volume of radius

R. (a) Setting V = 0 at infinity, show that the potential at a distance r from the
center, where r < R, is given by

q(3R2 − r2 )
V = .
8π0R3
(b) Why does this result differ from that of the previous example? (c) What is
the potential difference between a point of the surface and the sphere’s center?
(d) Why doesn’t this result differ from that of the previous example?

(a) We find the function V (r) just as we did the last example, but this time the reference
point (the place where V = 0) is at r = ∞. So we will evaluate:
Z r Z r
V (r) = − E · ds = − Er (r0) dr0 . (4.15)
rref ∞

The integration path is shown in Fig. 4.2. We note that the integration (from r0 = ∞ to
r0 = r with r < R) is over values of r both outside and inside the sphere.
Just as before, the E field for points inside the sphere is
qr
Er, in(r) = , (4.16)
4π0R3
but now we will also need the value of the E field outside the sphere. By Gauss‘(s) law the
external E field is that same as that due to a point charge q at distance r, so:
q
Er, out(r) = . (4.17)
4π0r2
Because Er (r) has two different forms for the interior and exterior of the sphere, we will
have to split up the integral in Eq. 4.15 into two parts. When we go from ∞ to R we need
60 CHAPTER 4. THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

to use Eq. 4.17 for Er (r0 ). When we go from R to r we need to use Eq. 4.16 for Er (r0 ). So
from Eq. 4.15 we now have
Z R Z r
V (r) = − Er, out(r0 ) dr0 − Er, in(r0 ) dr0
∞ R
!
Z R
q Z r
qr0
 
0
= − dr − dr0
∞ 4π0r02 R 4π0R3
(Z )
q R dr 0 Z r 0
r 0
= − + dr
4π0 ∞ r02 R R3

Now do the individual integrals and we’re done:

 R r 
q  1  r  
02
V (r) = − −  +
4π0  r0  2R3 R 

∞

(r2 − R2 )
( )
q 1
= − − +
4π0 R 2R3
2R2 (R2 − r2 )
!
q
= +
4π0 2R3 2R3
q(3R2 − r2 )
=
8π0R3

(b) The difference between this result and that of the previous example is due to the different
choice of reference point. There is no problem here since it is only the differences in electrical
potential that have any meaning in physics.
(c) using the result of part (a), we calculate:

q(2R2 ) q(3R2 )
V (R) − V (0) = −
8π0 R3 8π0R3
qR2 q
= − = −
8π0R3 8π0R
This is the same as the corresponding result in the previous example.
(d) Differences in the electrical potential will not depend on the choice of the reference
point, the answer should be the same as in the previous example... if V (r) is calculated
correctly!

6. What are (a) the charge and (b) the charge density on the surface of a con-
ducting sphere of radius 0.15 m whose potential is 200 V (with V = 0 at infinity)?

(a) We are given the radius R of the conducting sphere; we are asked to find its charge Q.
From our work with Gauss’(s) law we know that the electric field outside the sphere is
the same as that of a point charge Q at the sphere’s center. Then if we were to use Eq. 4.6
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 61

Er
r

Er=0 inside
V=+400 V

Figure 4.3: Conducting charged sphere, has potential of 400 V, from Example 7.

with the condition V = 0 at infinity (which is outside the sphere!), we would get the same
result for V as we would for a point charge Q at the origin and V = 0 at infinity, namely:
1 Q
V (r) = (outside sphere)
4π0 r
This equation holds for r ≥ R.
Then at the sphere’s surface (r = R) we have:
1 Q
V =
4π0 R
Solve for Q and plug in the numbers:
Q = 4π0V R
C2
= 4π(8.85 × 10−12 N·m2
)(200 V)(0.15 m)
= 3.3 × 10−9 C
The charge on the sphere is 3.3 × 10−9 C.
(b) The charge found in (a) resides on the surface of the conducting sphere. To get the
charge density, divide the charge by the surface are of the sphere:
Q (3.3 × 10−9 C) C
σ= 2
= = 1.2 × 10−8 m2
4πR 4π(0.15 m)2
C
The charge density on the sphere’s surface is 1.2 × 10−8 m2
.

7. An empty hollow metal sphere has a potential of +400 V with respect to

ground (defined to be at V = 0) and has a charge of 5.0 × 109 C. Find the electric
potential at the center of the sphere.

The problem is diagrammed in Fig. 4.3. From considering a spherical Gaussian surface
drawn inside the sphere, we see that the electric field Er must be zero everywhere in side
the sphere because such a surface will enclose no charge. But for spherical geometries, Er
and V are related by
dV
Er = −
dr
62 CHAPTER 4. THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Q
R

r= 4
V=400 V
Figure 4.4: Conducting charged sphere, has potential of 400 V (with V = 0 at r = ∞), from Example 8.

so that with Er = 0, V must be constant throughout the interior of the spherical conductor.
Since the value of V on the sphere itself is +400 V, V then must also equal +400 V at the
center.
So V = +400 V at the center of the sphere. (There was no calculating to do on this
problem!)

8. What is the excess charge on a conducting sphere of radius R = 0.15 m if the

potential of the sphere is 1500 V and V = 0 at infinity?

The problem is diagrammed in Fig. 4.4. If the sphere has net charge Q then from Gauss’
law the radial component of the electric field for points outside the sphere is
Q
Er = k
r2
Using Eq. 4.6 with r = ∞ as the reference point, the potential at distance R from the
sphere’s center is:
r r kQ
Z Z
V (R) = − Er dr = − dr
∞ ∞ r2
R
kQ  kQ
=  = −0
r ∞
 R
kQ
=
R
(Note that the integration takes place over values of r outside the sphere so that the expres-
sion for Er is the correct one. Er is zero inside the sphere.)
We are given that V (R) = 400 V, so from kQ/R = 400 V we solve for Q and get:
R(400 V) (0.15 m)(400 V)
Q= = N·m2
= 2.5 × 10−8 C
k 9
(8.99 × 10 C2 )

9. The electric potential at points in an xy plane is given by

V = (2.0 mV2 )x2 − (3.0 mV2 )y 2 .

4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 63

What are the magnitude and direction of the electric field at the point (3.0 m, 2.0 m)?

Equations 4.7 show how to get the components of the E field if we have the electric
potential V as a function of x and y. Taking partial derivatives, we find:
∂V ∂V
Ex = − = −(4.0 mV2 )x and Ey = − = +(6.0 mV2 )y .
∂x ∂y
Plugging in the given values of x = 3.0 m and y = 2.0 m we get:
V V
Ex = −12 m and Ey = −12 m

So the magnitude of the E field at the given is

q
V V
E= (12.0)2 + (12.0)2 m
= 17 m

and its direction is given by

Ey
 
−1
θ = tan = tan−1 (1.0) = 135◦
Ex
where for θ we have made the proper choice so that it lies in the second quadrant.

4.2.2 Potential Energy of a System of Charges

10. (a) What is the electric potential energy of two electrons separated by
2.00 nm? (b) If the separation increases, does the potential energy increase or
decrease?

Since the charge of an electron is −e, using Eq. 4.13 we find:

1 (−e)(−e)
U =
4π0 r
1 (1.60 × 10−19 C)2
= C2
4π(8.85 × 10−12 N·m2
) (2.00 × 10−9 m)
= 1.15 × 10−19 J

As the charges are both positive, the potential energy is a positive number and is inversely
proportional to r. So the potential energy decreases as r increases.

11. Derive an expression for the work required to set up the four-charge config-
uration of Fig. 4.5, assuming the charges are initially infinitely far apart.

The work required to set up these charges is the same as the potential energy of a set of
qq
point charges, given in Eq. 4.14. (That is, sum the potential energies k riijj over all pairs of
64 CHAPTER 4. THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

+q + a - -q

a a

-q - a + +q

Figure 4.5: Charge configuration for Example 11.

+q + a - -q +q + a - -q +q + a - -q

a a a

-q - -q - a + +q

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.6: (a) Second charge is brought in from ∞ and put in place. (b) Third charge is brought in. (c)
Last charge is brought in.

charges.) We can arrive at the same answer and understand that formula a little better if
we assemble the system one charge at a time.
Begin with the charge in the upper left corner of Fig. 4.5. Moving this charge from
infinity to the desired location requires no work because it is never near any other charge.
We can write: W1 = 0.
Now bring up the charge in the upper right corner (−q). Now we have the configuration
shown in Fig. 4.6(a). While being put into place it has experienced a force from the first
charge and the work required of the external agency is the change in potential energy of this
charge, namely
1 (+q)(−q) q2
W2 = =−
4π0 a 4π0a
Now bring the charge in the lower left corner (−q), √ as shown in 4.6(b). When put into
place it is a distance a from the first charge and 2a from the second charge. The work
required for this step is the potential energy of the third charge in this configuration, namely:

q2
!
1 (+q)(−q) 1 (−q)(−q) 1
W3 = + √ = −1 + √
4π0 a 4π0 2a 4π0a 2

Finally, bring in the fourth charge (+q) to give the configuration

√ in Fig. 4.6(c). The
last charge is now a distance a from two −q charges and a distance 2a from the other +q
charge. So the work required for this step is
1 (+q)(−q) 1 (+q)(+q)
W4 = 2 + √
4π0 a 4π0 2a
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 65

q1 - A

B + q2
Figure 4.7: Charge configuration for Example 12.

q2
!
1
= −2 + √
4π0a 2

So now add up all the W ’s to get the total work done:

WTotal = W1 + W2 + W3 + W4
q2
!
1 1
= −1 − 1 + √ − 2 + √
4π0a 2 2
2
!
q 2
= −4 + √
4π0a 2

This is a nice analytic answer; if we combine all the numerical factors (including the 4π) we
get:
(−0.21)q 2
WTotal =
0 a
This is the same result as we’d get by using Eq. 4.14.

12. In the rectangle of Fig. 4.7, the sides have lengths 5.0 cm and 15 cm, q1 =
−5.0 µC and q2 = +2.0 µC. With V = 0 at infinity, what are the electric potentials
(a) at corner A and (b) corner B? (c) How much work is required to move a
third charge q3 = +3.0 µC from B to A along a diagonal of the rectangle? (d) Does
this work increase or decrease the electric energy of the three–charge system?
Is more, less or the same work required if q3 is moved along paths that are (e)
inside the rectangle but not on the diagonal and (f) outside the rectangle?

(a) To find the electric potential due to a group of point charges, use Eq. 4.10. Since point
A is 15 cm away from the −5.0 µC charge and 5.0 cm away from the +2.0 µC charge, we get:
1 q1 q2
 
V = +
4π0 r1 r2
" #
2 (−5.0 × 10−6 C) (+2.0 × 10−6 C)
= (8.99 × 109 N·m
C2
) + = 6.0 × 104 V
(15 × 10−2 m) (5.0 × 10−2 m)
66 CHAPTER 4. THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

(b) Perform the same calculation as in part (a). The charges q1 and q2 are at different
distances from point B so we get a different answer:
" #
2 (−5.0 × 10−6 C) (+2.0 × 10−6 C)
V = (8.99 × 109 N·m
C2
) + = −7.8 × 105 V
(5.0 × 10−2 m) (15 × 10−2 m)

(c) Using the results of part (a) and (b), calculate the change in potential V as we move
from point B to point A:

∆V = VA − VB = 6.0 × 104 V − (−7.8 × 105 V) = 8.4 × 105 V

The change in potential energy for a +3.0 µC charge to move from B to A is

∆U = q∆V = (3.0 × 10−6 C)(8.4 × 105 V) = 2.5 J

(d) Since a positive amount of work is done by the outside agency in moving the charge
from B to A, the electric energy of the system has increased . We can see that this must be
the case because the +3.0 µC charge has been moved closer to another positive charge and
farther away from a negative charge.
(e) The force which a point charge (or set of point charges) exerts on a another charge
is a conservative force. So the work which it does (or likewise the work required of some
outside force) as the charge moves from one point to another is independent of the path taken.
Therefore we would require the same amount of work if the path taken was some other path
inside the rectangle.
(f) Since the work done is independent of the path taken, we require the same amount of
work even if the path from A to B goes outside the rectangle.

13. Two tiny metal spheres A and B of mass mA = 5.00 g and mB = 10.0 g have
equal positive charges q = 5.00 µC. The spheres are connected by a massless
nonconducting string of length d = 1.00 m, which is much greater than the radii
of the spheres. (a) What is the electric potential energy of the system? (b)
Suppose you cut the string. At that instant, what is the acceleration of each
sphere? (c) A long time after you cut the string, what is the speed of each
sphere?

(a) The initial configuration of the charges in shown in Fig. 4.8(a). The electrostatic potential
energy of this system (i.e. the work needed to bring the charges together from far away is

1 q1 q2 N·m2 (5.00 × 10−6 C)2

U= = (8.99 × 109 C2
) = 0.225 J
4π0 r (1.00 m)

We are justified in using formulae for point charges because the problem states that the
sizes of the spheres are small compared to the length of the string (1.00 m).
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 67

q = 5.00 mC q = 5.00 mC

1.00 m
mA=5.0 g mB=10.0 g

(a)

F F

mA=5.0 g mB=10.0 g

(b)

Figure 4.8: (a) Charged spheres attached to a string, in Example 13. The electrostatic repulsion is balanced
by the string tension. (b) After string is cut there is a mutual force of electrical repulsion F. Magnitude of
the force on each charge is the same but their accelerations are different!

(b) From Coulomb’s law, the magnitude of the mutual force of repulsion of the two charges
is
1 q2 9 N·m2 (5.00 × 10
−6
C)2
F = = (8.99 × 10 C2
) = 0.225 N
4π0 r2 (1.00 m)2
but since the masses of the spheres are different their accelerations have different magnitudes.
From Newton’s 2nd law, the accelerations of the masses are:
F (0.225 N)
a1 = = = 45.0 sm2
m1 (5.00 × 10−3 kg)
F (0.225 N)
a2 = = = 22.2 sm2
m2 (10.0 × 10−3 kg)
Of course, the accelerations are in opposite directions.
(c) From the time that the string breaks to the time that we can say that the spheres are
“very far apart”, the only force that each one experiences is the force of electrical repulsion
(arising from the other sphere). This is a conservative force so that total mechanical energy
is conserved. It is also true that there are no external forces being exerted on the two–sphere
system. Then we know that the total (vector) momentum of the system is also conserved.
First, let’s deal with the condition of energy conservation. The total energy right after
the string is cut is just the potential energy found in part (a) since the spheres are not yet
in motion. So Einit = 0.225 J.
When the spheres are a long ways apart, there is no electrical potential energy, but
they are in motion with respective speeds vA and vB so there is kinetic energy at “large”
separation. Then energy conservation tells us:
1
m v2
2 A A
+ 21 mB vB2 = 0.225 J (4.18)
68 CHAPTER 4. THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Momentum conservation gives us the other equation that we need. If mass B has x–
velocity vB then mass A has x–velocity −vA (it moves in the other direction. The system
begins and ends with a total momentum of zero so then:
mA
−mA vA + mB vB = 0 =⇒ vB = vA
mB

Substitute this result into 4.18 and get:

!
m2A 2
1
m v2
2 A A
+ 1
m
2 B
v = 0.225 J
m2B A

Factor out vA2 on the left side and plug in some numbers:

m2 (5.00 g)2
! !
1
2
mA + A vA2 = 1
2
5.00 g + vA2 = (3.75 × 10−3 kg)vA2 = 0.225 J
mB (10.0 g)

So then we get the final speed of A:

0.225 J 2
vA2 = = 60.0 ms2 =⇒ vA = 7.75 ms
3.75 × 10 kg
−3

and the speed of B: !

mA 5.00 g
vB = vA = 7.75 ms = 3.87 ms
mB 10.0 g

14. Two electrons are fixed 2.0 cm apart. Another electron is shot from infinity
and stops midway between the two. What is its initial speed?

The problem is diagrammed in Fig. 4.9(a) and (b). Since the electrostatic force is a
conservative force, we know that energy is conserved between configurations (a) and (b).
In picture (a) there is energy stored in the repulsion of the pair of electrons as well as the
kinetic energy of the third electron. (Initially the third electron is too far away to “feel”
the first two electrons.) In picture (b) there is no kinetic energy but the electrical potential
energy has increased due to the repulsion between the third electron and the first two. If
we can calculate the change in potential energy ∆U then by using energy conservation,
∆U + ∆K = 0 we can find the initial speed of the electron.
The potential energy of a set of point charges (with V = 0 at ∞) is given in Eq. 4.14.
When the third electron comes from infinity and stops at the midpoint, the increase in
potential energy the contribution given by the third electron as it “sees” its new neighbors.
With r = 1.0 cm, this increase is

1 (−e)(−e) 1 (−e)(−e) e2
∆U = + =
4π0 r 4π0 r 2π0r
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 69

-e
v0
2.0 cm
-e
-e

(a)

-e
1.0 cm
-e v=0

-e

(b)
Figure 4.9: (a) Electron flies in from ∞ with speed v0 . (b) Electron comes to rest midway between the
other two electrons.

The change in kinetic energy is ∆K = − 21 mv02. Then energy conservation gives:

e2
∆K = −∆U =⇒ − 12 mv02 = −
2π0r
Solve for v0:

e2
v02 =
π0mr
(1.60 × 10−19 C)2 m2
= C2
= 1.01 × 105 s2
π(8.85 × 10−12 N·m2
)(9.11 × 10−31 kg)(1.0 × 10−2 m)

which gives
v0 = 3.18 × 102 m
s
70 CHAPTER 4. THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL