1.

Sections 1.2–1.3 Questions

Understanding Concepts
1. (a) What are the relationships among the number of protons,
number of neutrons, and number of electrons in an atom?
(b) Which of the numbers in (a) is/are related to the atomic
number?
(c) Which of the numbers in (a) is/are related to the mass number?
(d) If the atomic mass of an element is not the same as the mass
number of one atom of the element, what conclusions can
you draw about that element?
2. Construct a graphic organizer to indicate the relationships among
atomic number, mass number, atomic mass, isotopes, and
radioisotopes.
3. Two atoms respectively have Z = 12, A = 26 and Z = 14, A = 26.
(a) Can these two atoms be classified as isotopes of the same
element? Give reasons for your answer.
(b) Suggest an alternative classification for these atoms. Justify
your choice.
4. Isotopes are classified as radioisotopes because they demon-
strate the property of radioactivity. How does this property differ
from other properties that we have used to classify elements?

Applying Inquiry Skills

5. When a sample of uranium-238 decays, alpha particles are
emitted and the uranium nuclei are converted to thorium nuclei.
Thorium-234 has a half-life of 24.10 d.
(a) Plot a graph to predict the radioactive decay of 700.0 g of
thorium-234.
(b) Use your graph to determine how much time must pass
before only 24.0 g of the sample will remain as thorium-234.

Making Connections
6. (a) Give at least three examples of ways in which radioisotopes
are useful.
(b) Suggest at least two safety precautions that may be used
when handling radioisotopes.

1.4 Toward a Modern Atomic Theory

Rutherford’s model of the atom raised some difficult questions. If the nucleus of
an atom contained several positive protons that repelled each other, how did it
stay together? Why didn’t the negatively charged electrons rush toward and crash
into the positively charged nucleus? In response to the first question, Rutherford
suggested the idea of a nuclear force—an attractive force within the nucleus— Figure 1
Niels Bohr (1885–1962) developed a new
that was much stronger than the electrostatic force of repulsion. The answer to
theory of atomic structure and communicated
the second question—why the electrons did not fall in to be “captured” by the this theory with an innovative model of the
nucleus—required a bold new theory created by a young Danish physicist named atom. For this work he won the Nobel Prize
Niels Bohr (Figure 1). for Physics in 1922.

The Nature of Matter 37

energy level: a state with definite and According to Bohr’s theory, electrons within an atom can possess only cer-
fixed energy in which an electron is allowed tain discrete energies, called energy levels. Because of this, electron energy is said
to move to be quantized. Each energy level, Bohr proposed, is associated with a fixed dis-
orbit: a circular (spherical) path in which tance from the nucleus. (Later evidence showed that this is not entirely accurate.)
the electron can move around the nucleus In the Bohr model, an electron with a particular energy travels along a three-
transition: movement of an electron from dimensional pathway called a shell or orbit (Figure 2).
one energy level to another These shells are designated by the principal quantum number, n, which can
ground state: the lowest energy level be any positive integer from 1 to infinity. Historically, these shells have also been
that an electron can occupy designated by the symbols K, L, M, N, ... (Figure 3).
Note that all of these definitions are based
on Bohr’s theory, and so are theoretical.

DID YOU KNOW ?

Nobel Prizewinners nucleus
Bohr developed his ideas on electrons, energy, K L M N
n=1
and spectra from the work of Max Planck n=2
(1858–1947), who first suggested that energy n=3
n=4
is quantized. This earned Planck the 1918
Nobel Prize in physics. Bohr also made use of
Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect (the
change in energy of an atom as it absorbs or orbit, shell, or
emits a photon of light). This, not the theory of energy level
relativity, was the work for which Einstein
received the Nobel Prize in 1921! Figure 2 Figure 3
Since orbits are three-dimensional path- In the Bohr model of an atom, the shell
ways, they are often described as spher- closest to the nucleus is called the K shell. It
ical shells arranged concentrically about corresponds to the first energy level or orbit.
the nucleus of an atom. These orbits or energy levels are indicated by
a number: 1, 2, 3, 4, ... up to infinity.

energy Bohr’s theory depended on these assumptions:

• that an electron can travel indefinitely within an energy level without
losing energy;
• that the greater the distance between the nucleus of the atom and the
(a) An electron gains a energy level, the greater the energy required for an electron to travel in that
quantum of energy. energy level; and
• that an electron cannot exist between orbits, but can move to a higher,
energy unfilled orbit if it absorbs a specific quantity of energy, and to a lower,
unfilled orbit if it loses energy.
Bohr theorized that if additional energy is supplied to an electron in a given
energy level, then the electron can “jump” to a higher, unfilled energy level, far-
ther away from the nucleus (Figure 4). Bohr referred to this kind of jump as a
transition. The quantity of energy (a quantum) required to cause a transition is
equivalent to the difference in energy between the energy levels. When an elec-
tron drops back to a lower energy level, it releases an equivalent amount of
energy.
(b) An electron loses a
quantum of energy. When an electron is in the lowest energy level that it can occupy, it is said
to be in its ground state. Similarly, when all the electrons in an atom are in the
Figure 4 lowest possible energy levels, the atom is said to be in its ground state. In addi-
(a) Energy is absorbed as electrons rise to a tion, Bohr suggested that the properties of the elements could be explained by
higher energy level. the arrangement of electrons in orbits around the nucleus. For instance, Bohr
(b) Energy is released as electrons fall to a
lower energy level.

38 Chapter 1
 1.4

hypothesized that the stable, unreactive nature of certain elements was due to line spectrum: a pattern of distinct lines,
filled outermost energy levels. each of which corresponds to light of a single
The theory developed by Bohr was an attempt to explain empirical evidence wavelength, produced when light consisting
of only a few distinct wavelengths passes
obtained from experiments involving hydrogen. When hydrogen gas is heated, it
through a prism or spectroscope
emits a violet light. When this violet light is directed through a prism, it separates
continuous spectrum: the pattern of
into a series of coloured lines called a line spectrum. Hydrogen produces a line
colours observed when a narrow beam of
spectrum consisting of four visible lines: red, blue-green, indigo, and violet white light is passed through a prism or
(Figure 5), although the violet line may not always be visible. The same results spectroscope
can be obtained by passing electricity through a gaseous element at low pressure: Note that these are empirical definitions,
The gas will emit light of only certain wavelengths, which we can see as lines if based on observations.
the light is passed through a prism (Figure 6, page 40).
These observations contrast with what we see when we shine white light
through a glass prism or a spectroscope: In this case, we see a blended pattern of
colour or a continuous spectrum. The colours of the spectrum (plural: spectra)
always appear in the same order: violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and
finally red. A rainbow is an example of a continuous spectrum.
Bohr proposed the following explanation for the line spectrum of hydrogen:
When energy (heat or electricity) is supplied to hydrogen atoms, excited elec-
trons gain a certain quantity of energy. With this extra energy they jump from a
lower energy level to a higher energy level. As the electrons drop back to lower Figure 5
energy levels they release energy corresponding to a few precise wavelengths Each line in the spectrum corresponds to a
(Figure 5). Bohr’s theory was important because it explained both the stability of specific quantity of energy released as an
electrons in atoms and atomic emission spectra, and it enabled scientists to cal- electron falls back to the n = 2 energy level.

n=1
n=2
n=3 electrons falling from the electrons falling from the
n=4
n=5 fifth energy level to the third energy level to the
n=6
second emit indigo light second emit red light

electrons falling from the electrons falling from the

sixth energy level to the fourth energy level to the
second emit violet light second emit green light

The Nature of Matter 39

 + slits

Figure 6
When electricity is passed through a gaseous
element, the gas glows as it emits certain prism
wavelengths of light, which can be separated
to produce a line spectrum. The apparatus
may not show all the lines near the edges of gas at low
the visible spectrum. pressure
–

culate the actual energies of the different energy levels within the hydrogen atom.
However, Bohr’s theory was not able to explain the more complex spectra of
other elements.

INQUIRY SKILLS Investigation 1.4.1

Questioning Recording
Hypothesizing Analyzing
Atomic Spectra
Predicting Evaluating
Planning Communicating
Conducting
If the radiation produced by supplying energy to an unknown element is in the
visible range, we will see it as light. This light can be separated to produce a line
spectrum, which we can use to identify the element.
In this investigation you will observe, record, and compare the continuous
spectrum of white light as well as the line spectra of hydrogen and several
unknown elements. You will then identify the unknown elements by comparing
their observed line spectra with the published line spectra of several elements,
found in Appendix C. Complete the Analysis and Synthesis sections of the lab
report.

Question
What unknown substances are held in the gas discharge tubes?

Experimental Design
Different elements will be excited by passing electricity through gaseous samples
This investigation involves
the use of a high-voltage of each element. In each case, the spectrum produced will be observed with a
power supply. This power spectroscope (Figure 7) and compared with the continuous spectrum and with
supply should be operated line spectra of known elements.
by your teacher only.
Students should stand Materials
away from the gas tubes and
eye protection spectroscope
avoid viewing the tubes
directly in case dangerous incandescent light source power supply
ultraviolet radiation is (at least 40 W) hydrogen gas discharge tube
produced. fluorescent light source other gas discharge tubes

40 Chapter 1
 1.4

hand-held spectroscope

gas discharge tube

Figure 7
The line spectrum of an element is viewed
using a hand-held spectroscope. This kind of
spectroscope uses a diffraction grating rather
than a prism to separate the lines of the
power supply eye protection spectrum.

Procedure
1. Use the spectroscope to observe the fluorescent lights in the classroom.
Draw and label the spectrum.
2. Turn on the incandescent light and turn off all other lights in the
classroom.
3. Use the spectroscope to observe the incandescent light. Draw and label the
spectrum that you observe.
4. Connect the hydrogen tube to the power supply and turn off all other
lights.
5. Observe the spectrum produced when you pass the light from the
hydrogen tube through the spectroscope. Draw the spectrum, indicating
the colour of each observed line.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 using the gas tubes of unknown elements. If the pat-
terns are complex, note and record the differences in the number, colour,
and spacing of the lines.

Analysis
(a) Answer the Question by comparing the line spectra of the unknown sub-
stances in the gas discharge tubes with the line spectra in Appendix C.
What substances have the line spectra that you observed?

Synthesis
(b) How do the spectra of fluorescent and incandescent light sources compare?
What does this suggest about the light produced by each of the two
sources?
(c) Which elements produced the largest number of spectral lines? What does
this suggest about electron transitions?

The Nature of Matter 41

 Practice
Understanding Concepts
1. When a gas is heated, the gas will emit light. Explain why this phe-
nomenon occurs using the Bohr model of the atom.
2. What do the different colours in a line spectrum represent?
3. Why do different substances show different spectra?
4. Sodium vapour lamps emit a characteristic yellow light. What can we
deduce about sodium atoms, based on this observation?

Applications of Emission Spectra: Flame Tests

The coloured lights given off by neon signs, streetlights, signal flares, fireworks,
and even distant stars all result from excited electrons moving from higher to
lower energy levels in atoms. Each element has a unique emission spectrum, so
when elements are heated in a flame, they will give the flame a characteristic
colour. We can use this technique to identify elements even when they are parts
of compounds. We can also determine the amount of the element present by
measuring the intensity of the light emitted. This technique, called flame emis-
sion spectroscopy, is used in many situations, including analyzing and estab-
lishing the geographic origin of ancient pieces of pottery.

Activity 1.4.1
Creating a Flame Test Key
Some elements show one or more particularly prominent lines in their line
spectra. We can make use of this phenomenon to find out which metal is present
flame test: a diagnostic technique in in an unknown metallic compound. In this test, called a flame test, the unknown
which a metallic compound is placed in a sample is heated in a flame. The colour of the flame is observed and compared
flame and the colour produced is used to against a chart of known flame colours.
identify the metal in the compound Your aim in this activity is to observe, and create a key for, the colours pro-
duced when solutions of known metal compounds (mostly Group 1 and 2
metals) are heated to high temperature. You will be able to use this key to deter-
mine the identity of an unknown metallic compound. To establish this key, you
will draw samples of dissolved compounds from solids and solutions using a
wire, and then put the end of the wire into a flame.

Materials
apron
Hydrochloric acid is highly eye protection
corrosive and can burn the nichrome test wire
skin. Use caution in handling 2 test tubes
this substance, and use it
test-tube rack
only in a well-ventilated
area.
cobalt glass squares
Wear eye protection and laboratory burner
an apron throughout the hydrochloric acid, dilute, 5 mL
investigation. sodium chloride solution, 3 mL

42 Chapter 1
 1.4

samples of the following solids:

sodium chloride
sodium nitrate
calcium chloride
strontium chloride
lithium chloride
potassium chloride
copper(II) chloride

Procedure
1. Obtain your samples (the solids and 3 mL of the sodium chloride solution
in a small test tube) and the 5-mL hydrochloric acid solution (also in a
small test tube). Store the test tubes in a rack.
2. Light the laboratory burner and adjust it until it is burning with a blue
flame.
3. To clean the nichrome test wire, dip it in the hydrochloric acid, and then
hold the wire in the flame of the laboratory burner. Repeat the procedure
until the wire adds no colour to the flame.
4. Pick up a small amount of solid sodium nitrate with the wire loop. Hold
the end of the wire in the flame. Record your observations.
5. Clean the wire as in step 3.
6. Pick up a small sample of solid sodium chloride on the wire loop. Hold the
end of the wire in the flame for several seconds. Record your observations.
7. Clean the wire as in step 3.
8. Dip the nichrome test wire in the sodium chloride solution. Hold the end
of the wire in the flame and record your observations. DID YOU KNOW ?
9. Repeat step 4 with each of the solid samples, remembering to clean the Nichrome Wire
wire after each test. Record your observations. What properties would you need in a wire
that is going to be repeatedly heated and
10. Repeat the flame tests for potassium chloride and sodium chloride,
cooled, both wet and dry, and is going to hold
observing the results through cobalt glass. Record your results. materials in a flame so that you can observe
their emission spectra? The wire must have a
Analysis high melting point, be very unreactive, and
(a) Assemble your observations into an identification key that you could use as produce no emission spectrum itself (at least,
a quick reference. at the temperatures generally used in the
lab). The wire that offers these properties is
called nichrome. It is an alloy of almost 80%
Synthesis nickel and 20% chromium, with traces of sil-
(b) Compare the results of your flame tests for solid sodium nitrate, solid icon, manganese, and iron.
sodium chloride, and sodium chloride solution. What do these results
indicate?
(c) How did the results compare in testing potassium chloride and sodium
chloride with and without the cobalt glass? What purpose does the cobalt
glass serve?
(d) Figure 8 (page 44) shows the results of four flame tests. Using your identi-
fication key, identify the metal in each of the compounds.

The Nature of Matter 43

Figure 8
Results of flame tests for four solutions of
unknown metallic compounds

INQUIRY SKILLS Investigation 1.4.2

Questioning Recording Identifying an Unknown Metal in a Compound
Hypothesizing Analyzing
Predicting Evaluating with a Flame Test
Planning Communicating
Conducting The purpose of this investigation is to use the flame test key you created in
Activity 1.4.1 to identify the unknown metal in a compound provided by your
teacher.
You will create your own investigation. Complete a lab report that includes
the Question, an Experimental Design, Materials, a Procedure, Analysis, and an
Evaluation of the design.

Question
(a) Write your own Question, which you will attempt to answer in your
investigation.

Experimental Design
(b) Create an outline describing your experiment.
(c) Write a detailed Procedure, including any safety precautions, and have it
approved by your teacher.

Materials
unknown chloride
(d) Create a list of additional materials you will need to complete your
investigation.

44 Chapter 1
 1.4

Procedure
1. Carry out your Procedure.

Analysis
(e) Use the Evidence you gathered in your Procedure to answer your Question.

Evaluation
(f) How confident are you that your investigation produced a valid answer to
the Question? List some limitations of your Experimental Design, and sug-
gest some improvements.

Practice
Understanding Concepts
5. As far as we know, people from all cultures have been interested in
the stars. Modern astronomers use spectroscopy to analyze starlight.
What information would these observations provide?
6. According to the Bohr theory, what happens to an electron in an
atom as it absorbs energy and as it releases energy?
7. “Spectral lines are the fingerprints of elements.” Explain what is
meant by this statement.

Making Connections
8. When fireworks explode they produce a variety of colours.
(a) Provide an explanation for this observation, referring to emission
spectra and energy levels.
(b) Suggest compounds that could be used to produce several spe-
cific fireworks colours. Comment on any practical difficulties that
might result from your choices.
9. Using the Internet, research the detection and generation of elements
in stars and supernovas. Write a brief report, incorporating the results
of your research and commenting on the following hypothesis: All
elements are conglomerates of hydrogen (stated by William Prout,
1785–1850).
Follow the links for Nelson Chemistry 11, 1.4.
GO TO www.science.nelson.com

The Quantum Mechanical Theory

Bohr made significant contributions to our current understanding of atomic
structure, especially in establishing the concept of atomic energy levels. However,
his theory of the atom was limited in its ability to predict the line spectra of
atoms other than hydrogen, as well as to account for certain details of atomic
structure. These shortcomings resulted in intense investigation that led in the
1920s to our modern atomic theory, sometimes known as quantum mechanics
theory. A crucial steppingstone along the way was the development of quantum quantum mechanics: a theory of the
mechanics, which builds on the earlier idea that electrons within an atom can atom in which electrons are described in
possess only discrete quantities of energy. Quantum mechanics theory also terms of their energies and probability
patterns

The Nature of Matter 45

 principal quantum number (n): a retains the concept that electrons fill successive shells, each of which is designated
number specifying the theoretical energy by the principal quantum number (n).
level of an electron in an atom One important idea resulting from quantum mechanics, obtained by Werner
Heisenberg (1901–1976; famous for his Heisenberg uncertainty principle) in
electron cloud: the region of an atom in 1927, is that it is impossible to know precisely both the position and motion of
which electrons are most probably located an electron at the same time. Unlike Bohr’s theory, which describes electrons
travelling in spherical orbits at precise distances from the nucleus, quantum
mechanics describes electrons within atoms in terms of their energy and proba-
(a) bility patterns—that is, the probability of finding an electron of a specified
probability energy within a specific region of space about the nucleus. This region in space
density for an is called the electron cloud (Figure 9).
electron in a It turns out that to fully designate all possible energies and probability pat-
H atom
terns, we must modify the atomic model by subdividing each shell or orbit into
an increasing number of subshells as the principal quantum number increases
(Table 1). Just as there is a maximum number of electrons possible for each shell,
there is a maximum number possible for each subshell. In the case of hydrogen,
the subshells within any given shell are all equivalent in energy—the same energy
(b) as predicted by Bohr’s theory. For all other elements, the subshells within a given
shell have different energies. This concept becomes important in determining the
atomic structure and properties of elements within the periodic table. It also
accounts for the spectra of elements other than hydrogen (which Bohr’s theory
failed to do), since the emission lines result from electrons moving between levels
whose energies cannot be calculated solely from the value of n.

Table 1: Quantum Mechanical Features of the First Four Shells

n Symbol Number of Maximum number of Maximum number of
subshells electrons per shell electrons per subshell
1 K 1 2 (2)
2 L 2 8 (2 + 6)
Figure 9 3 M 3 18 (2 + 6 + 10)
(a) According to quantum mechanics, there is 4 N 4 32 (2 + 6 + 10 + 14)
a region around the nucleus of the atom
in which there is a high probability of
finding the electron (dark). This region is From his study of the periodic table, Bohr concluded that the maximum
often described as an electron cloud. In number of electrons that can populate a given shell can be calculated from the
every other area, the probability of
equation 2n2 (where n is the principal quantum number). According to this
finding the electron is low (light). The
motion of the electron is not known. equation, the first energy level could contain up to 2 × (1)2 or 2 electrons. The
(b) Similarly, as the blades of a fan rotate second energy level could contain up to 2 × (2)2 or 8 electrons, while the third
rapidly, the position and motion of an energy level could contain up to 2 × (3)2 or 18 electrons. According to this
individual blade at any instant are restricted theory, the 17 electrons of an atom of chlorine in the ground state
unknown. would be distributed among three shells. The first shell would be filled with 2 of
the 17 electrons. The second, or next highest, shell would be filled with 8 elec-
trons. Finally, with both the first and the second shells filled, the remaining 7
electrons would occupy the third shell. The electrons in the highest occupied
valence electrons: those electrons that energy level are called valence electrons.
occupy the highest shell of an atom and are
used by the atom to form chemical bonds
(theoretical definition) Sample Problem
(a) How many electrons would be in each shell of a fluorine atom?
(b) How many valence electrons does fluorine have?

46 Chapter 1
 1.4

Solution
(a) Fluorine has atomic number 9, so will have 9 electrons: 2 in the first energy
level and 7 in the second.
(b) 7

Notice that the first shell has space for two electrons, and there are two ele-
ments in the first period of the periodic table: hydrogen and helium. The second
shell has space for eight electrons, and there are eight elements in Period 2 (Li
through Ne). The 2n2 rule tells us that the n = 3 shell can contain a maximum of
18 electrons, so on the basis of Bohr’s theory we might expect there to be 18 ele-
ments in Period 3. In fact, there are only 8 elements in Period 3 (elements Na
through Ar). Why is this? Remember that quantum mechanics theory tells us
that the third shell is split into three subshells, each of which has a different
energy. The outermost (highest energy) subshell is very close in energy to the
first subshell of the next shell (n = 4). Experimental measurements show that,
once there are 8 electrons in the third shell, the fourth shell is used (in elements
K and Ca) before electrons are added to fill up the third shell. Similar effects are
also observed in subsequent periods.
According to Bohr’s theory, there is a pattern linking electron arrangements
to the periodic table for the representative elements:
• for the elements in Groups 1 and 2, the number of valence electrons corre-
sponds to the group number;
• in Groups 13 to 18, the number of valence electrons corresponds to the
second digit of the group number. For example, fluorine is found in Group
17 (VIIA) of the periodic table: It contains 7 valence electrons. Both chlo-
rine and fluorine are halogens and have 7 valence electrons. You already
know that the halogens share similar physical and chemical properties,
which allows them to be placed together in the same chemical group.
In general, representative elements in the same chemical group share not
only properties but also the same number of valence electrons—a powerful indi-
cator of the relationship between electron arrangement and periodic trends.

Practice
Understanding Concepts
10. What are valence electrons, and what is their significance?
11. Which two key ideas from previous atomic theories are retained by
the theory of quantum mechanics?
12. Use the periodic table and theoretical rules to predict the number of
occupied energy levels and the number of valence electrons in each
of the following atoms:
(a) beryllium
(b) chlorine
(c) krypton
(d) iodine
(e) lead
(f) arsenic
(g) cesium

The Nature of Matter 47

 Section 1.4 Questions
Understanding Concepts
1. By custom, hydrogen is put at the top of Group 1 in the periodic
table. There are other places it could go. Suggest one other place,
using the concepts of periodicity and atomic structure to justify
your answer.
2. (a) Copy and complete Table 2, using your knowledge of atomic
theory and the periodic table.

Table 2: Electron Structure of Selected Elements

Element Number of Number of Number of
electrons occupied shells valence
electrons
oxygen ? ? ?
sulfur ? ? ?
magnesium ? ? ?
sodium ? ? ?
beryllium ? ? ?
calcium ? ? ?
cesium ? ? ?
nitrogen ? ? ?
chlorine ? ? ?
lithium ? ? ?
helium ? ? ?
bromine ? ? ?
phosphorus ? ? ?
fluorine ? ? ?
potassium ? ? ?

(b) Classify the elements in Table 2 into groups according to the

number of valence electrons.
(c) What common chemical and physical properties would you
expect each of the different groups to exhibit?

1.5 Trends in the Periodic Table

Elements within a group have the same number and distribution of valence elec-
trons, so we might expect them to exhibit the same chemical behaviour. Based
only on electron distribution, we would expect lithium and sodium, for example,
to behave in very much the same way. There are indeed similarities, but chemical
and physical properties of elements within groups are not identical. Instead, we
can see that there are variations, or trends, within each group. A property will
increase or decrease within a group as the atomic number increases. Why is that?
And is the change regular, or unpredictable?
While the periodic table helps us to understand the elements, it also raises
many questions: Why do the properties of elements vary across the periodic

48 Chapter 1