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Physicochemical and Antioxidant
Characteristics of Kapok (Ceiba pentandra
Gaertn.) Seed Oil
Article in Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society · March 2014
DOI: 10.1007/s11746-014-2445-y
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J Am Oil Chem Soc (2014) 91:1047–1054
DOI 10.1007/s11746-014-2445-y
ORIGINAL PAPER
Physicochemical and Antioxidant Characteristics of Kapok (Ceiba
pentandra Gaertn.) Seed Oil
Farooq Anwar • Umer Rashid • Shaukat Ali Shahid •
Muhammad Nadeem
Received: 28 August 2013 / Revised: 22 February 2014 / Accepted: 28 February 2014 / Published online: 14 March 2014
Ó AOCS 2014
Abstract In view of the growing demand for vegetable such as malvalic acid (9.1 %) and sterculic acid (2.8 %)
oils and fats, currently exploration of some under-utilized was also detected. The FA composition of the tested oil
and non-conventional oil seed crops is of great concern. was further verified by recording FTIR and NMR spectra.
This work presents data on the detailed physicochemical Among the oil phytosterols, analyzed by GC/GC–MS, b-
and antioxidant attributes of kapok (Ceiba pentandra Ga- sitosterol was found to be the principal component whereas
ertn.) seed oil. The kapok seeds contained an appreciable RP-HPLC analysis showed the occurrence of c-tocopherol
amount of oil (27.5 %), protein (35.0 %) and fiber (550 mg/kg) as the major tocopherol along with consider-
(19.0 %). The extracted kapok seed oil (KSO) had an able amount of a-tocopherol (91 mg/kg) and d-tocopherol
iodine value of 101.8 g of I2/100 g of oil, a saponification (5.52 mg/kg). It can be concluded from the results of this
value of 187 mg of KOH/g of oil), and unsaponifiable comprehensive study that under-utilized kapok seeds are a
matter 0.83 %. KSO also showed a good oxidation state as potential feed stock for the production of a useful oil for
indicated by the measurements of the peroxide value, edible and/or oleochemical applications.
conjugated dienes, conjugated trienes, para-anisidine and
the induction period (Rancimat method). The tested oil Keywords Kapok oil Physicochemical attributes
showed a considerable amount of total phenolics (2.50 mg/ Induction period Linoleic acid FTIR HPLC NMR
100 g) and an appreciable free radical scavenging capacity. Phenolics Phytosterols Tocopherols
Gas liquid chromatographic analysis of fatty acids (FA)
reveals that KSO mainly has linoleic acid (33.6 %) fol-
lowed by oleic acid (23.4 %) and palmitic acid (22.4 %). Introduction
Besides, a notable amount of cyclopropenoid fatty acids
The uses of vegetable oils and fats are widely expanding
for several food and non-food (oleochemicals) applica-
F. Anwar (&) tions. As a result, the demand for vegetable oils is globally
Department of Chemistry, University of Sargodha, increasing with the current world’s requirement estimated
Sargodha 40100, Pakistan
to be as high as 143 million tons per annum. There are
e-mail: [email protected]
many conventional and non-conventional vegetable oil
U. Rashid sources in use but due to growing demand that need still
Institute of Advanced Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, exists for exploring more and under-utilized oil resources
43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
[1, 2].
S. A. Shahid Extensive work has been carried out in recent years on
Department of Physics, University of Agriculture, the investigation of physicochemical and nutritional attri-
Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan butes of vegetable oils produced from some newer and
under-utilized resources so as to ascertain their specific
M. Nadeem
Subsurface Technology Division, Petronas Research Sdn Bhd. oleo-chemical and/or food applications. For example,
(PRSB), 43300 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia Cerchiara et al. [3] evaluated potential uses of Spanish
123
1048 J Am Oil Chem Soc (2014) 91:1047–1054
Broom (Spartium junceum L.) seed oil by analyzing its a comprehensive study has been previously reported in the
physico-chemical properties. Nehdi [4], investigated the literature on this potential seed oil crop.
nutritional characteristics of Washingtonia filifera (Linden
ex André) H. Wendl. seed and seed oil. Physico-chemical
characterization of apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) seed oils Materials and Methods
revealed the tested oils to be good for edible uses [5]. In
another study by Anwar et al. [6], the citrus fruit seed oils Procurement of Seeds, Reagents/Standards
were characterized for physicochemical properties and the
profile of tocopherols and fatty acids, using spectroscopic Fully matured kapok pods/fruits were obtained through
and chromatographic methods, and they were found to be local agricultural resources in Kuala Kangsar, Perak,
potentially suitable for edible uses. Similarly, Parry et al. Malaysia. Three different fruit seed samples (derived from
[7] investigated the fatty acids profile and antioxidant three different localities), using random sampling design,
properties of cold-pressed berries fruit seed oils to assess were harvested from the vicinity of Kuala Kangsar town
their suitability as potential candidates for edible com- located in the downstream part of Kangsar River, Perak.
mercial applications. The seeds were manually separated from the pods.
Kapok (Ceiba pentandra Gaertn.), a plant from the All the chemicals and reagents used in this work were
family Bombacaceae, and a native of tropical America and from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany) or Sigma Aldrich
West Africa, is now widely distributed in several Asian (Buchs, Switzerland). Folin–Ciocalteu’s phenol regent
regions such as Western India, Pakistan, Malaysia, Viet- (2 N) and standard of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
nam, Indonesia, and Philippines [8, 9]. The commercial (DPPH) free radicals were from Merck (Darmstadt, Ger-
tree species is mostly cultivated in the rainforests of Asia, many). Pure standards of tocopherols, phytosterols, and
especially in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, China and fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) and Gallic acid used in the
South America [8, 9]. Though kapok is the mostly used present experiments were obtained from Sigma Chemical
name, the tree is also known by several other names in Co. (St. Louis, MO).
different regions, for example, kabu (Javanese), white-silk
cotton (Latin America), and nun (Siamese) [10, 11]. Kapok Seed Oil Extraction
Malaysian kapok, locally known as kekabu, is usually
found in northern parts of Peninsular Malaysia. This trop- The seeds were crushed using a coffee grinder; the material
ical tree is famous among Malay, especially in rural areas that passed through a 100-mesh sieve used for extraction
[11]. Some ethno-medicinal uses of this tree have also been purposes. The ground material was extracted with n-hexane
reported in the literature, for example, the bark decoction for 6 h to yield oil using a Soxholet apparatus operated on a
has been used as an aphrodisiac, diuretic, and to treat heating mantle. The crude oil was recovered after distill-
headaches as well as type II diabetes [12]. ing-off the excess solvent (hexane) under a vacuum using a
Kapok fruits (pods) are capsule shaped and contain rotary evaporator.
seeds surrounded by a fluffy, yellowish fiber made up of a
mixture of lignin and cellulose. Kapok fruit-derived fiber Analysis of Oilseed Residues for Protein, Fiber and Ash
has been used for centuries to stuff pillows, life jackets, and
cushions [9]. Kapok seeds, brownish black in color, which The seed oil residues, produced after oil removal, were
are imbedded in masses of lint, occupy about 25–28 % (wt/ tested for fiber, protein, and ash contents. The amount of
wt) of each fruit. These seeds, although usually being protein (N 9 6.25) was calculated according to method of
discarded as agro-waste, have an appreciable amount of oil, Association of Official Analytical Chemists method 954.01
ranging between 20 and 25 %. According to some pre- [16] using a Kjeldahl apparatus. The content of fiber was
liminary reports the basic properties of kapok seed oil estimated by ISO method 5983 [17] while that of ash by
(KSO) are quite comparable with cottonseed oil [12–15], ISO method 749 [18].
however, these studies did not evaluate detailed physico-
chemical and nutritional attributes of KSO using modern Physical and Chemical Parameters of Oil
spectroscopic and chromatographic techniques. Therefore,
this comprehensive study was undertaken with the main The physicochemical traits including those of density, refrac-
objective of characterizing KSO for the quality-oriented tive index (RI), iodine value (IV), saponification number (SN),
physico-chemical parameters as well as for the important peroxides value, acidity, and unsaponifiable matter (UM) of
nutritional and bioactive components such as fatty acids, the subject oil were measured according to AOCS official
tocopherols, phenolics, and phytosterols using state-of-the methods [19]. The color of the oil was tested by a Tintometer
art chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques. No such (Lovibond, UK), in a 1-in. cell. The magnitude of conjugated
123
J Am Oil Chem Soc (2014) 91:1047–1054 1049
dienes and conjugated trienes, in terms of specific extinction as Wrolstad [23] and analyzed using an HPLC machine. For
e11 %
cm (k) at 232 and 270 nm, respectively, of the test oil were separation purposes, about twenty microliters of the pre-
assessed following an IUPAC method II D.23 [20]. For this pared sample was injected into a Supelcosil LC Si column
measurement, the absorbance, of the oil sample dissolved in (250 9 4.6 mm). A mobile phase solvent, containing a
iso-octane, was taken at 232 and 270 nm using a spectropho- mixture of hexane/ethyl acetate/acetic acid (98:1:1, v/v/v),
tometer. The induction period (IP), a good indicator of oxi- was employed for elution purposes (flow rate 1.5 mL/min).
dative stability and shelf-life of lipids, was determined using a Tocopherols were detected at wavelength of 295 nm and
Model 743 Metrohm Rancimat, operated automatically. identified based upon comparison of their retention times
Briefly, test portions of oil (2.5 g) in duplicate, were placed in with those of pure standards. Quantification was done
glass reaction vessels and analyzed at 120 °C while in an air based upon an external standard method using a D-2500
flow rate of 20 L/h. The IP were automatically recorded by the Hitachi Chromatointegrator model with a built-in data
Rancimat machine corresponding to the break point of the handling computer program.
plotted curves [21].
Phytosterols of Oil
Gas Liquid Chromatographic Analysis of Oil Fatty
Acids The phytosterols composition of the oil was studied fol-
lowing the method as described in one of our recent pub-
The oil samples were converted into FAME by solubilizing lications [24]. The oil was saponified with methanolic
the oil (50 lL) in 950 lL of n-hexane followed by KOH and the unsaponifiable materials extracted with die-
transesterification using sodium methoxide in Teflon-cap- thyl ether. The sterol fractions were analyzed as silyl
ped test tube [22]. The FAME produced were analyzed by a (Sylon BTZ) derivatives using GC–FID and further
Gas Chromatograph (Hewlett-Packard 6890) equipped authenticated by GC–MS [24].
with a flame ionization detector and a fused silica capillary
BPX-70 column (60 m 9 0.32 mm; 0.25 lm film thick- Total Phenolics and DPPH Free Radical Scavenging
ness). The initial column oven temperature was set at Activity of Oil
115 °C, raised to 180 °C at 8 °C/min, held for 10 min and
then raised to 240 °C at 8 °C/min, and finally held for For estimation of TP and DPPH free radical scavenging
10 min. A 1-lL sample of FAME was injected into the activity, the extractable components from the oil were
column using the split mode. Helium was used as the recovered using aqueous methanol (80:20 v/v) [7] and then
carrier gas at a flow rate of 1.5 mL/min. The unknown analyzed for TP and DPPH free radical activity following
FAME were identified on the basis of the comparison of the method as described in one of our recent publications
their retention times with those of pure standards and were [25].
quantified using data handling software and reported as
relative percentages of the total peak area. Statistical Measurement
Fourier Transform Infrared and Nuclear Magnetic All the measurements were performed in triplicate and the
Resonance Spectroscopic Analysis of Oil data were reported as means followed by the standard
deviations.
An Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)-ATR spectrum of
kapok oil was also recorded by taking a droplet of the
respective sample using an FTIR-ATR sample holder. Results and Discussion
FTIR-ATR spectra were recorded by scanning (averaging
10 scans) between 350 and 6,000 cm-1 wavelength with Proximate Composition of Seeds
resolution adjusted at 2 cm-1. A background spectrum was
also recorded. The 1H- and 13C-nuclear magnetic resonance The proximate analysis of kapok seeds as given in Table 1
(NMR) spectra of KSO were recorded on a Bruker (Bille- reveals the oil content of the seeds to be 27.5 % (wet
rica, MA) Avance 300 spectrometer operating at 300 MHz basis). The oil yield determined in the present investigation
(1H NMR) or 125 (13C NMR) with CDCl3 as solvent. of kapok seeds is quite close to that given in the literature
for this species. According to Salimon and Kadir [15]
Tocopherols of Oil kapok seeds have about 25 % crude lipids based upon the
method of extraction. In agreement with the present data,
For the analysis of tocopherol compounds (a, c, and d), the previously, Berry [14] reported the oil content in Malaysian
oil samples were prepared as per the method described by kapok seeds to be 28 %. The oil yield from kapok seeds,
123
1050 J Am Oil Chem Soc (2014) 91:1047–1054
Table 1 Proximate composition of kapok seeds Table 3 Oxidation state of kapok seed oil
Constituents % Parameters Value
Oil 27.5 ± 0.5 Peroxide value (mequiv/kg of oil) 3.50 ± 0.12
Ash 8.2 ± 0.9 Para-anisidine value 4.12 ± 0.15
Protein 35.0 ± 0.5 Conjugated dienes 1.89 ± 0.05
Moisture 4.1 ± 0.5 Conjugated trienes 0.86 ± 0.10
Fiber 19.0 ± 0.7 Induction period (h) 4.10 ± 0.10
Values are means ± SD of three different seed samples analyzed Values are means ± SD of three different seed oil samples analyzed
independently in triplicate (n = 3 9 3) independently in triplicate (n = 3 9 3)
Table 2 Some physical and chemical quality attributes of kapok seed Table 4 Tocopherols composition, total phenolics and DPPH radical
oil scavenging capacity of kapok seed oil
Quality attribute Value Constituent Value
Free fatty acid (% as oleic acid) 0.80 ± 0.10 a-tocopherol (mg/kg) 91.00 ± 3.20
Iodine value (g of I2/100 g of oil) 101.7 ± 2.0 c-tocopherol (mg/kg) 550.0 ± 15.6
Density (24 °C, mg/mL) 0.91 ± 0.02 d-tocopherol (mg/kg) 5.52 ± 0.20
Refractive index (40 °C) 1.4660 ± 0.002 Total tocopherols (mg/kg) 646.00 ± 15.0
Saponification value (mg of KOH/g of oil) 186.9 ± 3.0 Total phenolic contents (mg/100 g) 2.50 ± 0.10
Unsaponifiable mater (%) 0.63 ± 0.05 DPPH radical scavenging (IC50; mg/mL) 11.52 ± 0.90
Values are means ± SD of three different seed oil samples analyzed Values are means ± SD of three different seed oil samples analyzed
independently in triplicate (n = 3 9 3) independently in triplicate (n = 3 9 3)
when compared with some common oil seed crops, is The IV, which is an indicator of the degree of unsatu-
higher than from cotton, soybean, and corn [26] and thus ration of an oil/lipid, for the tested oil is 101.7 (g of I2/100 g
provokes the need to explore the under-utilized seeds of of oil) indicating that the oil contains significant amounts of
this species as a potential source of oil for commercial unsaturated fatty acids. The values of RI (1.4660) at 40 °C
applications. and density (0.91 mg/mL) at 24 °C, which elucidate some
Meanwhile, the kapok seed protein (35.0 %) and mois- purity related features of vegetable oils, of KSO, are quite
ture (4.1 %) contents determined in the present study were comparable to those investigated for most of the common
also in agreement to those reported in the literature for this vegetable oils reported in the literature [27]. The saponifi-
species [14]. In view of the proximate analysis data, it cation value and unsaponifiable contents were found to be
seems that the oil seed residue from kapok seeds (after oil 186.9 mg of KOH/g of oil and 0.63 %, respectively. SN,
removal) can be potentially used as a source of vegetable which mainly depends upon the carbon chain length of the
protein in poultry and animals feed production, subject to oil fatty acids, predicts the potential of oil for soap making
detoxification, if needed. while UM is representative of those minor components of
oil which could not be saponified with alkali under the
Physicochemical Composition of Kapok Seed Oil specified reaction conditions.
Some important quality-related properties of KSO are Oxidation State of Oil
presented in Table 2. The content of free fatty acids (FFA),
which are mainly the product of chemical or enzymatic The results regarding the oxidation status of the tested oil
(lipase) hydrolysis, was quite low (0.80 %) indicating that are depicted in Table 3. The peroxide value (an indicator of
the seeds were in a good state. Storage of seeds under products of primary oxidation) and para-anisidine value (an
unfavorable conditions may lead to an increase in FFA of indicator of aldehydic products of oxidation in oil) were
the oil. Generally, the amount of FFA in most of the freshly quite low: 3.50 mequiv/kg of oil and 4.12, respectively. The
extracted crude vegetable oils, with few exceptions, is levels of conjugated dienes and trienes were also low. This
below 1.0 %. The higher the amount of FFA is, the greater indicates that oil is in good oxidation state and has been
is the possibility of economic loss of oil during the refining extracted from healthy and good seeds (not damaged and/or
process. In the oil industry, FFA are removed during a exposed to unfavorable conditions). Presence of these oxi-
process known as refining, wherein, these products are dation products in oil can be linked with the development of
neutralized using an alkaline (NaOH) solution [27]. rancid and off flavors/odors and loss of nutritive quality [27,
123
J Am Oil Chem Soc (2014) 91:1047–1054 1051
Fig. 1 GLC chromatogram
showing the separation of fatty
acids of kapok seed oil
28]. Similarly, the IP (a parameter that predicts the oxida-
Table 5 Fatty acid composition of kapok seed oil
tive stability of oils and fats) of the tested oil, is quite high,
4.10 h. The IP was automatically recorded by a Rancimat Fatty acid Retention time (min) g/100 g of fatty acid
apparatus and corresponded to the break points of the
Palmitic acid 5.89 22.37 ± 0.50
recorded curves. The greater the IP, the greater will be the
Stearic acid 8.00 3.80 ± 0.12
oxidative stability of the oil or fat [21].
Malvalic acid 8.13 9.14 ± 0.10
Oleic acid 8.44 23.24 ± 0.41
Tocopherols Composition, TP and DPPH Radical
Linoleic acid 9.23 33.63 ± 0.50
Scavenging Activity of Oil
Sterculic acid 9.65 2.58 ± 0.15
Behenic acid 12.96 0.46 ± 0.05
Table 4 presents data regarding the tocopherol composi-
tion, TP contents and the DPPH radical scavenging Values are means ± SD of three different seed oil samples analyzed
capacity of the oil analyzed. The oil mainly contained c- independently in triplicate (n = 3 9 3)
tocopherol (550.0 mg/kg) along with a considerable
amount of a-tocopherol 91.0 mg/kg. A small amount of d- that of the d-component has potent antioxidant efficacy.
tocopherol (5.5 mg/kg) was also detected. When compared The composition of tocopherols, except, the d-isomer, in
with some other vegetable oils, the total tocopherols con- the present analysis of KSO, is quite comparable with that
tent of KSO (646 mg/kg) was noted as being considerably reported by Pusod et al. [29] for this species.
higher than coconut oil (tr-33) and noted to be within the The contribution of TP at level of 2.50 mg/100 g and a
range of cotton seed oil (410–1,169), groundnut oil DPPH free radical scavenging capacity of 11.52 (IC50) was
(176–696), sunflower oil (447–900) and low erucic acid found in the tested kapok oil (Table 4). These antioxidant
rapeseed oil (424–1,054) while it is close to that of palm oil activity-related data are not only in agreement with a recent
(average 630, range 98–1,327) [27]. The occurrence of c- report on this oil [29], but also the present level of TP is in
tocopherol as a principal component in the tested KSO is in line with some other oils such as sesame oil [25] and
line with those of some common seed oils such as cotton Moringa oleifera seed oil [30]. Recently, in view of the
(158–594), soybean (409–2,397), maize (268–2,468), low functional food benefits of oils, assessment of phenolics
erucic acid rapeseed (278–753) and groundnut (99–389) and antioxidant activity of vegetable oils is gaining rec-
oils which also contain this compound as the major ognition with regard to understanding their nutritional
tocopherol among others [27]. value [7, 25, 30].
Tocopherols are regarded as one of the most valuable
minor components present in vegetable oil because of their FA Composition of Oil
antioxidant activity. These compounds are naturally pres-
ent in vegetable seeds and are extracted along with the oils, The data regarding the fatty acid composition of the tested
however, their concentration may be reduced during pro- oil analyzed by GLC (Fig 1) are given in Table 5. This
cesses such as refining, bleaching and deodorization of oils analysis reveals the presence of mainly C18:2 (33.6 %)
[28]. a-Tocopherol has mainly vitamin E activity while followed by C18:1 (23.2 %) and C16:0 (22.4 %). In
123
1052 J Am Oil Chem Soc (2014) 91:1047–1054
Fig. 2 FTIR spectrum of kapok 99.5
seed oil
95
90
1377.65
85
1464.41 722.08
80
%T
75
70
2853.85 1160.33
65
2923.09 1743.94
60
58.3
4000.0 3600 3200 2800 2400 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 650.0
cm-1
addition, a considerable amount of cyclopropenoid fatty
acids including malvalic acid (9.14 %) and sterculic acid
(2.50 %), which are characteristics of the oils of this spe-
cies, was also detected. The presence of the cyclic fatty
acids in KSO is questionable from the view-point of
nutritionists due to their side effects and thus advocates the
deactivation of such compounds via hydrogenation and
deodorization before utilization as dietary ingredients for
human consumption [14, 15]. The present concentration of
major fatty acids of the kapok oil is in accord with the
literature reports on this oil [14, 15].
A FTIR spectrum of KSO is depicted in Fig. 2. The
spectrum shows the typical features of absorption bands
corresponding to common triglyceride molecules. The
asymmetrical and symmetrical stretching vibration of
methylene (–CH2) show significant absorption at 2,923 and
2,853 cm-1, respectively. Another noticeable peak (C=O
stretch) at 1,743 cm-1 can be related to the absorption due
to the ester carbonyl functional group of the triglycerides
present. At 1,454 and 1,377 cm-1 is depicted the bending
vibrations of the CH2 and CH3 aliphatic group and bending
vibration of CH2 group, respectively. Peaks around
1,160 cm-1 may be linked to the C–O stretching, while
peaks around 722 cm-1 may be due to the overlapping of
the methylene (–CH2) rocking vibration and to the out of
plane vibration of cis-disubstituted olefins.
1
H-NMR and 13C-NMR spectra of KSO are recorded
and presented as Fig. 3a, b, respectively. In case of 1H-
NMR spectrum, the signal at d 5.2–5.4 corresponds to total
olefinic protons (–CH=CH–) of unsaturated fatty acids. The
peak area from d 4.1–4.3 indicates the occurrence of four
protons of the glycerol backbone of the oil, the signal
almost at d 2.3 is due to the protons on the second carbon in
the fatty acid chain, the signal near to d 2.0 is due to the Fig. 3 a 1H-NMR spectrum of kapok seed oil, b 13C-NMR spectrum
allylic methylene protons of all unsaturated fatty acids, the of kapok seed oil
123
J Am Oil Chem Soc (2014) 91:1047–1054 1053
Table 6 Sterols composition of kapok seed oil nutritional attributes using state-of-the art spectroscopic
Sterol g/100 g of sterols
and chromatographic as well as other wet chemical anal-
yses. The tested oil mainly has unsaturated fatty acids
Stigmasterol 2.00 ± 0.22 namely C18:2 (linoleic acid) and C18:1 (oleic acid) with
Cholesterol 1.50 ± 0.10 potential health benefits. On the other hand, due to the
Campesterol 9.92 ± 0.71 occurrence of considerable amount of cyclic fatty acids the
b-Sitosterol 75.00 ± 1.28 oils can also be potentially explored for oleo-chemicals
d-7-stigmastenol 1.50 ± 0.10 applications. The oil has also shown good oxidation state
d-7-avenasterol 2.81 ± 0.10 which might have been attributed to the presence of
d-5-avenasterol 3.76 ± 0.35 appreciable amount of tocopherols and phenolics with
Othersa 2.00 ± 0.15 antioxidant activity. The oil phytosterols composition is
Values are means ± SD of three different seed oil samples analyzed
also valuable in terms of their positive correlation with
independently in triplicate (n = 3 9 3) health. The present data advocate the potential use of this
a
Some unidentified phytosterol components oil as a feed stock for the edible and/or oleochemical
industries.
peak at d 1.6 is due to methylene protons, whereas the
signal at d 0.8 indicates the terminal methyl proton peak.
In case of the 13C-NMR spectrum, the signal at
*14 ppm is related to the terminal methyl carbon, the References
signal at *22.5 ppm represents the second carbon from the
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Aceites 63:193–201
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several common vegetable oils which also contain this berry seed oils. J Agric Food Chem 53:566–573
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