GAPS Guidelines GAP.14.1.2.

A Publication of Global Asset Protection Services LLC

HYDRAULIC GRADIENT

INTRODUCTION
A hydraulic gradient or pressure gradient is a graphic representation of the residual pressure at
selected points along the length of a pipe through which water is flowing at a constant rate.
The flow of water through a pipe is governed by natural physical laws. Its pressure drop under a specific
set of conditions, such as type, age and size of pipe, and rate of flow, can be predicted. Occasionally, the
flow does not follow the prediction, and it becomes necessary to determine where the actual pressure drop
differs from that expected. A hydraulic gradient is one of the most useful tools for analyzing such
situations.

POSITION
Obtain hydraulic gradient test data when it is necessary to pinpoint where excessive pressure losses are
occurring.

DISCUSSION
If water is discharged from a point on an underground main, the residual pressure is progressively
lower as the discharge point is approached. This is a result of the cumulative friction loss through the
pipe and fittings. In other words, a certain amount of energy is lost in the pipe overcoming the
resistance to flow due to friction. Pressure measurements are obtained during a hydraulic gradient test
as follows:
• Calibrated gauges are attached at convenient points along the pipe, such as hydrants and
sprinkler system risers. The more points that are used, the more detailed the analysis and the
easier it is to pinpoint problems.
• The static pressure at each test point is read and recorded.
• Water is discharged from a hydrant near the end of the line, preferably through Underwriters’
playpipes, and accurate pitot readings are taken. The flow corresponding to these pitot readings is
obtained from appropriate hydraulic tables and recorded. See GAP.14.1.2.1.2 A, hydraulic
calculator.
• While the water is flowing, the residual pressure at each test point is read and recorded.
When the residual pressure at various points along the underground pipe is measured and plotted
against the corresponding equivalent length of piping producing the friction, the resulting graph is
known as a hydraulic gradient.

100 Constitution Plaza, Hartford, Connecticut 06103 Copyright 2015, Global Asset Protection Services LLC

Global Asset Protection Services LLC and its affiliated organizations provide loss prevention surveys and other risk management, business continuity and facility asset
management services. Unless otherwise stated in writing, our personnel, publications, services, and surveys do not address life safety or third party liability issues. The
provision of any service is not meant to imply that every possible hazard has been identified at a facility or that no other hazards exist. Global Asset Protection Services LLC
and its affiliated organizations do not assume, and shall have no liability for the control, correction, continuation or modification of any existing conditions or operations. We
specifically disclaim any warranty or representation that compliance with any advice or recommendation in any document or other communication will make a facility or
operation safe or healthful, or put it in compliance with any law, rule or regulation. If there are any questions concerning any recommendations, or if you have alternative
solutions, please contact us.
 GAP.14.1.2.4

Figure 1. Diagram Of Physical Layout Of Facility Showing Locations Where Pressure Readings Are Taken.

Example
Figure 1 shows the physical layout of a section of underground main feeding several hydrants and
sprinkler systems. All reference points are at the same elevation with the exception of Point “A,” which
is approximately 14 ft (4.3 m) lower than the others. It is suspected flow is restricted between reference
points “A” and “F.” The static pressure readings are taken from gauges on the devices that are
attached to the underground main at the various reference points being investigated. Recorded
pressure readings are shown in Table 1. Water is then discharged from the hydrant at point “G” and
the flow is calculated. While the water is flowing, residual readings are read and recorded.
The distance between each reference point is the actual length of pipe plus equivalent lengths of pipe
for the fittings and valves between the points. Use Table 2 for these equivalent lengths, corrected to
the appropriate C-Factor. Use Table 3 to determine the equivalent lengths for fire service meters at
various flows, corrected to the appropriate C-Factor.

TABLE 1
Static And Residual Pressures At Each Reference Point
Reference Point Static Pressure (psi) Residual Pressure (psi)
“A” 90 75
“B” 84 63
“C” 84 55
“D” 84 35
“E” 84 29
“F” 84 26
SI Units: 1 psi = 0.689 bar

TABLE 2
Equivalent Lengths of Fittings in ft For C=120
Size of Fitting (in.)
Type of Fitting 4 6 8 10 12
90° Elbow 10 14 18 22 27
90° Long Turn Elbow 06 09 13 16 18
45° Elbow 04 07 09 11 13
Side Tee 20 30 35 50 60
Gate Valve 02 03 04 05 06
Swing Check 22 32 45 55 65
SI Units: 1 ft = 0.3048 m; 1 in. = 25.4 mm

GAPS Guidelines
2 A Publication of Global Asset Protection Services LLC
 GAP.14.1.2.4

TABLE 3
Equivalent Lengths of Fire Flow Meters in Feet For C=120
Flow (gpm)
Type of Meter 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 2000 2500
04 in. Hersey 111 26 26
06 in. Hersey 407 276 68 51 41 39 30
08 in. Hersey 4285 1423 352 109 57 41 39 43
10 in. Hersey 8000 4500 2222 1194 565 215 73 66
04 in. Trident 111 28 26
06 in. Trident 1074 194 87 51 34 24 17 17
08 in. Trident 4571 692 278 163 107 82 54 43
10 in. Trident 15000 2875 1000 419 261 169 100 72
06 in. Rockwood 74 31 29 24 23 22 28
SI Units: 1 ft = 0.3048 m; 1 in. = 25.4 mm

Based on a flow of 1000 gpm (3785 L/min) and C = 120, the theoretical losses are calculated as
shown in Table 4.
The corrected static pressure at each reference point is determined by adding the recorded residual
pressure to the pipe profile pressure. The friction loss between the various reference points can be
calculated using the appropriate hydraulic tables or the Global Asset Protection Services (GAPS)
Hydraulic Calculator (see GAP.14.1.2.1.2 A). The theoretical residual pressure is found by subtracting
the cumulative calculated friction loss at each reference point from the corrected static pressure.

TABLE 4
Theoretical Friction Losses
Pressure (psi)
Pipe Segment Length (ft) Calc. Loss Totals
To Point “A” 15.0
“A” to “B” 6 in.
Actual length 056
2 Gate Valves 006
1 Tee 030
1 Check Valve 032
Hersey Meter 051
Total 175 6.1 21.1

“B” to “C” 6 in.

Actual length 100 3.5 24.6

“C” to “D” 6 in.

Actual length 100 3.5 28.1

“D” to “E” 6 in.

Actual length 100
1 90° Elbow 014
Total 114 4.0 32.1

“E” to “F” 6 in.

Actual length 052
1 Tee 030
Total 082 2.9 35.0

SI Units: 1 ft = 0.3048 m; 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 psi = 0.687 bar

GAPS Guidelines
3 A Publication of Global Asset Protection Services LLC
 GAP.14.1.2.4

TABLE 5
Theoretical Pressure Vs Actual Pressure
Pressure (psi)
Reference Point Theoretical Actual
A 90 - 15.0 = 75.0 0 + 75 = 75
B 90 - 21.1 = 68.5 6 + 63 = 69
C 90 - 24.6 = 65.4 6 + 55 = 61
D 90 - 28.1 = 61.9 6 + 29 = 35
E 90 - 32.1 = 57.9 6 + 29 = 35
F 90 - 35.0 = 55.0 6 + 26 = 32
SI Units: 1 psi = 0.687 bar

Table 5 shows the corrected theoretical and actual pressures needed for analysis. The results of the
hydraulic gradient can be shown graphically. See Figure 2. The analysis consists of four parts:
• A horizontal reference line drawn at the point of maximum static pressure;
• A line detailing the profile of the pipe, reflecting the pressure due to differences in elevation along
the pipe;
• The actual or measured hydraulic gradient based on pressure at a particular uniform flow rate;
• The expected or theoretical gradient calculated from friction loss tables based on the total
equivalent length between gauge connections.
Standard graph paper is used. The graph paper is prepared using pressure for the ordinate and the
equivalent linear dimensions of the pipe line for the abscissa.
The horizontal reference line drawn is plotted at 90 psi (6.2 bar) using the various reference points
representing the hydrants or risers where residual readings were taken. The pipe profile line is drawn
by subtracting the static pressure from the reference line at the various reference points, and
connecting the resultant pressures by a straight line. The corrected pressures shown in Table 5 are
similarly plotted and connected by straight lines.
The actual gradient is approximately the same slope as the theoretical gradient between the various
reference points except for the segments from “B” to “C” and “C” to “D.” The minor discrepancy
between “B” and “C” can be attributed to accuracy in data collection, assumptions made, and
accuracy of calculations. The steeper slope of the actual gradient between points “C” and “D”
indicates an abnormal friction loss requiring further investigation.
Conclusions
Hydraulic gradients have the following characteristics:
• For pipe lines with the same diameter throughout and with a constant rate of flow, the gradient
should be a straight line of uniform slope.
• Residual pressure, plus cumulative friction loss, is equal to static pressure.
• The vertical distance between two points on a hydraulic gradient is equal to the friction loss
between the two points.

GAPS Guidelines
4 A Publication of Global Asset Protection Services LLC
 GAP.14.1.2.4

Figure 2. Hydraulic Gradient Diagram.

If the slope of the actual hydraulic gradient is steeper than the theoretical gradient between two test
points, one or more of the following conditions may exist:
• A partially closed valve or dropped valve gate;
• An obstruction such as caulking lead or stones;
• Severe tuberculation;
• Smaller diameter pipe than believed was installed.
Further investigation such as physically checking the pipe interior is then necessary to determine
which of these conditions exist. The use of a hydraulic gradient has, however, narrowed this
investigation to the portion of the piping between two reference points.

GAPS Guidelines
5 A Publication of Global Asset Protection Services LLC