The System

Sentences: Syntax

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 Syntax

• What do we know when we know the syntax of our

language?
• There are several aspects of syntactic knowledge that
native speakers have about their language.
• Let’s look at some examples and reflect a little.

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 Reflect on these examples from English

1. The silly man hit the nice woman. vs.

2. *Silly hit man the nice the woman.
3. Colorful white morphemes drink surreptitiously.
4. Bob hit the elf on the table with the hat.
5. John broke the window. vs.
6. The window was broken by John.
7. John is eager to please. vs.
8. John is easy to please. 3
 Reflect on these examples from English
6. a. The linguist knows that this language has become extinct.
b. The biologist believes that the linguist knows that this language
has become extinct.
c. The neuroscientist claims that the biologist believes that the
linguist knows that this language has become extinct.
d. The judge wrote that the neuroscientist claims that the biologist
believes that the linguist knows that this language has become
extinct.
e. and so on….
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 So, we know

• What is grammatical and what is ungrammatical.

• Grammaticality is not dependent on meaningfulness.
• The same string of words can give rise to multiple meanings.
• Structures can look different but mean roughly the same thing.
• Structures can look the same but have completely different
meanings.
• Structures can go on ad infinitum, in theory.
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 Syntax

• For our theory of grammar to be adequate, it has to account

for these different aspects of native speakers’ subconscious
(or tacit)syntactic knowledge.

• Why do we think that sentences have internal structure?

Why do we not see them as strings of words?

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 Consider

• The boy and the girl’s uncle left. How many people left?
• [The boy and the girl]’s uncle left, didn’t he?
• The boy and [the girl]’s uncle left, didn’t they?
OR
• Black cab drivers went on strike.
• Black [cab drivers] went on strike. (Cab-drivers who are black)
• [Black cab] drivers went on strike. (Drivers of black cabs)
 So Syntax
• A sentence is not a mere sequence of words; rather, every sentence h
as internal structure
• The key notion to understanding syntactic structure is that of
constituency.
• Core ideas of syntax that underlie sentence structure in all human
languages:
1. Constituency
2. Subcategorization
3. Grammatical relations
4. Movement/long-distance dependency
 Constituency

• Consider the following sentence:

The linguist has drawn a tree.
• If I ask you to, intuitively, divide the sentences into two
units, where would you draw the line?
– (1) The linguist | has drawn a tree.
– (2) The small dog | climbed up the large tree
 Constituency
• Intuitively, we “know” that certain words “hang together” in the
sentence to the exclusion of others. We call such strings of words
constituents.
• And we can actually determine constituency by means of objective
or empirical diagnostic tests, since intuitions can be unreliable.
• There are at least five constituency tests:
– substitution, movement, clefting, conjunction and the stand-alone test.
 Test 1: Substitution

• If a string of words can be replaced by one word and the

result is a grammatical sentence while preserving the original
meaning, then it must be that this string of words
comprises a constituent.
 Examples

• [The linguist] has drawn a tree. • The [linguist has drawn a tree].
She has drawn a tree *The ???
• The linguist has drawn [a tree]. • [The linguist has] drawn a tree.
The linguist has drawn it. *??? drawn a tree.
• The linguist has [drawn a tree]. • [The linguist has drawn a] tree.
What has the linguist done? *??? tree.
(* ungrammatical)
My hat = it
 Another example
• The tall child ate the sandwich
[in the classroom].
• [The tall child] ate the sandwich. The tall child ate the
She ate the sandwich. sandwich there
• The tall child ate [the sandwich] • The tall child ate [the sandwich
The tall child ate it. in the classroom].
• The tall child [ate the sandwich] *The tall child ate it
The tall child did what?
(Echo question) (The sentence may look ok, but
we changed the meaning)
 Test 2: Movement
• If a string of words can be moved together in a sentence
keeping the meaning intact, then this string of words comprises
a “constituent”.
• Consider the examples below:
We will hold the meeting [in the SAC office].
In the SAC office, we will hold the meeting.
We will hold [the meeting in the SAC office].
*The meeting in the SAC office we will hold.
 Another example

• I know he will [eat the whole pizza], and eat the whole pizza
he will.
*I know he [will eat the] whole pizza, and will eat the
he whole pizza.
• I read [this book by Chomsky] before.
This book by Chomsky, I read before.
• I read this book [by Chomsky before].
*By Chomsky before, I read this book
 Test 3: Clefting (It is X that …)

May also be used as a constituency diagnostic

Example: This linguist drew these trees on the board.
Apply clefting to some strings:
• It is this linguist that drew these trees on the board.
• It is these trees that this linguist drew on the board.
• It is on the board that this linguist drew these trees.
• *It is trees on that this linguist drew these the board.
• *It is linguist drew that this these trees on the board.
• (Cf. It is these trees on the board that the linguist drew)
 Test 4: Stand-alone or fragments

• If a string of words can stand alone as an answer to a question, then it

is a constituent
• Q: What did he eat? Q: What did he do?
• A: The whole pizza./*The whole. A: Eat the whole pizza./*Eat the.
• Q: What has the linguist drawn? Q: Where will we hold the
meeting?
• A: The trees. A: In the SAC office.
Test 5: Conjunction/co-ordination
Like my hat = Like your hat
 Sentence Structure
• The meaning of a sentence is more than a direct sum of the
meaning of its words – that is, there are indicators of internal
structure
• Sentences that look the same, are nonetheless differently
interpreted and sentences that may look different, can have
the same meaning
• A same sequence of words may or may not form a constituent,
it depends on the syntactic environment (look-up the
mountain vs. look up-the word).
 Word groups
• Within a sentence, words seem to hang together in groups, or
constituents
• Constituent structure of a sentence is recoverable (intuitively)
but demonstrably so, with constituency tests
• Substitution or replacement
• Movement (question formation as well)
• Co-ordination
• Clefting
• Fragments
• Deletion
 Substitution – pro-forms
Pronouns substitution:
• A: What do you think of the woman who wrote the incredibly pretentious book on
myths?
• B: I can’t stand her
• * What do you think of [the her who wrote that incredibly pretentious book on
myths]?
• What do you think of the woman who wrote it?

There functions as pro-PP.

• A: Have you ever been to Paris?
• B: No, I have never been there
• Malfoy saw the elf on the table.
• Malfoy saw the elf there
 Substitution contd.
so, as, which function as pro-VPs.
• Ram might [VP go home], and so might Sita
• Spicer might [VP resign his post], as might Bannon
• If Tushar can [VP speak French fluently] – which we all know he can
- why is he so shy with the French?
do so is another pro-VP.
• The girl [VP read the book] in the library, and the boy did so (in the
museum).
• The girl [VP read the book in the library], and the boy did so too
 Substitution and APs
So can also replace APs i.e. it is a pro-AP also.
• Many people consider Ram [AP extremely rude], but I’ve never
found him so.
 Question words substitute for:
• Where did he go?
• He went up the hill.
• Up the hill
• *Up hill
• (Cf. *the hill; why is this wrong?)
• What were you looking up?
• I was looking up the word.
• The word
• *Up the word
 Ellipsis or omission (with verbs)
A: JayZ won’t wash the dishes
B: I bet he will (wash the dishes) if you’re nice to him.

Typically, in English, only VPs can undergo Ellipsis (i.e. be omitted)

Roma won’t put ice in the soda, but her brother will put ice in the soda
Roma won’t put ice in the soda, but her brother will put ice in the soda
*Roma won’t put ice in the soda, but her brother will put ice in the soda
*Roma won’t put ice in the soda, but her brother will put ice in the soda
*Roma won’t put ice in the soda, but her brother will put ice in the soda
 Coordination

• He has [a cat] and [a dog]

• Is she [in the kitchen] or [in the garden]?
• He speaks [very slowly] but [very articulately].
• *He rang [up his mother] and [up his sister].
• (He rang up [his mother] and [his sister].)
• He [walked to his office] and [picked up his laptop].
 More questions

• The new teacher gave a book to the student hurriedly.

• Who gave a book to the new student hurriedly? [The new teacher]
• Who(m) did the new teacher give a book [PP to [NP ---]] hurriedly?
[the student]
• How did he give a book to the new student [AdvP ---]? [hurriedly]
• To whom did he give a book [PP ---] hurriedly? [to the new student]
• What did he give [NP ---] to the new student hurriedly? [a book]
• g. What did he do [VP---]? [gave a book to the student hurriedly]
 Movement examples

• I can’t stand your younger brother.

• [Your younger brother], I can’t stand [ --] (though your elder
brother’s OK).
• * Your younger, I can’t stand [--brother].
• * Younger brother, I can’t stand [ your--].
• * Brother, I can’t stand [your younger].
• f. * Your, I can’t stand [younger brother].
• g. * Your brother, I can’t stand [younger].
 More movement
• Everyone said that the new Fellini film was exciting and (indeed)
[very exciting], it was [AP--]. (Adjective Phrase)
• [Give in to blackmail], I never will, he averred [VP---] (Verb Phrase)
• Patrick said that he would win the prize, and [win the prize], he did
[VP]. (Verb Phrase)
• They said that Bill would read the book, and [read the book] he did.
• They said that Bill would read the book in the library, and [read the
book in the library] he did.
 More movement

• Prepositional Phrase preposing

• Peter gave a book to your brother.
• [To your brother], Peter gave a book [---] (but not to mine).
• * To your, Peter gave a book [--brother].
• * To, Peter gave a book [--your brother].
• * Your, Peter gave a book [to --brother].
• * To brother, Peter gave a book [your--]
• But [Your brother], Peter gave a book [to --] (but not to mine).
 Test it!
• I could sell my psychology textbook on the black-market.
• I could sell my psychology textbook on the black-market.
• I could sell my psychology textbook on the black-market.
• I could sell my psychology textbook on the black-market.
• *I could sell my psychology textbook on the black-market.
• *I could sell my psychology textbook on the black-market.
• *I could sell my psychology textbook on the black-market.
• *I could sell my psychology textbook on the black-market.
 Difference?
• I left the book with the blue cover
• I left the book with my classmate.
 Hierarchy
• A sentence is thus a set of constituents arranged in a
hierarchical fashion
• Question: What are the types of constituents?
• Before we list the types, we need some structural categories with
which to describe the constituents and constituent types.
(a)Head
(b)Complement Phrases
(c) Adjunct Phrases
(d)Specifiers
 Phrase structure: Heads and complements

• The head of a phrase is the core word; it is obligatory – there is no

phrase without it.
• The complement is the part of the phrase that is there because of th
e head – required by it.
• The label/category of the whole phrase is identical to that of the
head.
• So, if the head is a noun, then the phrase is a noun phrase. In other
words syntactic constituents are built up of the same type, they are
endocentric.
 Phrase structure: Heads and complements
• Remember from the discussion of morphology that there are major
lexical categories in human languages (we focus on the first four)

Noun (N), Verb (V), Adjective (A), Preposition (P) and Adverbs (Adv)

• Each one of these categories can be the head of a phrase and thus
build NP, VP, AP, AdvP and PP.
• Word structure and sentence structure are quite closely related and
syntax uses many of the elements of morphology.
 Examples

• picture of the team is a noun phrase(NP) since the head of the

string is the N picture
• ate the sandwich, is a verb phrase (VP) since the head of the string
is the V ate.
• in the office is a prepositional phrase(PP) since the head of the
string is the P in
• fond of chocolate is an adjectival phrase(AP) since the head of the
string is the A fond
Phrase structure or rewrite rules
 Selection (or subcategorization)
• Notice that heads differ as to whether they (a) select
complements at all, (b) how many of them and (c) what type
• We say they have different selection properties
• For example, transitive verbs but not intransitive verbs are those
that select an NP complement

The child slept. *The child slept the bed. [No complement]
The politician bought a new car. *The politician bought. [NP]
 More Selection
• Furthermore, some transitive verbs differ in whether they select an
NP complement or a PP complement
The commander talked [PP to his soldier]
The commander polished [NP his rifle].
• and some verbs require more than one complement
The judge put [NP the gavel] [PP on the table].
[NP and PP complements]
 More selection

• Other verbs such as ‘say’ select a whole clause ( or sentence) as a

complement
• The commander said [CP that he would talk to the soldiers in the
evening].
(Words like ‘that’ which introduce clauses are called
complementizers, and the whole bracketed string is referred to as a
Complementizer Phrase (CP). More on this later.)
 Summary

• Sentences have
– internal, hierarchical structure
– Words are chunked or grouped into phrases
– Phrasal type is determined by the Head
– Head also determines the elements co-occurring with it –
Complement (also a phrase!) – selectional restrictions
 Specifiers
• While complements may be obligatory (depending on the
selectional properties of the head), a head may also have non
obligatory satellite elements, called specifiers
 An abstract tree
• To generalize, using X as a variable ranging over all heads, every
phrase has the internal structure below
XP

Specifier X’

X Complement
(X’ pronounced X-bar. We can then apply this X’ schema to all
heads, whether N, V, Adj or P etc. ) X’ is also a constituent.
 So what is the head of a sentence?
• Consider the sentence: The judge will read the book
• We know that [NP the judge] is a constituent and so is [VP read the book]
(Use empirical tests)
• The auxiliary verb will has a complement [VP read the book] and a
Specifier (Subject) [NP the judge]
• So the auxiliary is the head, of the category Tense
• The rewrite rule: TP  Spec T VP
• In other words, the subject is the specifier and the VP is the
complement, of the head T.
 TP

T’

VP

NP
NP

Det N Aux V Det N

The judge will read the book
 What if there is no auxiliary?
• The judge guards the book OR The judge guarded the book (yesterday)
• -s marks the (present) Tense and likewise the –ed marks the (past) Tense
• In parallel with
– The judge [T will] read the book
– The judge [T has] read the book
– The judge [T may] read the book
– The judge [T may have] read the book
Cf. Does the judge guard the book? The judge guards the book, doesn’t
she?
(Irregular: read-read, sing-sang, bring-brought, sink-sank, leave-left)
What are CPs?
 A complete tree

[NPThe judge] [VP said [CP that [TP[NP the witness] should [VP speak [NP the truth] [PP in [NP the courtroom ]]]]
[NPThe judge] [VP said [CP that [NP the witness] should [VP speak [NP the truth] [PP in [NP the courtroom ]]]
[NPThe judge] [VP said that [NP the witness] should [VP speak [NP the truth] [PP in [NP the courtroom ]]
[NPThe judge] said that [NP the witness] should speak [NP the truth] [PP in [NP the courtroom ]
[NP The judge] said that [NP the witness] should speak [NP the truth] in [NP the courtroom]

• The judge said that the witness should speak the truth in the
courtroom
 So, we know from PSR
• Tree diagrams capture three aspects of speakers’ syntactic
knowledge:
a. the linear order of the words in the sentence
b. The groupings of words into particular syntactic constituents (NP, VP, etc.),
and
c. the hierarchical structure in which these constituents are held (that is,
the fact that constituents contain constituents inside them, which in turn
contain other constituents, and so on and so forth) – the property of
Recursion.
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 Revisiting recursion
1. This language has become extinct.
2. [The linguist knows [CPthat this language has become extinct]].
3. The biologist believes [CP that the linguist knows that this
language has become extinct].
4. The neuroscientist claims [CP that the biologist believes that the
linguist knows that this language has become extinct].
5. The judge wrote [CPthat the neuroscientist claims that the
biologist believes that the linguist knows that this language has
become extinct].
and so on….
 Syntactic ambiguity

• The clown hit the lion-tamer with the umbrella

• The clown [VP hit [NP the lion-tamer] [PP with [NP the umbrella]]]

• The clown [VP hit [NP the lion-tamer [PP with the umbrella]]]

• He hit the elf on the table with a hat

Cross-linguistic variation in word order
 Word order typology - SOV
Ainu, Akkadian, Amharic, Armenian, Assamese, Aymara, Azerbaijani, Basque,
Bengali, Burmese, Burushaski, Dakota, Dogon languages, Elamite, Ancient
Greek, Hajong, Hindi, Hittite, Hopi, Hungarian, Ijoid languages, Itelmen,
Japanese, Kazakh, Korean, Kurdish, Classical Latin, Lakota, Manchu, Mande
languages, Marathi, Mongolian, Navajo, Nepali, Newari, Nivkh, Nobiin, Pāli,
Pashto, Persian, Punjabi, Quechua, Senufo languages, Seri, Sicilian, Sindhi,
Sinhalese and most other Indo-Iranian languages, Somali and virtually all
other Cushitic languages, Sumerian, Tibetan and nearly all other Tibeto-
Burman languages, Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu and all other
Dravidian languages, Tigrinya, Turkic languages, Turkish, Urdu, almost all Uto-
Aztecan languages, Uzbek, Welsh, Yukaghir, and virtually all Caucasian
languages.
 SVO
• Albanian, Chinese, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, Kurdish,
Ganda, Greek, Hausa, Icelandic (with the V2 restriction),
Italian, Javanese, Khmer, Latvian, Macedonian, Modern
Hebrew, Polish, Kashubian, Portuguese, Quiche, Romanian,
Rotuman, Russian (but see below), Serbo-Croatian, Slovene,
Spanish, Swahili, Thai, Vietnamese, Yoruba and Zulu.
 VOS order
• Austronesian languages such as Malagasy, Old Javanese, Toba
Batak, Dusun, and Fijian and Mayan languages such as Tzotzil.
In Hadza (Tanzania), it is a frequently occurring order.

• OSV and OVS are significantly more rare than the VOS
 So, we know

• What is grammatical and what is ungrammatical.

• Grammaticality is not dependent on meaningfulness.
• The same string of words can give rise to multiple meanings.
(ambiguity)
• Structures can go on ad infinitum, in theory.
• Structures can look different but mean roughly the same thing.
• Structures can look the same but have completely different
meanings.
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