PART 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 11.04

AIR CONDITIONING AND

CABIN PRESSURISATION

CONTENTS
4 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION ............... 4-1
4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 4-1
4.2 AIR SUPPLY ................................................................................. 4-1
4.2.1 Engine Bleed Air (compression) .................................... 4-1
4.2.2 Air Compressors or Blowers .......................................... 4-2
4.2.3 Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) ........................................... 4-2
4.2.4 Ram Air ......................................................................... 4-3
4.2.5 Ground Cart .................................................................. 4-3
4.3 COOLING ..................................................................................... 4-4
4.3.1 Air Cycle Cooling........................................................... 4-4
4.3.2 Vapour Cycle Cooling ................................................... 4-9
4.4 HEATING ...................................................................................... 4-11
4.4.1 Exhaust Heating Systems ............................................. 4-11
4.4.2 Combustion Heating Systems ....................................... 4-12
4.5 TEMPERATURE CONTROL ............................................................. 4-12
4.6 HUMIDITY CONTROL ..................................................................... 4-14
4.6.1 Water Separation – Water Extractor .............................. 4-14
4.6.2 Water Infiltration ............................................................ 4-17
4.7 MASS FLOW CONTROL ................................................................. 4-18
4.7.1 Mass Flow Controller .................................................... 4-18
4.7.2 Spill Valve Flow Controller ............................................ 4-19
4.8 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS ............................................................... 4-20
4.8.1 Re-circulation Air System .............................................. 4-23
4.9 PRESSURISATION SYSTEMS .......................................................... 4-23
4.9.1 Control And Indication ................................................... 4-26
4.9.2 The Un-Pressurised Mode ............................................ 4-26
4.9.3 The Isobaric Mode ........................................................ 4-27
4.9.4 The Constant-Differential Pressure Mode ..................... 4-27
4.9.5 Cabin Air Pressure Regulator ........................................ 4-27
4.9.6 Isobaric Control System ................................................ 4-28
4.9.7 Differential Control System ............................................ 4-29
4.9.8 Safety Valves ................................................................ 4-31
4.10 ELECTRONIC PRESSURISATION CONTROL ...................................... 4-31
4.10.1 Flight Deck Control Panel.............................................. 4-32
4.10.2 Automatic Pressure Controller....................................... 4-33
4.10.3 Outflow Valve ................................................................ 4-33
4.10.4 Inward and Outward Safety Relief Valves ..................... 4-34
4.11 CABIN PRESSURE INDICATION ....................................................... 4-35
4.12 SAFETY AND WARNING DEVICES .................................................. 4-36
4.12.1 Overheating .................................................................. 4-36
4.12.2 Duct Hot Air Leakage .................................................... 4-37
4.12.3 Excess Cabin Altitude ................................................... 4-37
4.12.4 Smoke Detection ........................................................... 4-37

Issue 1 – May 2012 Page 1

 PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK

Page 2 13.11 - Air Conditioning May 2012

 PART 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 11.04

AIR CONDITIONING AND

CABIN PRESSURISATION

4 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The atmosphere above10,000ft is too thin and cold for normal breathing.
Passenger carrying aircraft, operating above this height need an air conditioning
and pressurisation system. The temperature of the air passing through the
passenger cabin, flight deck and other compartments must be strictly controlled,
as well as flow rate and level of humidity.
Cabin temperature will normally be maintained between 15 and 30 degrees
Celsius. Additionally, a controlled amount of pressurisation is necessary, so that
the air pressure in the passenger cabin and adjacent areas does not exceed the
equivalent of the ambient air pressure at 8000ft.
Air conditioning is also essential for un-pressurised aircraft types.

A typical air conditioning and pressurisation system comprises eight principle

sub-systems:

 Air Supplies (Pneumatics ATA 36)

 Cooling
 Heating
 Temperature Control
 Humidity Control
 Mass Flow Control
 Distribution
 Pressurisation

4.2 AIR SUPPLY

The source of fresh air supply and arrangement of essential components will vary
between aircraft type and each air conditioning system, but in general one of the
following methods described in the following paragraphs will be adopted:

4.2.1 Engine Bleed Air (compression)

This method is the most common and is installed on the majority of modern
aircraft types. Very hot air is tapped from the main engine compressor stages and
supplied to the cabin, flight deck and other areas. Before the air enters the cabin,
it is passed through a temperature control system, which reduces its temperature
and pressure. Additionally, a means of flow control is utilised and in some aircraft,
humidity control forms part of the system. (See Fig 1)
In pressurised aircraft, the discharge of the conditioned air is regulated to
maintain the cabin pressure at the selected pressure altitude.

Issue 1 – May 2012 Page 4-1

NON RETURN VALVE AUXILIARY POWER UNIT

SHUT OFF VALVES

FLOW CONTROLLER

ECU
TEMPERATURE CONTROL VALVE
NRV
SECONDARY HEAT
EXCHANGER

RAM AIR
MIXER UNIT TO
CABIN

PRIMARY HEAT
EXCHANGER NRV

WATER SEPARATOR
COUPLED COMPRESSOR TURBINE

Typical (Compression) Bleed Air System

Figure 1

4.2.2 Air Compressors or Blowers

This method is used on turbo-prop, piston engine or even turbo-jet aircraft where
main engine compressor bleed is unavailable or unsuitable.
Normally the compressor or blower will be mechanically driven from the
accessory gearbox of the main engine and its air supply routed via a temperature
control system, in a similar manner to the engine bleed method.

4.2.3 Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)

The APU is a small gas turbine engine, which can be connected into the main air
supply system and provide an independent means of air conditioning and
pressurisation, either on the ground or in flight, when the main engines cannot
supply. It will utilise the engine bleed air principle outlined above.

Page 4-2 13.11 - Air Conditioning May 2012

 PART 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 11.04

AIR CONDITIONING AND

CABIN PRESSURISATION

4.2.4 Ram Air

This method is normally found as the primary ventilation system on un-

pressurised aircraft. A ram air scoop placed directly into the airflow, will provide
the means of air supply as the aircraft moves forward.
Since the air at altitude will be cold, the temperature control system through
which it passes before entering the cabin, will normally be a form of heater.
A self-contained combustion type heater will be employed, or the some form of
exhaust gas heater. The air conditioning ducting will be routed around the
combustion heater casing or around engine exhaust duct to obtain convection
heating.
On pressurised aircraft, a ram air system can be used as a means of emergency
ventilation, following a complete loss of the main system.

RAM AIR

COLD AIR OUTLETS

EXHAUST
DEMISTER WARM AIR OUTLETS

COMBUSTION CHAMBER
FLOW CONTROL VALVE
FUEL SOLENOID VALVE
ENGINE DRIVEN AIR BLOWER
AIR SUPPLY FUEL SUPPLY

OFF ON

Typical Combustion Heater System

Figure 2
COMBUSTION HEATING AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM
4.2.5 Ground Cart

This will be an independent means of heating or cooling the passenger cabin on

the ground. It can be used on aircraft that do not have an APU. The trolley will be
connected externally to the aircraft, via a purpose built inlet into the air
conditioning system and normally employs a combustion type heater and the
means to control the output of the air temperature from a control panel the cart.

Issue 1 – May 2012 Page 4-3

4.3 COOLING

When bleed air is used as the air supply, the air tapped off the engine
compressor can reach a temperature in excess of 300 degrees Celsius.
This is obviously far too hot to be fed directly into the air-conditioned areas, so it
must first be cooled down to around 20 degrees Celsius.
There are two main methods of cooling;
Air Cycle and Vapour Cycle cooling systems.

4.3.1 Air Cycle Cooling

Air cycle cooling relies on three basic principles; surface heat exchange,
expansion and energy conversion.

Surface heat exchange, provides cooling by passing the air tapped from the
engine compressor (charge air) across some form of heat exchanger. The charge
air is subjected to the effect of a colder cross flow, normally ambient air, scooped
by an intake and passed across the heat exchanger as the aircraft moves forward
(ram air). Although 90% of heat is given up in this way, the charge air
temperature can never be reduced below the ram air temperature by this method
alone.

Expansion, provides cooling when the pressure of the charge air is reduced by
increasing its velocity and expanding it across the turbine of a so-called Air Cycle
Machine (ACM) or Cold Air Unit (CAU). In this way, the temperature of the charge
air can be rapidly lowered to zero degrees Celsius, irrespective of the ram air
temperature

Energy Conversion, cools by making the hot air do work. This is achieved by
using the charge air to drive a turbine, which is connected by a shaft to the
compressor or fan within the cold air unit, thus converting heat energy into kinetic
energy. This method will also help to reduce the charge air to zero degrees
Celsius.

Page 4-4 13.11 - Air Conditioning May 2012

 PART 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 11.04

AIR CONDITIONING AND

CABIN PRESSURISATION

HOT AIR INLET

PRIMARY
HEAT SECONDARY HEAT EXCHANGER
EXCHANGER

RAM AIR

TEMPERATURE
CONTROL VALVE
WATER SEPARATOR

TO
CABIN

MIXER UNIT
COMPRESSOR TURBINE

Turbo Compressor
Figure 3

4.3.1.1 HEAT EXCHANGERS

These are components within the air conditioning system that transfer heat from
one gas stream to another. Ram air is used as the cooling medium to cool the
very hot charge air ducted from the engine compressor or the gearbox mounted
air compressor or blower.
Depending on where they are placed within the air conditioning system, heat
exchangers are often described as;
 A ‘Pre-cooler’ or ‘Primary Heat Exchanger’
 An ‘Inter-cooler’ or ‘Secondary Heat Exchanger’

The basic construction is a sealed unit containing a series of cooling passages;

through which the charge air flows and over which the ram air is directed.
Between these passages are thin corrugated strips, that also serve to dissipate
heat as the ram air passes over them.

Issue 1 – May 2012 Page 4-5

4.3.1.2 AIR CYCLE MACHINE (ACM) OR COLD AIR UNIT (CAU)

The ACM/CAU is the primary component in an air cycle cooling system. A

number of different types can be found including;
The turbo-compressor, the brake turbine and the turbo-fan.
All three use the charge air to drive the turbine and the major differences between
each type, relates to the overall weight for a given mass flow, the size and
method of dissipating the power output of the turbine.

TO
DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM

DIFFUSER

FROM
INTERCOOLER

NOZZLE BLADES
BLEED AIR

COMPRESSOR TO INTERCOOLER

TURBO COMPRESSOR

Turbo Compressor Cold Air Unit

Figure 4

The turbo-compressor type consists of a turbine driving a centrifugal compressor

and operating in conjunction with an inter-cooler connected between the
compressor and turbine stages.
Its basic construction consists of two main casings, the turbine volute and
compressor volute casings. The two casings are connected together and enclose
a bearing housing with two bearing assemblies, supporting a shaft upon which
the turbine and compressor wheels are mounted.

Page 4-6 13.11 - Air Conditioning May 2012

 PART 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 11.04

AIR CONDITIONING AND

CABIN PRESSURISATION

The turbine wheel revolves within a nozzle ring and the compressor wheel rotates
within a diffuser ring. The very hot charge air from the engine compressor bleed
and routed via the pre-cooler, enters the eye of the ACM/CAU compressor. It
becomes compressed on passing through the diffuser ring, increasing its
temperature and energy.
From the compressor, the hot air is directed across the inter-cooler matrix over
which ram air passes and is then directed into the turbine volute nozzle ring,
where it drives the turbine. The resultant expansion and energy conversion,
rapidly lowers the air pressure and temperature.
It is then directed towards the passenger cabin. (See Fig 3)

The ACM/CAU compressor and turbine wheels rotate at extremely high speeds,
often in excess of 80,000 rpm, so efficient bearing lubrication is essential to
ensure smooth and trouble-free running.
Two lubrication methods are used; Integral wet sump arrangements, or
pressurised air bearings that need no oil lubrication.
The wet sump type normally has a sump containing oil and a means of metering
it to the bearings usually by the use of integral ‘wicks’ or with an ‘oil slinger’ that
pumps an optimum oil/air mix to the bearings. This ensures the correct amount of
oil at the bearings at all times. Oil replenishment is critical however, as too much
oil will lead to the charge air being oil contaminated and too little oil, may result in
a premature seizure of the rotating shaft.
The air bearing type uses a pressurised air supply to support the shaft in a similar
manner to the ‘hovercraft principal’. As the rotor ‘floats’ on a thin layer of air, it is
essential that this type is kept clean and dry and completely free from oil and
grease.
AMBIENT AIR OUTLET

COMPRESSOR TURBINE

AMBIENT AIR INLET TO

CABIN

MIXER
HEAT EXCHANGER UNIT

BLEED
AIR

CONTROL VALVE
RAM AIR

Brake Turbine Cold Air Unit

Figure 5

Issue 1 – May 2012 Page 4-7

The brake-turbine type of ACM/CAU, has its charge air routed directly from the
pre-cooler to drive the turbine. The air expands across the turbine as before,
resulting in a large temperature and pressure drop. Since this layout dispenses
with the need for an inter-cooler, it results in a greater efficiency due to weight
saving. To safeguard against the turbine rotating too fast, it is coupled with a
compressor, which rotates in ambient air and consequently acts as a braking
medium. Additionally, the slower rotation of the shaft further improves turbine
output efficiency. (See Fig 5)

BLEED AIR RAM AIR OUTLET

TURBINE

RAM
AIR TO CABIN

MIXER UNIT

LARGE FAN
HEAT
EXCHANGER

CONTROL VALVE

Turbo Fan Cold Air Unit

TURBO FAN COLD
Figure 6 AIR UNIT
The turbo-fan type is mechanically similar to the brake-turbine arrangement. In
this case however, the turbine drives a large centrifugal fan instead of a normal
compressor. The fan is draws a large quantity of ambient air over the pre-cooler,
which cools the incoming charge air.
The major advantage of this type over the other two, is that with the fan-induced
airflow over the pre-cooler, it can be used with the aircraft stationary on the
ground with the aircraft engines running. It does not need to rely solely on ram air
as the cooling medium for the pre-cooler.

Page 4-8 13.11 - Air Conditioning May 2012

 PART 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 11.04

AIR CONDITIONING AND

CABIN PRESSURISATION

4.3.2 Vapour Cycle Cooling

The vapour cycle cooling system can be used as an alternative to the air cycle
cooling system. Although not commonly used these days for air conditioning
systems, the system may be used as the means to remove heat from electrical
and electronic equipment.
The system relies on the principle of the ability of a refrigerant to absorb heat
when changing from a liquid to a gas, through the process of vaporisation or
expansion.
For example, if you were to put a drop of a highly volatile liquid such as
methylated spirits or petrol on the back of you hand, it will feel cold. This is
because the liquid starts to evaporate and draws the heat necessary for
evaporation from your hand. Liquids with a low boiling point have a stronger
tendency to evaporate at normal temperatures than those with a high boiling
point.
Furthermore, the amount of pressure acting on a liquid substance will affect its
state. A sufficient reduction in pressure will cause any liquid to change state into
a vapour or a gas. Conversely, a corresponding increase in pressure will reverse
the process.

CONDENSER

RAM AIR
RECIEVER DRYER

AIR SUPPLY THERMOSTATIC

EXPANSION VALVE

CAPILLARY TUBE

TURBO COMPRESSOR EVAPORATOR

TEMPERATURE SENSOR TEMPERATURE

CONTROL VALVES

AIR DISTRIBUTION

Schematic Vapour Cycle System

Figure 7

Issue 1 – May 2012 Page 4-9

The major components of a typical system are a liquid receiver, a thermostatic
expansion valve, an evaporator, a turbo-compressor, a condenser and a
condenser fan. Often these components are mounted close together to form a
line-replaceable refrigeration pack or vapour cycle cooling pack.
The liquid receiver acts as a reservoir and provides storage for the refrigerant,
normally a highly volatile chemical such as Freon. The refrigerant will pass from
the liquid receiver to a thermostatic expansion valve where it is metered and
released into the evaporator. The very hot charge air from the main engine bleed
flows across the evaporator, releases heat that vaporises the liquid refrigerant
and passes into the passenger cabin at a much lower temperature.
Meanwhile, the now vaporised refrigerant gas is directed towards the turbo-
compressor. It is drawn into the compressor wheel, the coupled turbine of which
is driven by the main engine bleed air. (Note: In some cases, an independent
means instead of a turbo-compressor may be used to compress the refrigerant
gas, such as an electric motor, as in a domestic refrigerator).
The refrigerant gas leaves the compressor at a high pressure and temperature
and passes across the matrix of the condenser. The gas is cooled by the ram air,
flowing across the matrix and so condenses back into a liquid once again. It then
returns to the liquid receiver to repeat the refrigeration cycle once again.
The condenser fan is used to induce air across the condenser matrix when the
aircraft is stationary on the ground and no ram air is available.

Typical Vapour Cycle System

Figure 8

Page 4-10 13.11 - Air Conditioning May 2012

 PART 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 11.04

AIR CONDITIONING AND

CABIN PRESSURISATION

4.4 HEATING

Un-pressurised aircraft use a ram-air system for ventilation. At altitude, the ram-
air passing through the cabin would be very cold, so a heating system is required.
Heating systems can be generally divided into two types:
 Exhaust heating systems
 Combustion heating systems

4.4.1 Exhaust Heating Systems

In its simplest form, this type of heating system employs a heater muff that
surrounds the exhaust pipes coming from a piston engine, or the jet pipe of a
turbo-jet. A ram air scoop at the forward end of the heater muff allows some of
the cold air to go to directly to a mixing valve.
The remainder, enters the muff and surrounds the exhaust/jet pipes. Heat from
the pipes is transferred into the ram air and carried to the mixing valve. The
heated air joins the cold air at the mixing valve and the combined flow is directed
into the passenger cabin.
Some form of control lever, operated from within the aircraft and connected to the
mixing valve, allows the proportion of hot and cold air to be modulated in order to
suit the cabin heating requirements.
To cater for the possibility of the ventilation air becoming contaminated from the
exhaust pipes, some aircraft will be fitted with carbon monoxide detectors within
the cabin area. These are indicators filled with brightly coloured crystals, which
turn black if exposed to dangerous levels of carbon monoxide.

Exhaust System Heater

Figure 9

Issue 1 – May 2012 Page 4-11

4.4.2 Combustion Heating Systems

This system uses a purpose built combustion chamber heater assembly to

provide the heat source, rather than the previously described exhaust heating
method. Fuel is directed from the aircraft fuel system, through a pressure
regulating and shut off valve that ensures the fuel is at the correct pressure for
atomisation. Other components include a fuel filter, a fuel pump and spray nozzle,
where it is atomised and ignited with an igniter plug. The combustion chamber
assembly heats up the ram air that passes around it.

Typical Combustion Heater System

Figure 10

4.5 TEMPERATURE CONTROL

In order to operate the aircraft in an infinite number of climatic and operating

conditions, the temperature in the passenger cabin, flight compartment and other
areas needs to be regulated for comfort.
Temperature regulation for the majority of aircraft that employ the engine bleed
air method is usually accomplished by controlling the proportion of hot and cold
air coming from the air supply system. An electric motor driving a double butterfly
type air mixing valve, regulates the cabin temperature, by allowing a controlled
amount of hot air to by-pass the air cycle system. This air is then recombined in
proper proportions with the cold air that has been directed through the air cycle
system at a down stream mix chamber. The position of the air-mixing valve is
determined by signals from the temperature control system.
The temperature control system is normally operated automatically or as a
manual system, if the automatic temperature controller should fail.

Page 4-12 13.11 - Air Conditioning May 2012

 PART 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 11.04

AIR CONDITIONING AND

CABIN PRESSURISATION

During automatic operation, the temperature controller continually monitors cabin

temperatures and repositions the air mixing valve if necessary to keep the
temperature at the selected level.
In order to achieve this, the controller receives signals from temperature selector
on the flight deck (the temperature requested) and from temperature sensors in
the passenger cabin, flight compartment and supply ducts (the actual
temperature). If a difference between the requested and actual temperatures
occurs, the controller will send an output signal, to re-position the air mixing valve
until parity exists once more.
During manual operation, the temperature control circuit bypasses the controller
and connects the temperature selector on the flight deck, directly to the air-mixing
valve. Other sensors in the system transmit compartment temperatures to
indicators on the flight deck overhead panel, so that the actual temperatures and
the position of the air-mixing valve can be monitored.

Temperature Control
Figure 11

Issue 1 – May 2012 Page 4-13

4.6 HUMIDITY CONTROL

Humidity control is the means to ensure that the correct amount of water moisture
content is in the air conditioning air within the aircraft cabin. This is necessary to
ensure occupants do not suffer from low humidity levels that are experienced with
high altitude flight.

Humidity control can be achieved two ways;

 Water Separation
 Water Infiltration

Water separation is the removal of excessive moisture from the charge air,
normally by a water extractor or separator.
Water infiltration is the addition of moisture into the conditioned air as it enters the
cabin using a water pump and spray nozzle.

4.6.1 Water Separation – Water Extractor

Water can be introduced into the air conditioning system due to the compression
and expansion of the air in the ACM/CAU and other areas of the air cycle
process.
There are three types of water separator in general use; the coalescer/diffuser
type, the coalescer/bag type and the swirl vane type.

4.6.1.1 COALESCER/DIFFUSER TYPE

This type consists of a coalescer constructed from layers of monel metal gauze
and glass fibre cloth sandwiched between layers of stainless steel gauze. It is
supported by the diffuser cone and held in place by a relief valve housing. As the
air leaves the diffuser and passes over the coalescer, moisture in the air is
converted into water droplets. The droplets enter the collector shell and are
deposited into collector tubes where they drain down to a collector box from
where the water is ejected overboard.
COALESCER

COLLECTOR SHELL

DIFFUSER

PRESSURE RELIEF
VALVE
CONDENSER
TUBES

DRAIN

COALESCER WATER EXTRACTOR

FIGURE 12

Page 4-14 13.11 - Air Conditioning May 2012

 PART 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 11.04

AIR CONDITIONING AND

CABIN PRESSURISATION

4.6.1.2 COALESCER/BAG TYPE

A porous bag, supported by a shell is fitted within the extractor to convert

moisture into water droplets. A swirl is imparted into the conditioned air and the
centrifugal effect forces the droplets to the outlet shell where it collects and drains
from the component. A bag visual indicator operated by back pressure, will show
when the coalescer bag becomes dirty or blocked. In this case, a relief valve will
open to ensure flow is still available.

BLOCKAGE INDICATOR
OUTLET SHELL
BAG

PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

WATER DRAIN

Bag Type Water Extractor

Figure 13

Issue 1 – May 2012 Page 4-15

 4.6.1.3 SWIRL VANE TYPE

This type uses centrifugal force to spin the moisture-laden air outwards against
the exit shell. The swirl vane, either fixed or rotating imparts the swirl by rotating
the airflow at high speed. The action, separates the heavier water droplets in the
moisture and collects them in a sump, to be drained away.

SEPARATOR SHELL

SWIRL VANE WATER SUMP

DRAIN
Swirl Vane Type Water Separator
Figure 14

Page 4-16 13.11 - Air Conditioning May 2012

 PART 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 11.04

AIR CONDITIONING AND

CABIN PRESSURISATION

4.6.2 Water Infiltration

Humidity control can also include the addition of water into the air conditioning
system. As an aircraft climbs to high altitude, the moisture level in the air reduces
to a much lower amount than at lower levels of altitude. The reduction in moisture
may cause discomfort to the aircraft occupants. To counteract this, moisture is
added into the conditioned air, by pumping water from a tank to a spray nozzle
positioned at the cabin air inlet. Humidity sensors will detect low humidity
conditions and automatically turn on the controller water pump to restore the
humidity to acceptable levels.

WATER SEPARATOR
DRAIN

COLLECTOR TANK

CABIN HUMIDITY SENSOR SPRAY NOZZLE

WATER PUMP AND

OVERFILL DRAIN CONTROLLER

TO CABIN

Typical Humidity Control System

Figure 15

Issue 1 – May 2012 Page 4-17

4.7 MASS FLOW CONTROL

Legislation requires that a minimum amount of fresh air be supplied to

passengers and crew. In addition stale air must be removed and odours
eliminated. Most pressurisation systems rely on the fact that air is delivered at a
constant rate under all conditions of flight in order to function correctly.
Mass flow control systems constantly monitor the velocity and density of the air
supply by either increasing or decreasing the demand upon the source of supply,
or by spilling excess supply air overboard.
The mass of air must be controlled at a constant value regardless of aircraft
altitude or cabin pressure. It must also adjust for changes in main engine
compressor speed in bleed air systems, or changes in rotor speed when a
separate air supply from an accessory gearbox driven blower is incorporated.

4.7.1 Mass Flow Controller

This type automatically caters for changes in air density, cabin back pressure and
engine compressor supply pressure. At ground level and during take off and the
early stages of flight, the pressure available from the main engine compressor
outlet is high. As altitude increases or when the engines are set to cruising
speeds, the supply pressure drops.
The amount of pressure from the engine compressor bleed acting on an altitude-
compensated piston valve, determines the position the valve will adopt when
opposed by a spring and back pressure from the cabin. The pressure drop across
the valve, will vary the size of outlet ports and will thus determine the valve’s
degree of opening and closing. This will result in a constant mass flow
downstream of the valve at all times.

Mass Flow Control

Figure 16

Page 4-18 13.11 - Air Conditioning May 2012

 PART 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 11.04

AIR CONDITIONING AND

CABIN PRESSURISATION

4.7.2 Spill Valve Flow Controller

This type receives the charge air supply through a metering duct, which senses
variations in the velocity and density of the air. The metering duct on sensing
these variations, transmits the information to a mass flow controller, which
converts the air pressure signals into electrical signals. The electrical signals in
turn control the position of spill valves. They will move towards a more open or
closed position, to vary the amount of air spilled overboard, thereby ensuring a
constant flow rate into the cabin.
At sea level, with the engines at low power, the absolute capsule D will be
compressed by atmospheric pressure. The contacts A, B and C will be in the
position shown and the spill valve will be towards closed.
With the main engines at take off power, the air velocity through the venture
increases, causing a pressure differential across the controller diaphragm. This
will cause contact B to move towards contact C and when they touch, the spill
valves will be driven towards the open As the aircraft climbs, the static pressure
in the metering duct and controller will decrease. The absolute capsule will now
expand and the position of contacts A and C, will be adjusted in relation to
contact B. When contact B is touched, the spill valves will move towards closed
once more and once again the mass flow to the cabin will remain constant.

Mass Flow Controller Operations

Figure 17

Issue 1 – May 2012 Page 4-19

4.8 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

The air distribution system on most aircraft takes cold air from the air conditioning
packs and hot air bleed from the engines and mixes the 2 in a mixer unit to the
required temperature. The air is then distributed to side wall and overhead cabin
vents. On some aircraft the cabin air is then drawn back into the mixing unit by re-
circulating fans where it is mixed with new air and then re-distributed.

All major components are usually located together in a designated bay for ease of
maintenance. ( Figure 14).

A gasper fan provides cold air to the individual overhead air outlets for the aircrew
and passengers. This air can be drawn direct from outside or from the cooling
packs. Each passenger or crew can control the amount of air received by
controlling the position of the air outlet. This outlet could be a rotary nozzle or a
louvre.

TO SIDEWALL DUCTS
TO GASPER
GASPER FAN OUTLETS

MIXER VALVES

MANIFOLD RELIEF VALVE

TO COCKPIT
TO SIDEWALL
DUCTS

CONTROL VALVES
WATER SEPARATOR

CONTROL VALVE
TO OVERHEAD SELECTOR LINKAGE
DUCTS

Air Conditioning Distribution Manifold

Figure 18

Page 4-20 13.11 - Air Conditioning May 2012

 PART 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 11.04

AIR CONDITIONING AND

CABIN PRESSURISATION

Conditioned air systems dispense temperature controlled air evenly throughout

the cabin and crew areas. One duct system supplies the cockpit (Figure 17) while
another supplies the cabin. The cabin ducting is then divided into 2 systems, the
overhead (Figure 15) and the sidewall systems (Figure 16). The overhead system
releases air into the cabin from outlets in ducting running fore and aft in the cabin
ceiling. The sidewall duct system takes air through ducting between the sidewall
and cabin interior linings and releases it through cove light grills and louvres.

A cockpit controlled selector valve located on the main distribution manifold

allows all overhead, side wall or any combination of the two systems to be used
and varies the flow between the two.

DUCTING

FLOOR EXHAUST DUCT

ADJUSTABLE AIR OUTLETS

GASPER FAN

Overhead Panel
Figure 19

Duct sections throughout both the cabin and cockpit are joined together with
clamps or clips. Means of equalising the duct pressures and balancing the air
flows are designed into each system. The systems are protected from excess
pressures by use of a spring loaded pressure relief valve usually located in the
main distribution manifold. The main manifold is located immediately downstream
from the mixing units in the air conditioning bay.

On large aircraft a cockpit controlled dual selector valves divides the air between
cockpit and cabin areas. These butterfly valves are interlinked. When one is fully
open the other is fully closed and vice versa.

Issue 1 – May 2012 Page 4-21

Air is exhausted from the passenger cabin through grills and outflow valves in the
sidewalls above the floor. This air can then be directed around the cargo
compartment walls where it assists in compartment temperature control. Some air
then flows to the cargo heat distribution duct under the compartment floor and is
then discharged overboard through the outflow valves.

DISTRIBUTION BOXES

WALL FEEDER DUCTS

WINDOW DEMISTER

FLOOR EXHAUST VENTS

DISTRIBUTION DUCT

Sidewall Ducting
Figure 20

Below each floor air exhaust outlet is a flotation check valve. This valve is a
plastic ball held in a cage. If the cargo compartments become flooded the balls
float up the cage and seals off the floor to help prevent water from entering the
cabin.
CABIN TEMPERATURE SENSOR

AIR VENT

FLIGHT DECK
TEMPERATURE SENSOR

SILENCER

FAN ASSY
COOLING FANS

FAN ASSY PRESSURE SWITCH

Cockpit Air Distribution

Figure 21

Page 4-22 13.11 - Air Conditioning May 2012

 PART 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 11.04

AIR CONDITIONING AND

CABIN PRESSURISATION

Aircraft may be separated into zones each with its own air conditioning system
and controls for that zone located in a distribution bay. Some areas may have a
remote heat exchanger and fan assembly in the vapour cycle system, to allow
cooling to specific areas such as avionics bays, fed from one of the zone packs.

4.8.1 Re-circulation Air System

To improve cabin ventilation and supplement airflow the cabin air is recirculated
back to the main distribution manifold where it is mixed with conditioned air form
the cooling packs. The use of re-circulated air improves airflow and offloads the
air supply system. This off loading of the air conditioning packs is converted into a
fuel saving.

The re-circulation fan will draw air from the cabin area, through a check valve and
filter assembly to remove any smoke and noxious odours before passing it to the
mixer unit for re-distribution. The check valve prevents any reverse flow through
the fan and ducting when the fan is not in use.

4.9 PRESSURISATION SYSTEMS

As aircraft became capable of obtaining altitudes above that at which flight crews
could operate efficiently, a need developed for complete environmental systems
to allow these aircraft to carry passengers. Air conditioning could provide the
proper temperature and supplemental oxygen could provide sufficient breathable
air.

The problem was that not enough atmospheric pressure exists at high altitude to
aid breathing in and even at lower altitudes the body must work harder to absorb
sufficient oxygen, through the lungs, to operate at the same level of efficiency as
at sea level. This problem is overcome by pressurising the cockpit/ cabin area.
Cabin pressurisation is a means of adding pressure to the cabin of an aircraft to
create an artificial atmosphere that when flying at high altitudes it provides gives
an environment equivalent to that below 10000 feet. The minimum quantity of
fresh air supplied to each person on board must be at least 0.5lb/ minute.

Aircraft are pressurised by sealing off a strengthened portion of the fuselage. This
is usually called the pressure vessel and will normally include cabin, cockpit and
possibly cargo areas. Air is pumped into this pressure vessel and is controlled by
an outflow valve located at the rear of the vessel.

Sealing of the pressure vessel is accomplished by the use of seals around tubing,
ducting, bolts, rivets, and other hardware that pass through or pierce the pressure
tight area. All panels and large structural components are assembled with sealing
compounds. Access and removable doors and hatches have integral seals. Some
have inflatable seals.

Issue 1 – May 2012 Page 4-23

Pressurisation systems do not have to move large volume of air. Their function is
to raise the pressure inside the vessel. Small reciprocating engine powered
aircraft receive their pressurisation air from the compressor of a coupled
turbocharger. Larger reciprocating engine powered aircraft receive air from
engine driven compressors and turbine powered aircraft use compressor bleed
air

Small Reciprocating Engine Powered Aircraft

Turbochargers are driven by the engine exhaust gases flowing through a turbine.
A centrifugal compressor is coupled to the turbine. The compressors output is fed
to the engine inlet manifold to increase manifold pressure which allows the
engine to develop its power at altitude. Part of this compressed air is tapped off
after the compressor and is used to pressurise the cabin. The air passes through
a flow limiter (or sonic venturi) and then through an inter-cooler before being fed
into the cabin. A typical system is shown at Figure 22.

 Sonic Venturi

A sonic venturi is fitted in line between the engine and the pressurisation system.
When the air flowing across the venturi reaches the speed of sound a shock
wave is formed which limits the flow of air to the pressurisation system

RAM AIR
HEATING AIR
PRESSURISED AIR
RAM AIR SHUT EXHAUST GASES
OFF VALVE

COMBUSTION HEATER COUPLED TURBO

COMPRESSOR

SONIC VENTURI

INTERCOOLER

OUTFLOW VALVE SAFETY VALVE

Small Reciprocating Engine Aircraft Pressurisation System

Figure 22

Page 4-24 13.11 - Air Conditioning May 2012

 PART 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 11.04

AIR CONDITIONING AND

CABIN PRESSURISATION

Large Reciprocating Engine Powered Aircraft

These aircraft use engine driven compressors driven through an accessory drive
or by an electric or hydraulic motor. Multi engine aircraft have more than one air
compressor. These are interconnected through ducting but each have a check
valve or isolation valve to prevent pressure loss when one system is out of action.

Turbine Powered Aircraft

The air supplied from a gas turbine engine compressor is contamination free and
can be suitably used for cabin pressurisation (Figure 23). Some aircraft use an
independent compressor driven by the engine bleed air. The bleed air drives the
coupled compressor which pressurises the air and feeds it into the cabin

FLUSH AIR INTAKE TURBO COMPRESSOR

PRESSURE VESSEL
(CABIN/COCKPIT)

BLEED AIR OUTFLOW VALVE

ENGINE

Turbo Compressor
Figure 23

Some aircraft use a jet pump to increase the amount of air taken into the cabin
(Figure 24). The jet pump is a venturi nozzle located in the flush air intake
ducting. High velocity air from the engine flows through this nozzle. This produces
a low pressure area around the venturi which sucks in outside air. This outside air
is mixed with the high velocity air and is then passed into the cabin

Issue 1 – May 2012 Page 4-25

 FLUSH AIR INTAKE

PRESSURE VESSEL
(CABIN/COCKPIT)

JET PUMP

BLEED AIR

OUTFLOW VALVE

ENGINE

Jet Pump
Figure 24

4.9.1 Control And Indication

There are 3 modes of pressurisation, un-pressurised, the isobaric mode and the
constant–differential pressure mode. In the un-pressurised mode the cabin
altitude remains the same as the flight altitude. In the isobaric mode the cabin
altitude remains constant as the flight altitude changes and in the constant-
differential pressure mode, the cabin pressure is maintained at a constant amount
above the outside ambient air pressure.

The amount of differential pressure is determined by the structural strength of the

aircraft. The stronger the aircraft structure the higher the differential pressure and
the higher is the aircrafts operating ceiling.

4.9.2 The Un-Pressurised Mode

In this mode the outflow valve remains open and the cabin pressure is the same
as the outside ambient air pressure. This mode is usually from sea level up to
5000` but does vary from aircraft to aircraft.

Page 4-26 13.11 - Air Conditioning May 2012

 PART 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 11.04

AIR CONDITIONING AND

CABIN PRESSURISATION

4.9.3 The Isobaric Mode

In this mode the cabin pressure is maintained at a specific cabin altitude as flight
altitude changes. The cabin pressure controller begins to close the outflow valve
as the aircraft climbs to a chosen cabin altitude. The outflow valve then opens or
closes (modulates) to maintain the selected cabin altitude as the flight altitude
changes up or down. The controller will then maintain the selected cabin altitude
up to the flight altitude that produces the maximum differential pressure for which
the aircraft structure is rated. At this point the constant differential mode takes
control.

4.9.4 The Constant-Differential Pressure Mode

Cabin pressurisation puts the aircraft structure under a tensile stress as the cabin
pressure expands the pressure vessel. The cabin differential pressure is the ratio
between the internal and external air pressures. At maximum constant-differential
pressure as the aircraft increases in altitude the cabin altitude will increase but
the internal/external pressure ratio will be maintained. There will be a maximum
cabin altitude allowed and this will determine the ceiling at which the aircraft can
operate.

4.9.5 Cabin Air Pressure Regulator

The pressure regulator maintains cabin altitude at a selected level in the isobaric
range and limits cabin pressure to a pre-set pressure differential in the differential
range by regulating the position of the outflow valve. Normal operation of the
regulator requires only the selection of the desired cabin altitude and cabin rate of
climb the adjustment of the barometric control.

STATIC ATMOSHERE CONNECTION ISOBARIC METERING VALVE

DIAPHRAGM ADJUSTER CONTROL

ADJUSTER
BAROMETRIC CAPSULE
CONTROL

RESTRICTOR
DIFFERENTIAL
METERING VALVE

HEAD
SOLENOID
REFERENCE DUMP VALVE
CHAMBER

PILOT
ACTUATOR
DIAPHRAGM
BASE
OUTFLOW VALVE

BAFFLE PLATE
Cabin Pressure Regulator
Figure 25

Issue 1 – May 2012 Page 4-27

The regulator shown in Figure 25 is a typical differential pressure type regulator
that is built into the normally closed air operated outflow valve. It uses cabin
altitude for its isobaric control and barometric pressure for the differential control.
A cabin rate of climb controller controls the pressure change inside the cabin.

There are 2 main sections to the regulator, the head and reference chamber and
the base with the outflow valve and diaphragm. The balance diaphragm extends
outward from the baffle plate to the outflow valve creating an air chamber
between the baffle plate and the outer face of the outflow valve. Cabin air flowing
into this chamber through holes in the side of the outflow valve exerts a force
against the outer face of the valve which tries to open it. This force is opposed by
the force of the spring around the valve pilot which tries to hold the valve closed.

The actuator diaphragm extends outward from the outflow valve to the head
assembly creating an air chamber between the head and the inner face of the
outflow valve. Air from the head and reference chamber exert a force against the
inner face of the outflow valve helping the spring to hold the valve closed.

The position of the outflow valve controls the amount of cabin air that is allowed
to flow from the pressure vessel and this controls the cabin pressure. The
position of the outflow valve is determined by the amount of reference chamber
air pressure that presses on the inner face of the outflow valve.

4.9.6 Isobaric Control System

The isobaric control system of the pressure regulator shown in Figure 26

incorporates an evacuated capsule, a rocker arm, valve spring and a ball type
metering valve. One end of the rocker arm is connected to the valve head by the
evacuated capsule and the other end of the arm holds the metering valve in a
closed position. A valve spring located on the metering valve body tries to move
the metering valve away from its seat as far as the rocker arm allows.

When the cabin air pressure increases enough for the reference chamber air
pressure to compress the evacuated capsule the rocker arm pivots around its
fulcrum and allows the metering valve to move away from its seat an amount
proportional to the compression of the capsule. When the metering valve opens
reference pressure air flows form the regulator to atmosphere through the
atmospheric chamber.

Page 4-28 13.11 - Air Conditioning May 2012

 PART 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 11.04

AIR CONDITIONING AND

CABIN PRESSURISATION

ISOBARIC METERING VALVE

EVACUATED BELLOWS

OUTFLOW VALVE

Isobaric Control Operation

Figure 26

When the regulator is operating in the isobaric range, cabin pressure is held
constant by reducing the flow of reference chamber air through the metering
valve. This prevents a further decrease in reference pressure.

The isobaric control responds to slight changes in reference pressure by

modulating to maintain a constant pressure in the chamber throughout the
isobaric range of operation. Whenever there is an increase in cabin pressure the
isobaric metering valve opens which decreases the reference pressure and
causes the outflow valve to open which then decreases the cabin pressure.

4.9.7 Differential Control System

The differential control system of the pressure regulator (Figure 27) incorporates
a diaphragm a rocker arm, a valve spring and a ball type metering valve. One end
of the rocker arm is attached to the head by the diaphragm which forma a
pressure sensitive face between the reference chamber and the atmospheric
chamber.

Issue 1 – May 2012 Page 4-29

 METERING VALVE ATMOSPHERIC CHAMBER
DIAPHRAGM

OUTFLOW VALVE

Differential Pressure Mode

Figure 27

Atmospheric pressure acts on one side of the diaphragm and reference chamber
pressure acts on the other. The opposite end of the rocker arm holds the
metering valve in a closed position. A valve spring located on the metering valve
body tries to move the metering valve away from its seat as far as the rocker arm
allows.

When reference chamber pressure increases to the system differential pressure

limit set above the decreasing atmospheric pressure it collapses the diaphragm
which is set at differential pressure and opens the metering valve. Air flows from
the reference chamber to atmosphere through the atmospheric chamber, which
causes a reduction in the reference pressure. This reduction in reference
pressure causes the outflow valve to open to reduce the cabin pressure to
maintain the system pressure differential.

Page 4-30 13.11 - Air Conditioning May 2012

 PART 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 11.04

AIR CONDITIONING AND

CABIN PRESSURISATION

4.9.8 Safety Valves

Cabin Air Pressure Safety Valve

The pressure relief valve prevents cabin pressure from exceeding the
predetermined cabin to ambient pressure differential. A negative pressure relief
valve and pressure dump valve may also be incorporated into this valve
assembly.

Negative Pressure Relief Valve

A pressurised aircraft is designed to operate with the cabin pressure higher than
the outside air pressure. If the cabin pressure were to become lower than the
outside air pressure the cabin structure could fail. Outside air is allowed to enter
the cabin to ensure that this does not happen. It is basically an inward pressure
relief valve.

Dump Valve

This valve is normally solenoid actuated by a cockpit switch. When the solenoid is
energised the valve opens dumping cabin air to atmosphere. Cabin pressure will
decrease rapidly until it is the same as the outside air pressure and cabin altitude
will increase until it is the same as the flight altitude.

Ditching valve

If any of the cabin control valves were situated below the water level and the
aircraft ditch in the water, the cabin would quickly flood. To prevent this
happening, either a mechanical or electrical ditching selection, can be made by
the crew to seal off all pressurisation valves and inlets.

4.10 ELECTRONIC PRESSURISATION CONTROL

Most modern airliners have the means to electronically control the cabin pressure
automatically for the entire flight, from settings made by the flight crew before
take off.

The pressure control system consists:

 a flight deck control panel

 an automatic pressure controller with pressure sensing inputs and outputs to
monitoring indicators
 an electrically-driven gate-type outflow valve
 inward and outward safety relief valves

Issue 1 – May 2012 Page 4-31

4.10.1 Flight Deck Control Panel

This provides a means for the flight crew to control the cabin pressure by
positioning the outflow valve. There are three mode selections available; ‘Auto’,
‘Standby’ or ‘Manual’.

Figure 28
The desired mode will normally be ‘Auto’, where all settings such as intended
cruise (flight) altitude and destination airfield (landing) altitude are made before
flight. This will allow automatic control of cabin pressure for the whole of that
flight.
This is called the fully automatic mode.

Alternatively, ‘Standby’ or back up mode can be selected, where a cabin altitude

setting must be made for each desired cabin pressure change. The input setting
is then controlled automatically as before.
This is called the semi-automatic mode.

If neither the fully or semi-automatic modes are available, (i.e.: the pressure
controller fails), the outflow valve can be positioned directly from the flight deck by
operating the electric torque motors to drive the valve.
This is called the manual mode and a choice of an ac or dc electrical supply is
available.

Page 4-32 13.11 - Air Conditioning May 2012

 PART 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 11.04

AIR CONDITIONING AND

CABIN PRESSURISATION

4.10.2 Automatic Pressure Controller

The pressure controller provides output control signals to the outflow valve’s ac or
dc torque motors. The motors position and modulate the valve to establish and
control actual cabin pressure in accordance with the controller’s pre-programmed
climb, cruise or descent schedules. This will ensure that for every aircraft altitude
there will be a particular cabin altitude.
Input signals to the controller are from the flight deck control panel, cabin and
ambient pressure sensors, barometric correction and air/ground sensing.

Auto Mode Flight Profile

Figure 29

4.10.3 Outflow Valve

The valve has a moving gate designed to cover or uncover an aperture in the
fuselage skin. An increase in the aperture size will cause cabin pressure to fall
(cabin altitude to ascend), whereas a decrease in the aperture size results in an
increase in cabin pressure (cabin altitude to descend). The gate is driven by one
of two electrically driven motors, the choice of ac or dc motor being determined
by flight crew input.
Motor input signals come from the controller when in the auto or standby modes,
or directly from a control panel switch when in the manual mode.

Issue 1 – May 2012 Page 4-33

 Outflow Valve
Figure 30
4.10.4 Inward and Outward Safety Relief Valves

Fuselage frames are designed to accept tensile loads associated with and
outward force from within the pressure cell. Their ability to withstand compression
loads that would occur if the pressure outside the aircraft were higher than within
the pressure cell is poor. Therefore an inward relief valve will open and equalise
the pressure if the inward or negative differential exceeds about 0.5 psid.
Two outward relief valves are fitted to prevent the maximum outward differential
pressure from exceeding the structural limit. This will typically be around 8.5psid.
Even though the main pressure control is electronic, the safety relief valves are
mechanical operated and are completely independent of any automatic control
system.

Pressurisation System Valves

Figure 31

Page 4-34 13.11 - Air Conditioning May 2012

 PART 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 11.04

AIR CONDITIONING AND

CABIN PRESSURISATION

4.11 CABIN PRESSURE INDICATION

Most pressurisation systems have three basic cockpit indicators cabin altitude,
cabin rate of climb and the pressure differential indicator. The cabin altitude
gauge measures the actual cabin altitude.

Cabin Altitude Gauge

Figure 32

The cabin rate of climb indicator tells the pilot the rate that the cabin is either
climbing or descending. (I.e. the rate at which the cabin loses or gains pressure)
A typical maximum climb rate is 500ft per minute and the maximum descent rate
is 300ft per minute. The control can be automatic or manual depending on aircraft
type.

Cabin Rate of Climb

Figure 33

Issue 1 – May 2012 Page 4-35

The differential pressure gauge (Figure 34) reads the difference between the
cabin and the outside air pressures. This differential pressure is normally
controlled and maintained to a structural limitation around 7psid. This depends on
the aircraft type and the operating ceiling of the aircraft. The differential pressure
gauge may be combined with the cabin altitude (Figure 35).

0
1
10
DIFF PX PSI 2
9
3

8 4
7 5
6

Differential Pressure Gauge Dual Gauge

Figure 34 Figure 35

4.12 SAFETY AND WARNING DEVICES

To ground test the pressurisation system with the engines running, at least three
men are required inside the aircraft for safety reasons.

Both air conditioning and pressurisation systems use safety and warning devices
to protect the aircraft from possible catastrophic failures. Some of the protection
devices may be inhibited in certain stages of flight; landing or take off where the
extra distractions caused by such warnings may be too much for the crews to
deal with safely.

With the air conditioning system the main concerns are with overheating of the air
conditioning packs and extraction and ventilation fans, as well as hot air leaks
from ducting which could damage surrounding structure or components.

4.12.1 Overheating

Most packs systems are protected from overheating by a thermal switch

downstream of the pack outlet. If the outlet temperature reaches a pre
determined figure the switch will operate causing the pack valves to shut,
preventing air from getting to the packs, as well as sending a warning signal to
the cockpit central warning panel with associated caution/warning lights and aural
chimes and to illuminate a fault light on the pack selector switch.

Page 4-36 13.11 - Air Conditioning May 2012

 PART 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 11.04

AIR CONDITIONING AND

CABIN PRESSURISATION

Once the system has cooled down sufficiently the crew may have an option to
reselect the overheated system. The overheat may have been caused by a fault
in the automatic temperature control system in which case the pilot may be able
to control the system manually via a manual selector switch on the cockpit
controller.

Extraction or ventilation fans will be protected in much the same way. An

overheat will signal the central warning panel with associated caution/warning
lights and aural chimes. The fan may be isolated automatically or manually. Once
the fan has cooled down it may be possible to re-select if required. Fans may also
be protected from over or under speeding, which will also have an effect on the
system temperatures. Speed sensors on the fan will indicate a fault when over or
under speed limits are reached and a warning signal is sent to the cockpit central
warning panel with associated caution/warning lights and aural chimes.

4.12.2 Duct Hot Air Leakage

Any ducting that includes joints is liable to leak under abnormal conditions. A duct
protection system will include fire-wire elements around the hot zones such as
engine air bleeds, air conditioning packs and auxiliary power units if fitted.

The sensing elements will be the thermistor type. As the temperature around the
wire increases the resistance decreases until an electrical circuit is made. When
the circuit is made a warning signal is sent to the cockpit central warning panel
with associated caution/warning lights and aural chimes. The leaking duct may be
isolated automatically or may require the pilot to take action to close off the air
valves. The faulty system will then remain out of use.

4.12.3 Excess Cabin Altitude

If the cabin altitude was allowed to increase unchecked the crew and passengers
could unknowingly suffer the effects of hypoxia. This dangerous condition is
obviously undesirable especially for the aircrew. Most aircraft give a warning on
the CWP with associated audio and visual warnings when the cabin altitude
reaches 10000`.

4.12.4 Smoke Detection

Smoke detectors may be fitted within the cabin; avionics bay and cargo areas to
monitor systems, which if become faulty may generate smoke on overheating, or
are may be liable to catch fire. These detectors will send a signal to the CWP with
associated lights and audio warnings. They may also automatically switch on
extractor fans, which will remove the smoke overboard and away form the cabin
and cockpit areas. In this event, the pilot may have a switch or control lever to
operate a valve to isolate the cockpit air conditioning ducting from the rest of the
aircraft to prevent any smoke from getting to the cockpit.

Issue 1 – May 2012 Page 4-37

 PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK

Page 4-38 13.11 - Air Conditioning May 2012