Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Power System Protection

for Engineers

Transmission Line Distance

Protection
Part 1

Copyright © SEL 2005

Technical papers supporting this section:

6022.pdf, Z = V/I Does Not Make a Distance Relay by J. Roberts; A. Guzman; E.O.
Schweitzer, III

General books of Power System Protection.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Transmission Line Distance

Protection (Part 1) Objectives
z Describe distance relay operation, design
principles, and connections
z Discuss infeed effect in distance relays
z Describe the effect of fault resistance on the
impedance measured by distance relays
z Discuss impedances measured by distance
elements for different fault types, and the
resulting need for fault type selection

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Transmission Line Protection

Principles

z Overcurrent (50, 51, 50N, 51N)

z Directional Overcurrent (67, 67N)
z Distance (21, 21N)
z Differential (87)

This section is an introduction to the topic of transmission line protection using distance
relays. Further sections and courses will complete the wide and interesting topic of
distance protection.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Three-Phase Fault on a Radial Line

Radial
Line

Three-Phase Bolted Fault

For a perfect three-phase fault, only the positive-sequence impedance is involved in the
calculations. With the usual convention, the phase “a” voltage and current are equal to the
positive-sequence voltage and current.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Impedance Diagram

Z S1 ( d / L ) Z L1

+ +
I1 = I a Bolted
E V1 = Va Fault
- -

E
I 1 = I a = I FAULT =
Z S 1 + ( d / L ) Z L1
z Zs1 is System’s Thevenin Equivalent Impedance.
z It Depends on Whole System State (Topology, Load, etc.)

The positive-sequence impedance diagram for a three-phase fault is as shown in the figure.

For this radial system, disregarding the influence of load, the fault current in each phase is
balanced and is equal to the phase current measured by the relays at the substation.

This current depends on the following parameters:

• System voltage

• Line impedance

• Distance to the fault

• Thevenin impedance equivalent to the system “behind” the substation bus

The Thevenin impedance depends on the conditions of the system, such as the topology
and system loading.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Overcurrent Relay Setting and Reach

z Phase Instantaneous Element (50) Commonly Set
to Reach Faults up to 80% of Total Line Length

L
0.8L
Radial
Line

Three-Phase Bolted Fault

E
z Relay Setting Calculated I SETTING ≈
for a Given Value of ZS1 Z S 1 + ( 0 . 8 ) Z L1

A phase instantaneous overcurrent element is set to detect fault currents up to 80 percent

of the line length. This gives enough security margin (20 percent) to avoid non-selective
operation for faults beyond the remote bus. The relay setting is calculated for a given value
of the equivalent ZS1.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Overcurrent Relay Problem

E
I SETTING ≈
Z S 1 + ( 0 . 8) Z L1

z Relay Operates When the Following Condition

Holds:
I FAULT = I a > I SETTING
z As Zs1 Changes, the Relay’s “Reach” Will Change,
Since Setting is Fixed
E
I FAULT ( LIMIT ) =
Z S′1 + ( 0 .8) Z L1

As the system topology behind the substation bus changes, ZS1 changes. As a result, the
relay “reach” will change. The only way to avoid non-selective operations for faults
beyond the remote bus is to calculate the instantaneous setting for the worst case value of
ZS1, which results in a shorter reach of the instantaneous element for all other system
configurations. It is highly probable that the system presents the worst case value for
relatively short periods of time, meaning that the relay reach will be permanently
sacrificed for a situation that occurs for short periods. This is a disadvantage of
instantaneous overcurrent relays.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Distance Relay Principle

L
d
Ia, Ib, Ic

Radial
21 Three-Phase
Va, Vb, Vc Line
Solid Fault

Suppose Relay is Designed to Operate When:

| Va |≤ (0 .8) | Z L1 || I a |

Suppose that it is possible to design a relay that operates not when the current is larger
than a given threshold, but when the phase voltage is less than the current times a constant,
as shown in the figure.

This relay requires voltage and current information.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Distance Relay Principle

For a Perfectly Balanced Three-Phase Fault at Distance d:

V a = ( d / L ) Z L1 I a

Therefore, the Relay will Operate when:

| ( d / L ) Z L1 I a |≤ (0 .8) | Z L1 || I a | ⇒

d ≤ 0 .8 L
This Result Does Not Depend on the Thevenin Impedance

The inequality originally stated in terms of voltage and current implicitly states that the
relay will operate when the distance to the fault is less than a given limit distance, called
the distance relay reach.

Ideally, the reach of such a relay does not depend on the source impedance.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Impedance Relay

If Relay Operates for:

| Va |≤ (0 .8) | Z L1 || I a |,

Then Equivalent is:

| Va |
≤ ( 0 .8) | Z L1 |
| Ia |

| Va |
The Quantity …is an impedance
| Ia |

This relay is called impedance or “under-impedance” relay because the relay design is
such that the relay operates for an impedance condition. The relay measures or “sees” a
given impedance, equal to the ratio of the applied sinusoidal voltage and the applied
sinusoidal current.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Apparent Impedance

Define the Apparent Impedance for this Relay as:

Va
Z = R + jX = Z ∠ θ =
Ia
Relay Operating Condition Becomes:

| Z |< (0 .8) | Z L1 |
Which is Equivalent to:

R 2 + X 2 ≤ ( 0 .8) | Z L1 | ⇒
R 2 + X 2 ≤ (( 0.8) | Z L1 |) 2

The apparent impedance is a concept used to describe the impedance “measured’ or

“seen” by a distance relay. It is defined as the ratio between the voltage and current
phasors applied to the relay. For the particular case that has been described, these
quantities are Va and Ia.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Relay Setting

Define the Relay Setting as:

Z r 1 = ( 0 .8) | Z L1 |
The Relay Operating Condition Becomes:

Z ≤ Z r1

Or….

R 2 + X 2 ≤ Z r21

The maximum reach of the distance relay, in terms of impedance, is normally an

adjustable value of the relay. Therefore, the same relay can be used for different lines.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Under-Impedance Relay Implementation

V
Magnitude
Z r1 I TRIP
I Z r1
Comparator

| V |≤| Z r 1 I | ⇒
Operates When:
Z ≤ Z r1

The figure shows the simplest design for an under-impedance relay. The current is passed
through a single amplifier. The magnitude of the resulting quantity is compared to the
magnitude of the voltage by a two-input magnitude comparator. The gain of the amplifier
Zr1 is the relay setting.

In the past, these devices were implemented through use of an electromechanical balance
unit. Today, in computer-based relays, the relay equation is directly implemented in the
relay routines.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Impedance Calculation Example

Ia, Ib, Ic

69 kV Line
21
zL1=0.24+j0.80 Ohms/mile
Va, Vb, Vc
L = 15 miles
Z L1 = (0.24 + j 0.8) ⋅15 =
= 3.6 + j12 Ohms

Relay setting: Z r1 = (0.8) | 3.6 + j12 |=10.02 Ohms

Relay will operate for:

R 2 + X 2 ≤ 10.02 2 = 100.4 Ohms

This example shows the calculations involved in the determination of a simple impedance
relay setting.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Primary and Secondary Ohms

z Relay is Receiving Secondary Volts and Secondary Amps

V prim I prim
Vsec = ; I sec =
VTR CTR
VTR
Define : ZTR =
CTR
V prim V prim
V I prim Z prim
Z sec = sec = VTR = VTR =
I sec I prim CTR ZTR
CTR

The setting calculated in the former slide is in primary ohms. Because the relay is
connected to CTs and VTs, the ratios of the instrument transformer must be considered.

It is usual to find an impedance ratio ZTR = VTR/CTR to determine the secondary

impedance measured by the relay. This ZTR is also used to determine the actual relay
setting, in secondary ohms.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Impedance Calculation Example

Ia, Ib, Ic

69 kV Line
21
zL1 = 0.24+j0.80 Ohms/mile
Va, Vb, Vc
L = 15 miles
Z L1 = (0.24 + j 0.8) ⋅15 =
= 3.6 + j12 Ohms

VTR = 40000 / 120

CTR = 600 / 5 ⇒ ZTR = VTR / CTR = 2.77

Relay setting at 80% of Line Z:

Z r1 = 10.02 / 2.77 = 3.62 Secondary Ohms

This is the same example as before, but now the relay setting is calculated in secondary
ohms.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

The Complex Impedance Plane

z The Apparent Impedance Z Can Be Represented

in a Complex Plane

Z = R + jX = Z ∠ θ
X

Z
θ
R

The complex plane is commonly used to represent the apparent impedance measured by
distance relays.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

The Impedance Relay Characteristic

R 2 + X 2 ≤ Z r21

X Plain Impedance Relay

Operation Zone
Z ≤ Z r1 Radius Zr1
Zr1

A plain impedance relay will operate for any apparent impedance whose magnitude is less
than, or equal to, the relay setting. In the complex plane, this is represented by the region
within a circle with radius equal to the relay setting. The border of the circle represents the
operation threshold of the relay.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Unit Distance Definition

L
d
Ia, Ib, Ic Radial
Line

Va, Vb, Vc 21 Three-Phase

Bolted Fault

d
m=
L

The unit distance is the distance to the fault in per unit of the total line’s length. This
parameter is commonly used in protective relaying.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

The Bolted Fault Locus

L
d
Ia, Ib, Ic
Radial
Line

Va, Vb, Vc 21 Three-Phase

Bolted Fault

V a = ( d / L ) Z L1 I a
The Apparent Impedance is:
Va
Z = = ( d / L ) Z L 1 = m Z L1
Ia

If the apparent impedance of a distance relay is calculated for three-phase bolted faults
along the line, for distances varying from 0 miles to L miles, the resulting set of complex
numbers can be plotted in the complex impedance plane.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

The Bolted Fault Locus

Apparent Impedance:

Z = m Z L1 = mZ L1∠ θ L1 = mR L1 + jmX L1 ;
For 0 ≤ m ≤1
X
ZL1 This line segment is
XL1 the locus of the
apparent impedance
for solid faults over
θL1 the line.

RL1 R

This set of points is a line segment as shown in the figure. The segment has the same
length and angle as the total line impedance and is called the bolted fault locus.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Line Protection With Impedance Relay

Solid Fault
X Locus
Operation zone
Z = m Z L1 ;
Z ≤ Z r1
Zr1 0 ≤ m ≤1
R

If the fault locus is superimposed with the relay operating characteristic in the same
complex plane, the resulting plot indicates the degree of protection of the relay. The case
shown in the figure represents a case in which the relay has been set to reach faults up to
~80 percent of the line.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Distance Protection
Load vs. Fault Apparent Impedance
V I

Fault
Bolted Fault
Relay X Locus

Fault
Load

R
V
Operation Zone Z=
I

During normal load conditions, the impedance “seen” by a distance relay has a magnitude
much larger than the length of the bolted fault locus (line). When a fault occurs, the
impedance moves instantly to a point in the complex plane located on, or very near, the
bolted fault locus. The accuracy of this statement for non-bolted faults will be shown later.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Need for Directionality

F2 F1
1 2 3 4 5 6

RELAY 3 X
Operation Zone
F1

F2 R
Non-Selective
Relay Operation

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Directionality Improvement

F2 F1
1 2 3 4 5 6

RELAY 3 X
Operation Zone Directional Impedance
F1 Relay Characteristic

F2 R
The Relay Will
Not Operate for
This Fault

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Mho Element Characteristic

(Directional Impedance Relay)

Operates when: V ≤ I Z M cos(ϕ − ϕ MT )

X
Z ≤ Z M cos(ϕ − ϕ MT )
ZM

Z
ϕMT
ϕ

There are three traditional distance elements: impedance-type, reactance-type, and Mho-
type distance elements.

The figure shows the operation equation and operating characteristic of a Mho distance
element. The characteristic is the locus of all apparent impedance values for which the
relay element is on the verge of operation. The operation zone is located inside the circle,
and the resraint zone is the region outside the circle.

The Mho characteristic is a circle passing through the origin of the impedance plane. The
Mho element operates for impedances inside the circle. The characteristic is oriented
towards the first quadrant, which is where forward faults are located. For reverse faults, the
apparent impedance lies in the third quadrant and represents a restraint condition. The fact
that the circle passes through the origin is an indication of the inherent directionality of the
Mho elements. However, close-in bolted faults result in a very small voltage at the relay
that may result in a loss of the voltage polarizing signal. This needs to be taken into
consideration when selecting the appropriate Mho element polarizing quantity.

There are typically two settings in a Mho element: the characteristic diameter, ZM, and the
angle of this diameter with respect to the R axis, ϕMT. The angle is equivalent to the
maximum torque angle of a directional element. The Mho element presents its longest
reach (greatest sensitivity) when the apparent impedance angle ϕ coincides with ϕMT.

Normally, ϕMT is set close to the protected line impedance angle to ensure maximum relay
sensitivity for faults and minimum sensitivity for load conditions.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

How to Implement a Mho Relay

Signal S1
V Forming Phase
Trip
I Comparison
Signal S2
Forming

S1 = −V + I Z r ; Operating Quantity
S2 = V Polarizing Quantity

Operation Condition: − λ1 ≤ arg(S1 S 2 ) ≤ λ2

The early electromechanical relays with a Mho characteristic used a product unit
(induction cylinder element) to achieve the torque equation: V2 – V I cos(θ-θMT) > 0.

Analog static relays used a two-input phase comparator to create the Mho characteristic.
The inputs to the comparator are properly mixed from the original voltage and current to
obtain the desired behavior.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

How to Implement a Mho Relay

S1 = −V + I Z r ; S 2 = V
− 90o ≤ arg(S1 S 2 ) ≤ 90 o
− 90o ≤ arg((−V + I Z r ) V ) ≤ 90o
⎛ −V / I + Zr ⎞
− 90 o ≤ arg⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≤ 90o
⎝ V /I ⎠
⎛Z −Z ⎞
− 90o ≤ arg⎜⎜ r ⎟⎟ ≤ 90 o
⎝ Z ⎠

These simple algebraic manipulations show how the voltage-current equations become
impedance equations.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

How to Implement a Mho Relay

Mho Circle Threshold: (

arg ( Z r − Z ) Z = ± 90 )
X
B

Zr Zr-Z
90o

A R

The operation condition is the region within the Mho circle. Zr and the angle, defining the
circle diameter, are the relay settings.

The shape and position of the circle can be changed by changing the inputs to the phase
comparator.

Currently, with computer-based relays, it is much easier to implement a Mho relay.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Distance Relay Timing and

Coordination
Operation Time

Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 1

1 2 3 4 5 6
A B C

Zone 1 is Instantaneous

So far, a directional distance relay, which operates instantaneously and is set to reach less
than 100 percent of the protected line, has been described. Two important principles of
protection have been missing:

1. What happens for a fault on the protected line that is beyond the reach of the relay?

2. If the relay operates instantaneously, it cannot be used as a remote back-up for a

relay protecting a line adjacent to the remote substation.

These two problems are overcome by adding time-delay distance relays. This is
accomplished by using the distance relay to start a definite time timer. The output of the
timer can then be used as a tripping signal.

The figure shows how a second zone (or step) is added to each of the directional
impedance relays. A third zone, with a larger delay, can also be added.

The operation time of the second zone is usually around 0.3 seconds, and the third zone
around 0.6 seconds. However, the required time depends on the particular application.

The ohmic reach of each zone also depends on the particular power system. The figure and
the next slide show a typical reach scheme for three zones.

What about Circuit Breakers 2, 4 and 5?

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

The Reach of Mho Elements

Relay Settings
X
Zone 3
C

Zone 2
Relays at A
(CB 1) A R

Zone 1

The slide shows how the instantaneous Zone 1, and the delayed Zones 2 and 3 look in a
complex impedance plane if Mho units are used for all three zones. Note the reference to
buses A, B, and C of the previous slide, which indicate that the distance elements
correspond to the relays associate with Circuit Breaker 1, located at Substation A.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Three-Zone Distance Protection

Time

Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 1

1 2 3 4 5 6

Time

What about Circuit Breakers 2, 4, and 5? The figure shows the operating time as a function of
the electrical distance for six distance relays. Here, the relays “looking” in both directions are
shown. We show the characteristics for Relays 1, 3, and 5 above the system one-line diagram.
We represent the characteristics for Relays 2, 4, and 5 below the one-line diagram.

Zone 1 must underreach the remote line end to make sure that it will not operate for faults in
the adjacent lines. Zone 2 is intended to cover the end of the protected line, so it must
overreach the protected line. Zone 3 is intended to provide remote backup protection to
adjacent lines, so it must overreach the longest adjacent line.

We typically leave a coordination interval (including breaker tripping time) between Zones 1
and 2 and between Zones 2 and 3 of adjacent distance relays. This means that the end of Zone
2 of a backup relay should not overlap with the begininning of Zone 2 of the primary relay.
The same is true for adjacent third zones. This is not always possible, however.

In the figure, we can see that faults located in the central section of a given line are cleared by
simultaneous and instantaneous operation of the first zones at both line ends. Should a first
zone fail to operate, the remote backup relay operates in second or third zone. On the other
hand, faults close to one line end will be cleared sequentially: the nearest line end will operate
in first zone, and the remote end will operate in second zone. This sequential fault clearing is a
limitation of distance protection, because it could jeopardize system stability.

An advantage of distance protection over directional overcurrent protection is that the distance
first zone reach depends less on system operating conditions than the reach of the
instantaneous overcurrent element. In other words, distance protection provides better
instantaneous line coverage.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Line Protection with Mho Elements

A
R
D

The figure is an impedance-plane representation of a line protection scheme using Mho

distance relays (both directions). A longitudinal system is formed by transmission lines
AB, BC, AD, and DE. The line impedances are plotted on the complex plane, using
substation A as the origin of coordinates for convenience. The Mho circles represent the
three zones of the distance schemes at both ends of line AB.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Circular Distance Relay Characteristics

X X
PLAIN OFFSET
IMPEDANCE MHO (2)

X X
LENS
MHO (RESTRICTED MHO 1)

R R

X X
OFFSET TOMATO
MHO (1) (RESTRICTED MHO 2)

R R

The figure shows several commonly used circular distance relay characteristics. For analog
relays, these characteristics can be obtained with phase and/or magnitude comparators. In
microprocessor-based relays, they are implemented through the use of mathematical
algorithms.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Semi-Plane Type Characteristics

X X
DIRECTIONAL
RESTRICTED
DIRECTIONAL

R
X X

REACTANCE RESTRICTED
REACTANCE

R R

X X

OHM
QUADRILATERAL

R
R

Here is another group of traditional distance relay characteristics.

The use of one characteristic or another depends on several factors associated with the
power system. These factors will be studied during this course.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Quadrilateral Element Characteristic

A
R

Solid-state and digital relays permit creation of highly sophisticated distance

characteristics.

An example is the quadrilateral characteristic, shown here. You can shape the
characteristic to meet different line protection requirements.

The price for this flexibility is setting complexity: there are four settings in a quadrilateral
characteristic.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Distance Relay Connections

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Line Faults – Simplified Analysis

POWER SYSTEM

L
d
p Ia, Ib, Ic q

Fault
Va, Vb, Vc
21

So far, the design, operation, and setting of distance relays for three-phase bolted faults has
been studied. In this part of the course, it will be shown that the voltage and current
applied to the relay for it to correctly measure the “distance to the fault” depends on the
type of fault.

Different types of bolted short circuits on a transmission line will be studied to determine
the phase currents and voltages (Ia, Ib, Ic, Va, Vb, Vc) at the distance relay location.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Line Equations During a 3-Phase Fault

Ia
a
Ib
b
Ic
c
Va Vb V
c

Three-Phase Fault

Va = m( Z S I a + Z m I b + Z m I c ) + 0 = m( Z S − Z m ) I a
Vb = m( Z m I a + Z S I b + Z m I c ) + 0 = m( Z S − Z m ) I b
Vc = m( Z m I a + Z m I b + Z S I c ) + 0c = m( Z S − Z m ) I c

The three-phase, short-circuit case is repeated here to introduce the procedure to be used.

The line equations correspond to a symmetrical, or transposed, line. The three phases are
set to zero voltage at the fault location. The unit distance, m, is used as the distance to the
fault point.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Review of Self and Mutual Impedances

Z L1 = Z S − Z m ;
⇒
Z L 0 = Z S + 2Z m

Z S = ( Z L 0 + 2 Z L1 ) / 3;
Z m = ( Z L 0 − Z L1 ) / 3

Recall the relationships between the self and mutual impedances with the positive-
sequence and zero-sequence impedances.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Relay Connection for a 3-Phase Fault

Va = m( Z S − Z m ) I a = mZ L1 I a
Vb = m( Z S − Z m ) I b = mZ L1 I b
⇒
Vc = m( Z S − Z m ) I c = mZ L1 I c

Va V V
= mZ L1 ; b = mZ L1 ; c = mZ L1 ;
Ia Ib Ic
z A single distance element could be enough to detect
balanced three-phase faults.
z The element should be connected to any phase
voltage and current.

The algebraic development shows that a single distance element is enough to detect
balanced three-phase faults. The element should be connected to any phase voltage and
current to properly measure the positive-sequence impedance existing between the relay
location and the fault. This impedance is directly proportional to the distance.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Line Equations for a “B-C” Fault

a
Ib
b
Ic
c
Va Vb Vc

B-C Fault

Va = m( Z S I a + Z m I b + Z m I c ) + V fa
Vb = m( Z m I a + Z S I b + Z m I c ) + V fb
Vc = m( Z m I a + Z m I b + Z S I c ) + V fb

For a b-c fault, the relevant border condition is that the voltages of phase b and c are equal
at the fault point.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Relay Connection for a B-C Fault

Vb − Vc = m( Z S − Z m )( I b − I c )
Vb − Vc = mZ L1 ( I b − I c ) ⇒

Vb − Vc
= mZ L1
Ib − Ic

z A single distance element for Vb-Vc and Ib-Ic

will measure the fraction of positive-sequence line
impedance between the relay location and the fault

The algebraic manipulation leads to the conclusion shown in the slide.

A similar development can be done for a-b and c-a faults.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Phase Distance Element Connections

Relay Element Voltage Current

ab Va − Vb Ia − Ib
bc Vb − Vc Ib − Ic
ca Vc − Va Ic − Ia

Measured Impedance (Solid Fault): m Z L1

The table summarizes phase distance element connections. Line-to-line voltages and the
difference of the currents of these lines are used as relay input signals. The result is that the
relay element, corresponding to the fault loop, measures the positive-sequence impedance
of the faulted line section.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Phase A-to-Ground Fault Line Equations

a
Ib
b
Ic
c
Va Vb Vc

A-to-Ground Fault

Va = m( Z S I a + Z m I b + Z m I c ) + 0
Vb = m( Z m I a + Z S I b + Z m I c ) + V fb
Vc = m( Z m I a + Z m I b + Z S I c ) + V fc

The case of a Phase A-to-ground fault is studied by making the Phase A voltage equal to
zero at the fault point. The equation for Phase A is then algebraically manipulated as
shown in the next slide.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Phase A-to-Ground Fault

Relay Connection

Va = m( Z S I a − Z m I a + Z m I a + Z m I b + Z m I c ) =
= m(( Z S − Z m ) I a + Z m ( I a + I b + I c )) =
⎡ Z − Z L1 ⎤ ⎡ Z − Z L1 ⎤
= m ⎢ Z L1 I a + L 0 ( I res )⎥ = mZ L1 ⎢ I a + L 0 I res ⎥ =
⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎣ 3Z L1 ⎦
[ ]
= mZ L1 I a + k0 I res ; where k0 = ( Z L 0 − Z L1 ) /(3Z L1 )

Va
= mZ L1
I a + k0 I res

The result of the manipulation is that, for the relay to properly measure the positive
sequence impedance between the relay location and the fault, the relay must receive:

• The phase “a” voltage

• The phase “a” current plus a residual current compensation factor.

The compensation factor, ko, is called the residual compensation factor, or the zero
sequence compensation factor because the residual current is three times the zero-sequence
current.

A similar result is obtained for b-to-ground and c-to-ground faults.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Ground Distance Relay Connections

Relay Element Voltage Current

r
AG Va I a + k0 I res
r
BG Vb I b + k0 I res
r
CG Vc I c + k 0 I res

Z L 0 − Z L1
k0 = Compensation factor
3Z L1
Measured Impedance (Bolted Fault): m Z L1

The table summarizes ground distance element connections. Phase voltages and
compensated line currents are used as relay input signals. The current signal is
compensated by adding a factor derived from the zero-sequence current. The multiplying
factor k0 is, in general, a complex number that depends on the line zero-sequence and
positive-sequence impedances.

There are two basic sources of error in this connection. One of these is line asymmetry. By
using a symmetrical component scope, it is assumed that the line is ideally transposed.
Untransposed lines, however, are becoming common. Line asymmetry could produce
errors on the order of 5 percent in distance estimation. This error must be accomodated by
pulling back the relay first zone reach.

Another source of error is the typical assumption that angles ZL1 and ZL0 are equal. Under
this assumption, k0 is a real number. In analog relays, it is much easier to create a real
number than a complex multiplying factor.

There are other connections for ground distance elements. One of these uses the phase
voltage and a compensated line current as input signals. The connection uses the currents
of the other two lines (instead of the zero-sequence current) for compensation.
Asymmetrical lines are not a source of error for this connection. A drawback is
complexity: you must set two multiplying factors (instead of only k0).

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Self-Polarizing Scheme Connections

RELAYS V I
A-B Va-Vb Ia-Ib
PHASE B-C Vb-Vc Ib-Ic
RELAYS C-A Vc-Va Ic-Ib
A Va Ia + k0 Ires
GROUND
B Vb Ib + k0 Ires
RELAYS
C Vc Ic + k0 Ires

The table summarizes the results obtained in the former development.

There are other ways of connecting (polarizing) the distance relays. This particular way is
called the self-polarizing scheme.

In the past, six relays (or measuring units) were required for each distance relay zone to
implement a non-switching scheme like this. Today, this protection can be implemented in
a single microprocessor-based relay.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Distance Protection
Summary
z Current and Voltage Information
z Phase Elements: More Sensitive Than
67 Elements
z Ground Elements: Less Sensitive Than
67N Elements
z Application: Looped and Parallel Lines

In summary, distance protection uses current and voltage information to make a direct, or
indirect, estimate of the distance to the fault. Phase distance elements (21) are more
sensitive than phase directional overcurrent elements (67). On the other hand, ground
distance elements (21N) are less sensitive than ground directional overcurrent elements
(67N). A widely used combination for transmission line protection uses 21 elements for
phase fault protection and 67N elements for ground fault protection.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Distance Protection Problems

z Infeed
z Fault Resistance
z Unequal Measured Impedances
During Faults
z Evolving Faults
z Load Encroachment

Transmission line protection is complex. Problems such as infeed, fault resistance, unequal
measured impedances during faults, load encroachment, and mutual coupling affect the
apparent impedance of distance relays. Fault resistance and mutual coupling also affect
ground directional overcurrent relays. These problems may be complicated by the evolving
character of many faults.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Distance Protection Problems

z Mutual Coupling
z Simultaneous Faults
z Cross-Country Faults
z Power Swings
z Series-Compensated Lines

All these problems may affect distance and directional overcurrent relays. Cross-country
faults, simultaneous faults, and CT saturation may also present a problem for differential
schemes.

Series-compensated lines are extremely difficult to protect. All protection principles may
have problems, because of the possibility of voltage and current inversions. If the series
compensation capacitors are carefully selected, the possibility of current inversions can be
eliminated. In this case, a differential protection scheme may be the best option.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Distance Protection Problems

z Three-Terminal Lines
z Short Lines
z CT Saturation
z CCVT Transients

Three-terminal lines and short lines also have special protection requirements. The
ringdown at subharmonic frequency resulting from compensation reactors may also create
protection problems.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Infeed Effect

V I ZL'
ZL

I'
Fault

21
V = I ZL + I ' ZL'
I'
Z = V I = ZL + ZL' > ZL + ZL'
I
Infeed Produces Relay Underreach

A generation source connected between the relay location and the fault point affects the
value of the impedance a distance relay estimates. This is called the infeed effect. The
intermediate generation source causes the relay to see an impedance that is equal to the
adjacent line multiplied by a factor. This factor is the ratio of the current in the adjacent
line to the relay current. The infeed-effect factor is, in general, a complex number with a
magnitude greater than unity. The infeed effect results in the relay estimating an
impedance value greater than the real impedance between the relay and the fault, ZL + Z’L.
This inaccurate impedance value estimation produces distance relay underreach.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Example: Third Zone Setting

A ZAB B ZBC C

IAB IBC
Fault
21

Without Infeed: Z = ZAB + ZBC

IBC
With Infeed: Z = Z AB + ZBC
IAB
Set Third Zone Considering Infeed

The infeed effect needs to be taken into account when distance relay settings are
calculated. For example, the third zone at A (see figure) will measure ZAB + ZBC for a fault
at C without infeed. When the intermediate source is present, the impedance estimate is
greater because of the IBC/IAB factor. The third zone needs to completely cover the adjacent
line BC for all system operating conditions. Thus, the third zone reach needs to be set
considering the possible infeed. As a result, the third zone may reach far beyond
substation C when the intermediate source is out of service. This factor needs to be
considered when checking adjacent third zones for possible overlap.

Infeed effect does not affect first zones, except in three-terminal lines. In this case, the first
zone needs to be set without infeed to make sure that the zone will not overreach the
remote line end. Setting a first zone in this manner results in the presence of the
intermediate source reducing the first zone reach, thus limiting the high-speed coverage of
the protected line.

The infeed effect also needs to be considered for second zone reach settings. In three-
terminal lines, the second zone should be set with maximum infeed at the third terminal to
ensure full coverage of the protected line. On the other hand, in two-terminal lines, the
second zone should be set for minimum infeed at the remote-end substation to avoid
overlapping with the beginning of the adjacent second zone.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Outfeed
ZL
Z L'
I
I'
21
ZL Z L'

I'

21
I' ' '
Z = ZL + ZL < ZL + ZL
I

Outfeed Produces Relay Overreach

Outfeed is the result of having two paths of current flow after the relay has monitored the
current. An outfeed condition may exist when two or more adjacent lines are connected in
parallel. In three-terminal lines, outfeed may exist if there is a strong external tie between
two line terminals. The magnitude of the outfeed effect factor, I’ / I, is smaller than unity,
which produces a reduced impedance estimate. The result is relay overreach. The outfeed
effect also needs consideration when calculating settings for a distance relay.

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 Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 13 - Transmission Line Distance Protection - Part I

Any Questions?

z Line Distance Protection is Continued

in the Next Section

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