Introduction to Satellite

Communications

A communications satellite is an orbiting artificial earth satellite that

receives a communications signal from a transmitting ground station, amplifies and
possibly processes it, then transmits it back to the earth for reception by one or
more receiving ground stations. Communications information neither originates
nor terminates at the satellite itself. The satellite is an active transmission relay,
similar in function to relay towers used in terrestrial microwave communications.
The commercial satellite communications industry has its real beginnings in the
mid-1960s, and in less than 50 years has progressed from an alternative exotic
technology to a mainstream transmission technology, which is pervasive in all
elements of the global telecommunications infrastructure. Todays
communications satellites offer extensive capabilities in applications involving
data, voice, and video, with services provided to fixed, broadcast, mobile, personal
communications, and private networks users. Satellite communications are now an
accepted fact of everyday life, as evidenced by the antennas or dishes that dot
city and country horizons, or the nearly instantaneous global news coverage that is
taken for granted, particularly in times of international crises.
The communications satellite is a critical element in the overall
telecommunications infrastructure, as represented by Figure 1.1, which highlights,
by the shaded area, the communications satellite component as related to the
transmission of information. Electronic information in the form of voice, data,
video, imaging, etc., is generated in a user environment on or near the earths
surface. The informations first node is often a terrestrial interface, which then
directs the information to a satellite uplink, which generates an RF (radio
frequency) radiowave that propagates through the air link to an orbiting satellite
(or satellites). The information bearing radiowave is amplified and possibly
processed at the satellite, then reformatted and transmitted back to a receiving
ground station through a second RF radiowave propagating through the air link.
Mobile users, indicated by the vehicle and handheld phone on the figure, generally
bypass the terrestrial interface only for direct mobile-to-mobile communications.

Figure 1.1 Communications via satellite in the telecommunications infrastructure

Communications by satellite offers a number of features that are not readily

available with alternative modes of transmission, such as terrestrial microwave,
cable, or fiber networks. Some of the advantages of satellite communications are:
Distance Independent Costs. The cost of satellite transmission is basically the
same, regardless of the distance between the transmitting and receiving earth
stations. Satellite based transmission costs tend to be more stable, particularly for
international or intercontinental communications over vast distances.
Fixed Broadcast Costs. The cost of satellite broadcast transmission, that is,
transmission from one transmit ground terminal to a number of receiving ground
terminals, is independent of the number of ground terminals receiving the
transmission.
High Capacity. Satellite communications links involve high carrier frequencies,
with large information bandwidths. Capacities of typical communications satellites
range from 10s to 100s of Mbps (Mega-bits per second), and can provide services
for several hundred video channels or several tens of thousands of voice or data
links.
Low Error Rates. Bit errors on a digital satellite link tend to be random,
allowing statistical detection and error correction techniques to be used. Error rates
of one bit error in 106 bits or better can be routinely achieved efficiently and
reliably with standard equipment.
Diverse User Networks. Large areas of the earth are visible from the typical
communications satellite, allowing the satellite to link together many users
simultaneously. Satellites are particularly useful for accessing remote areas or
communities not otherwise accessible by terrestrial means. Satellite terminals can
be on the surface, at sea, or in the air, and can be fixed or mobile. The successful
implementation of satellite wireless communications requires robust air links
providing the uplink and downlink paths for the communications signal.
Transmission through the atmosphere will degrade signal characteristics however,
and under some conditions it can be the major impediment to successful system
performance.Adetailed knowledge of the types of atmospheric effects that impact
satellite communications and the means to predict and model them for application
to communications link design and performance is essential for wireless satellite
link engineering. The effects of the atmosphere are even more significant as
current and planned satellites move up to higher operating frequencies, including
the Ku-band (14 GHz uplink/12 GHz downlink), Ka-band (30 GHz/20 GHz), and
V-band (50 GHz/40 GHz), where the effects of rain, gaseous attenuation, and other
effects will increase.
1.1 Early History of Satellite Communications
The idea of a synchronous orbiting satellite capable of relaying communications to
and from the earth is generally attributed to Arthur C. Clarke. Clarke observed in
his classic 1945 paper that a satellite in a circular equatorial orbit with a radius of
about 36000 km would have an angular velocity matching that of the earth, and
thus it would remain above the same spot on the earths surface. This orbiting
artificial satellite could therefore receive and transmit signals from anywhere on
earth in view of the satellite to any other place on the surface in view of the
satellite. The technology to verify this concept was not available until over a
decade later, with the launch in 1957 of SPUTNIK I by the former USSR. This
launch ushered in the space age and both the United States and the USSR began
robust space programs to develop the technology and to apply it to emerging
applications.

1.2 Some Basic Communications Satellite System Definitions

This section provides some of the basic definitions and parameters used in the
satellite communications industry, which will be used throughout the evaluation
and analysis of satellite communications systems design and performance.

1.2.1 Satellite Communications Segments

The satellite communications portion is broken downinto two areas or segments:
the space segment and the ground (or earth) segment.
1.2.1.1 Space Segment
The elements of the space segment of a communications satellite system are shown
on Figure 1.2. The space segment includes the satellite (or satellites) in orbit in the
system, and the ground station that provides the operational control of the
satellite(s) in orbit. The ground station is variously referred to as the Tracking,
Telemetry, Command (TT&C) or the Tracking, Telemetry, Command and
Monitoring (TTC&M) station. The TTC&M station provides essential spacecraft
management and control functions to keep the satellite operating safely in orbit.
The TTC&M links between the spacecraft and the ground are usually separate
from the user communications links. TTC&M links may operate in the same
frequency bands or in other bands. TTC&M is most often accomplished through a
separate earth terminal facility specifically designed for the complex operations
required to maintain a spacecraft in orbit

Figure 1.2 The space segment for a communications satellite network

1.2.1.2 Ground Segment

The ground segment of the communications satellite system consists of the earth
surface area based terminals that utilize the communications capabilities of the
Space Segment. TTC&M ground stations are not included in the ground segment.
The ground segment terminals consist of three basic types:
fixed (in-place) terminals;
transportable terminals;
mobile terminals.
Fixed terminals are designed to access the satellite while fixed in-place on the
ground. They may be providing different types of services, but they are defined by
the fact that they are not moving while communicating with the satellite. Examples
of fixed terminals are small terminals used in private networks (VSATs), or
terminals mounted on residence buildings used to receive broadcast satellite
signals. Transportable terminals are designed to be movable, but once on location
remain fixed during transmissions to the satellite. Examples of the transportable
terminal are satellite news gathering (SGN) trucks, which move to locations, stop
in place, and then deploy an antenna to establish links to the satellite. Mobile
terminals are designed to communicate with the satellite while in motion. They are
further defined as land mobile, aeronautical mobile, or maritime mobile, depending
on their locations on or near the earth surface.
1.2.2 Satellite Link Parameters
The communications satellite link is defined by several basic parameters, some
used in traditional communications system definitions, others unique to the satellite
environment. Figure 1.3 summarizes the parameters used in the evaluation of
satellite communications links. Two oneway free-space or air links between Earth
Stations A and B are shown. The portion of the link from the earth station to the
satellite is called the uplink, while the portion from the satellite to the ground is the
downlink. Note that either station has an uplink and a downlink. The electronics in
the satellite that receives the uplink signal, amplifies and possibly processes the
signal, and then reformats and transmits the signal back to the ground, is called the
transponder, designated by the triangular amplifier symbol in the figure (the point
of the triangle indicates the direction of signal transmission). Two transponders are
required in the satellite for each twoway link between the two ground stations as
shown. The antennas on the satellite that receive and transmit the signals are
usually not included as a part of the transponder electronics they are defined as a
separate element of the satellite payload. A channel is defined as the one-way total
link from A-to-S-to-B, OR the link from B-to-S-to-A. The duplex (two-way) links
A-to-S-to-B AND B-to-S-to-A establish a circuit between the two stations. A half-
circuit is defined as the two links at one of the earth stations, that is A-to-S AND S-
to-A; OR B-to-S AND S-to-B. The circuit designations are a carry-over from
standard telephony definitions, which are applied to the satellite segment of the
communications infrastructure.

Figure 1.3 Basic link parameters in the communications satellite link

1.2.3 Satellite Orbits

We introduce here the satellite orbit terms for the four most commonly used orbits
in satellite communications, shown in Figure 1.4. The basic orbit altitude(s) and
the one-way delay times are shown for each orbit, along with the common
abbreviation designations.
 Figure 1.4 Satellite orbits

1.2.3.1 Geosynchronous Orbit (GSO or GEO)

The GSO orbit is by far the most popular orbit used for communications satellites.
A GSO satellite is located in a circular orbit in the equatorial plane, at a nominal
distance of 36000 km at a stable point, which maintains the satellite at a fixed
location in the sky. This is a tremendous advantage for satellite communications,
because the pointing direction remains fixed in space and the ground antenna does
not need to track a moving satellite. A disadvantage of the GSO is the long delay
time of approximately 260 ms, which can affect network synchronization or impact
voice communications.
1.2.3.2 Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
The second most common orbit is the low earth orbit (LEO), which is a circular
orbit nominally 160 to 640 km above the earth. The delay is low, 10 ms, however
the satellite moves across the sky, and the ground station must actively track the
satellite to maintain communications.
1.2.3.3 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)
The MEO is similar to the LEO, however the satellite is in a higher circular orbit
1600 to 4200 km. It is a popular orbit for navigation satellites such as the GPS
constellation.

1.2.3.4 High Earth Orbit (HEO)

The HEO is the only non-circular orbit of the four types. It operates with an
elliptical orbit, with a maximum altitude (apogee) similar to the GSO, and a
minimum altitude (perigee) similar to the LEO. Satellite orbits that are not
synchronous, such as the LEO, MEO, or HEO, are often referred to as non-
geosynchronous orbit (NGSO) satellites.

1.2.4 Frequency Band Designations

The frequency of operation is perhaps the major determining factor in the design
and performance of a satellite communications link. The wavelength of the free
space path signal is the principal parameter that determines the interaction effects
of the atmosphere, and the resulting link path degradations. Also, the satellite
systems designer must operate within the constraints of international and domestic
regulations related to choice of operating free space path frequency. Two different
methods of designation have come into common use to define radio frequency
bands. Letter band designations, derived from radar applications in the 1940s,
divide the spectrum from 1 to 300 GHz into eight bands with nominal frequency
ranges, as shown on Figure 1.5.The K-band is further broken down into KU-band
(K-lower) and KA-band (K-above). The boundaries of the bands are not always
followed, and often some overlap is observed. For example, some references
consider C-band as 3.76.5 GHz andKu-band as 10.912.5 GHz. The bands above
40 GHzhave seen several letter designations used, including Q-band,W-band, U-
band, and W-band. The ambiguity in letter band designations suggests that they
should be used with caution particularly when the specific frequency is an
important consideration.

Figure 1.5 Letter band frequency designations

A second designation divides the spectrum from 3 Hz to 300 GHz into bands based
on decade steps of nominal wavelength, as shown in Figure 1.6. This designation is
less ambiguous than the letter designation, however, most satellite communications
links operate within only three or four of the bands, VHF through EHF, with the
vast majority of systems in the SHF band.

Figure 1.6 Frequency band designations by wavelength

In general, the frequency band designations are useful when general characteristics
of satellite communications systems are of interest. When the specific operating
carrier frequency or specific frequency band are important, however, the best
solution is to specify the frequency directly, rather than using frequency band
designations.