HF COMMUNICATIONS

BASIC PRINCIPLES

The use of HF (2-30MHz) carries for communication purposes greatly extends the range at
which aircrew can establish contact with Aeronautical Mobile Service Stations. This being so,
we find that HF comm. systems are fitted to aircraft flying routes which are , for some parts of
the flight, out of range of VHF service. Such aircraft obviously include public transport aircraft
flying intercontinental routes, but there is also a market of general aviation aircraft.

The long range is achieved by use of sky waves which are refracted by the ionosphere such an
extent that they are bent sufficiently to return to earth. The HF ground wave suffers quite rapid
attenuation with distance from the transmitter. Ionospheric attenuation also takes place, being
greatest at the lower HF frequencies. A significant feature of long range HF transmission is that
it is subject to selective fading over narrow bandwidths (tens of cycle).

The type of modulation used, and associated details such as channel spacing and frequency
channeling increments, have been the subject of many papers and orders from users, both civil
and military, and regulating bodies. ARINC Characteristics No. 559A makes interesting reading,
in that it reveals how conflicting proposals from various authorities can exist at the same time.

The current and future norms is to use single sideband mode of operation for HF
communications, although set in service may have provision for compatible or normal a.m., i.e.
carrier and one or two sidebands being transmitted respectively. A feature of aircraft HF systems
is that coverage of a wide band of RF and use of resonant antenna requires efficient antenna
tuning arrangements which must operate automatically on changing channel in order to reduce
the VSWR to an acceptable level.

INSTALLATION

A typical large aircraft HF installation consists of two systems, each of which comprises a
transceiver, controller, antenna tuning and antenna. Each of the transceivers are connected to the
AIS for mic., tel. and PTT provision. In addition output to Selcal Decoders are provided.

Such an installation is shown in Fig. 10.1.

The transceivers contain the receiver, transmitter, power amplifier and power supply circuitry.
They are mounted on the radio rack and provided with a flow of cooling air, possibly augmented
by fan. A transceiver rated at 200 W p.e.p. needs to dissipate 300 W when operated on SSB
while on a.m. this figure rises to 500 W. Telephone and microphone jacks may be provided on
the front panel, as might a meter and associated switch will provide a means of monitoring
various voltages and currents.

Coupling to the antenna is achieved via the antenna tuning circuit (ATU). Some system may
employ an antenna coupler and a separate antenna coupler control unit. The ATU provides,
automatically, a match from the antenna to the 50 transmission line. Closed loop control of
matching elements reduces the standing wave ratio to 1.3:1 or less (ARINC 559A).

Figure 10.1 : Typical Dual h.f. Installation

Since the match must be achieved between line and antenna the ATU invariably mounted
adjacent to the antenna lead-in, in an unpressurized part of the airframe. For high flying aircraft
(most jets) the ATU is pressurized, possibly with nitrogen. Some units may contain a pressure
switch which will be closed whenever the pressurization within the tuner is adequate. The
pressure switch may be used for ohmmeter checks or, providing switch reliability is adequate,
may be connected in series with the key line thus preventing transmission in the event of a leak.
Alternatively an attenuator may be switched in to reduce power.

Light aircraft HF systems in service are likely, for financial reason, to have a fixed antenna
coupler. Such a system operates on a restricted number of channels (say twenty). As a particular
channel is selected, appropriate switching takes place in the coupler to ensure the RF feed to the
antenna is via previously adjusted, reactive components, which make the effective antenna length
equal to a quarter of a wavelength, thus presenting an impedance of approximately 50. The
required final manual adjustment must be carried out by maintenance personnel on aircraft.

The antenna used varies greatly, depending on the type of aircraft. For low-speed a/c a long wire
antenna is popular although whip antennas may be found on some light a/c employing low-
powered HF systems. The aerodynamic problems of wire antennas on aircraft which fly faster
than, say, 400 knots, have led to the use of notch and probe antennas which effectively excite the
airframe so that it becomes a radiating element.

Modern wire antennas are constructed of copper-clad steel or phosphor bronze, giving a reduced
RF resistance compared with earlier stainless steel wires. A covering of polythene reduces the
effects of precipitation static. Positioning is normally a single span between forward fuselage and
vertical stabilizer. Larger a/c will have twin antennas while a single installation, possibly in a V
configuration, is more common for smaller a/c. the RF feed is usually at the forward attachment
via an antenna mast. The rear tethering is by means of a tensioning unit.

The antenna mast is subject to pitting and erosion of the leading edge; a neoprene covering will
provide some protection, nevertheless regular inspections are called for. Protection against
condensation within the mast may be provided by containers of silica gel which should be
periodically inspected for a change in colour from blue to pink, indicating saturation. Hollow
masts are usually provided with a water drain path which should be kept free from obstruction.

The two most important features of the rear tethering point are that the wire is kept under tension
and that a weak link is provided so as to ensure that any break occurs at the rear, so preventing
the wire wrapping itself around the vertical stabilizer and rudder. On light a/c a very simple
arrangement of a spring or rubber bungee, and hook may be used. The spring maintains the
tension but if these become excessive the hook will open and the wire will be free at the rear end.
On larger a/c a spring tensioning unit will be used to cope with the more severe conditions
encountered due to higher speeds and fuselage flexing. The unit loads the wire by means of a
metal spring, usually enclosed in a barrel housing. A serrated tail rod is attached to the tethering
point on a/c and inserted into the barrel where it is secured by the spring collect, the grip of
which increases with tension. The wire is attached to a chuck unit which incorporates a copper
pin serving as a weak link designed to shear when the tension exceeds about 180 lbf. Some units
incorporate two stage protections against overload. Two pins of different strengths are used;
should the first shear, a small extension (3/16 in.) of overall length results, thus reducing tension
and exposing a yellow warning band on the unit.

Notch antennas consist of a slot cut into the a/c structure, often at the base of the vertical
stabilizer. The inductance of the notch is series resonated by a high voltage variable capacitor
driven by a phase sensing servo. Signal injection is via matching circuitry driven by a SWR
sensing servo. Since the notch is high Q the input is transformed to a voltage across the notch
which is of the order of thousands of volts. This large voltage provides the driving force for
current flow in the airframe which serves as the radiator.

A probe antenna, which is aerodynamically acceptable, may be fitted at either of the wing tips or
on top of the vertical stabilizer. Again series tuning provides the necessary driving force for
radiation. The probe antenna, as well as the wire antenna, is liable to suffer lightning strikes, so
protection in the form of a lightning arrester (spark gap) is fitted. Any voltage in excess of
approximately 16 kV on the antenna will cause an arc across the electrodes of the hydrogen-
filled spark plug, thus preventing discharge through the h.f. equipment. Build up of precipitation
static on antennas, particularly probes, is dealt with by providing a high resistance static drain
(about 6 M) path to earth connected between the antenna feed point and the ATU.

It is important in dual installations that only one HF system can transmit at any one time; this is
achieved by means of an interlock circuit. The basic requirement is illustrated in fig 1 where it
can be seen that the No.1 PTT lines is routed via a contact of the No.2 interlock relay, similarly
with No.2 PTT the interlock relays will be externally to the transceivers often fitted in an h.f
accessory box. While one of the HF systems is transmitting the other system must be protected
against induced voltages from the keyed system. In addition, with some installation, we may
have a probe used as a receiving antenna might to be a notch. It follows that on keying either
system we will have a sequence of events which might precede as follows

HF 1 KEYED

1. HF 2 keyline broken by a contact of HF 1 interlock relay;

2. HF 2 antenna grounded;
3. HF 2 ATU input and output feeds grounded and feed to receiver broken.

HF 2 KEYED

1. HF 1 keyline broken by a contact of HF 2 interlock relay.

2. HF 1 probe antenna transferred from HF 1 ATU to HF 2 ATU;
3. HF 2 notch antenna feed grounded.
4. HF 1 ATU input and output feeds grounded and feed to receiver broken.

CONTROLS AND OPERATION

10.2 Typical HF COMMUNICATION Control Panel

Separate controllers are employed in dual installations, each having in-use frequency selection
only. Older systems and some light a/c systems have limited channel selection where dialing a
particular channel number tunes the system, including ATU, to a pre-assigned frequency, a
channel/frequency chart is required in such cases. With modern sets, indication of the frequency
selected is given directly on the controller.

The controls shown in the fig 10.2 are those referred to in ARINC 559A; variations are common
and will be listed below.

MODE SELECTOR SWITCH

OFF-AM-SSB The turn off function may be a separate switch or indeed may not be employed
at all; switching on and off being achieved with the master radio switch. The AM position may
be designated AME; (AM equivalent or compatible) and is selected whenever transmission and
reception is required using a.m. or SSB plus full carrier (AME). The SSB position provides for
transmission and reception of upper side band only. Although use of upper sideband is the norm
for aeronautical HF communications some controllers have USB and LSB positions. In
addition DATA and CW modes may be available. The former is for possible future use of
data links by HF. using the upper sidebands the receiver is operated at maximum gain. The
latter is for CW transmission and reception, morse code, by, key bashing, being the
information-carrying medium.

FREQUENCY SELECTOR

Frequency selector consists of, typically, four controls which allow selection of frequencies
between 2.8 and 24 MHz in 1 kHz steps (ARINC 559A). Military requirements are for a
frequency coverage of 2 to 30 MHz in 0.1 kHz steps, consequently one will find systems offering
280 000 channels meeting these requirements in full or 28 000 channels meeting the extended
range but not the 0.1 kHz step requirement.

When a new frequency is selected the ATU must adjust itself since the antenna characteristics
will change. For these purpose the transmitter is keyed momentarily in order that SWR and phase
can be measured and used to drive the ATU servos.

SQUELCH CONTROL

Normal control of squelch threshold may be provided. As an alternative an RF sensitivity control

may be used, but where Selcal is utilized it is important that the receiver operates at full
sensitivity at all times with a squelch circuit being employed only for aural monitoring and not
affecting the output to the Selcal decoder.

AUDIO VOLUME CONTROL

Provides for adjustment of audio level. Such a control may be located elsewhere, such as on an
audio selector panel, part of the AIS.

CLARIFIER

This control is to be found on some HF controllers. With SSB signal while the phase of the re-
inserted carrier is of little consequence its frequency should be accurate. Should the frequency be
incorrect by, say, in excess of 20 Hz deterioration of the quality of speech will result. A
clarifier allows for manual adjustment of the re-inserted carrier frequency. Use of highly accurate
and stable frequency synthesizers makes the provision of such a control unnecessary.

INDICATOR
A meter mounted on the front panel of the controller may be provided in order to give an
indication of radiated power.

CHARACTERISTICS

The following brief list of characteristics are those of a system which conforms with ARINC
559A.

FREQUENCY SELECTION

An RF range of 2.8-24 MHz covered in 1 kHz increments.

Method: re-entrant frequency selection system.
Channeling time less than 1s.

MODE OF OPERATION

Single channel simplex, upper single side band.

TRANSMITTER

Power output: 400 W p.e.p. (200 W p.e.p. Operational)

Absolute maximum power output: 650 W p.e.p.
Mic. input circuit frequency response: not more than 6dB variation from 1000Hz level
through the range 350 Hz to 2500 Hz.
Spectrum control: components at or below fc 100 Hz and at or above fc + 2900 Hz should
be attenuated by at least 30dB.
Frequency Stability: 20 Hz. Shop adjustment no more often than yearly. Pilot control (e.g.
for clarifier) not acceptable.
Interlock: only one transmitter in a dual system should operate at a time on a first come, first
served basis, this includes transmitting for tuning purposes.

RECEIVER

SENSITIVITY

4V max; 30 per cent modulation a.m (1V s.s.b) for 10 dB signal and noise to noise ratio.

AGC

Audio output increases from 5 to 1 000 000 V and no more than an additional 2 dB up to 1
V input signal level.

SELECTIVITY

SSB
 6 dB points at fc and fc + 3500 Hz.

AM

To ensure proper receiver operation (no adjacent channel interference) assuming operations
on 6 kHz spaced a.m. channels.
Overall response: compatible with selectivity but in addition no more than 3 dB variation
between any two frequencies in the range 300-1500 Hz (for satisfactory Selcal operation).

AUDIO OUTPUT

Two-wire circuit isolated from ground, 300 (or less) output impedance supplying 100 mW (0.5
Selcal) into a 600 load.

RAMP TESTING AND MAINTENANCE

Whilst regular inspection of all aircraft antennas is called for, it is particularly important in the
case of HF antennas and associated components. Any maintenance schedule should require
frequent inspection of antenna tensioning units and tethering points in the case of wire antennas,
while for both wire and probe antennas the spark gap should be inspected signs of lightning
strikes (cracking and/or discoloring).

A functional test is similar to that for VHF in that two-way communication should be established
with a remote station; all controls should be checked for satisfactory operation and meter
indication, if any, should be within limits. Safety precautions are particularly important since
very high voltages are present on the antenna system with the resulting danger of electric shock
or arcing. No personnel should be in the vicinity of the antenna when transmitting, nor should
fuelling operations be in progress. Remember with many HF systems a change of frequency
could result in transmission to allow automatic antenna tuning.