ARTICLE IN PRESS

Tourism Management 28 (2007) 12121223

www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman

Research article

An investigation of the moderating effects of organizational

commitment on the relationships between workfamily conict
and job satisfaction among hospitality employees in India
Karthik Namasivayama,, Xinyuan Zhaob
a
School of Hospitality Management, The Pennsylvania State University, 201 Mateer Building, University Park, PA 16802, USA
b
School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, PR China

Received 21 March 2006; accepted 25 September 2006

Abstract

The present study examined the relationships among workfamily conict (WFC), organizational commitment (OC) and job
satisfaction (JS) in a hotel setting. Responding to calls in the literature to explore organizational constructs in international settings, data
were collected from the employees of a large independently owned and operated hotel in India. Hierarchical linear regression analyses
demonstrated that one of two sub dimensions of WFC, namely, family related roles interfering with work related roles (FIW) was
negatively associated with JS. Both direct and moderating relationships of three sub dimensions of OC were investigated and it was
found that the affective component of OC has stronger direct effects on JS than normative OC; continuance commitment had no effect.
The study also revealed that employees affective commitment moderates the effects of FIW on JS. The article concludes with
implications for hospitality managers and future research directions.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Workfamily conict; Organizational commitment; Job satisfaction; International

1. Introduction Workfamily conict (WFC) results when engaging in

one role (for example, as a parent) interferes with engaging
It is a commonly held belief, especially among hospitality in another role (for example, as an employee) (Greenhaus
industry professionals, that work and family are two & Beutell, 1985). Research in WFC has typically examined
independent life domains. Kanter (1977) labels this belief the conicts due to an interaction between the two roles. As
the myth of separate worlds. The separate world myth has such research has investigated various factors (for example
since been modied through extensive research which has marital status, child-care responsibilities, and work stress)
demonstrated that the two worlds are not independent and in each sphere contributing to WFC (Boyar et al., 2003).
that the relationship between work and family is highly However, Hammer, Bauer, and Grandey (2003) argue that
interdependent and dynamic (Huang, Hammer, Neal, & although WFC depends to a great degree on interactions
Perrin, 2004). Factors in the work world affect family life with supervisors and others in the immediate environment
and vice versa (for example, Boyar, Maertz, Pearson, & of an individual (whether at work or at home), existing
Keough, 2003). Studies have also identied various research fails to consider this larger context and its effects
antecedents and outcomes of such intersections between on WFC. Further, researchers (Luk & Shaffer, 2005;
work and family roles (for example, Allen, Herst, Bruck, & Poelmans et al., 2003) point out that a shortcoming of
Sutton, 2000; Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1992a). existing research is that much of it has been done in the US
and other western countries; very little work has been
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 814 863 9774; fax: +1 814 863 4257. carried out in other regions of the world.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (K. Namasivayam), The US hospitality industry is well-established globally.
[email protected] (X. Zhao). Many key hotel industry players are expanding rapidly in

0261-5177/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2006.09.021
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
K. Namasivayam, X. Zhao / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 12121223 1213

the Asian markets, especially India and China (Anon- Karatepe and Kilic (2007, p. 2) suggest that hotels and
ymous, 2005). Over 20 percent of the 16 million rooms food service outlets are among the most stressful work
world-wide are now controlled by a dozen leading chains environments for both managers and employees. Very
(AH & LA, 2006). The AH&LA conference report also important organizational outcomes of WFC such as job
pointed to the need to consider the issue of human satisfaction, organizational commitment, intention to turn-
resources and its integration into the global expansion. over, absenteeism, job performance, career satisfaction,
As such it is important for US as well as international and career success have been identied by researchers
hospitality leaders to understand employment conditions in (Allen et al., 2000). It is therefore important to understand
countries in which expansion is taking place if they are to the relationships between WFC and organizational out-
obtain strategic advantages. While pragmatically impor- comes in the context of the Indian hospitality industry.
tant, understanding WFC in these countries will also help As noted earlier, prior work has examined WFC in the
develop a more informed theory of WFC in a global hospitality context in several countries contributing to our
context and provide researchers with a clearer under- understanding of the nature if WFC in diverse settings. In
standing of the differences and similarities across nations. terms of the relationships among the variables, Karatepe
Accordingly, the need for increased consideration of two and Sokmen (2006) examined the relationship of WFC to
issues, namely an international focus and attention to the employees service recovery performance, job satisfaction
employees immediate work and organizational context, and intentions to leave; Karatepe and Baddar (2006)
motivated this paper. Previous research has examined the examined if WFC inuenced family satisfaction, life
relationships between WFC and various outcome variables satisfaction, and turnover intentions; Karatepe and Kilic
in Jordan (Karatepe & Baddar, 2006), Northern Cyprus (2007) examined if WFC has both direct and indirect
(Karatepe & Kilic, 2007), Turkey (Karatepe & Sokmen, effects via job performance, job satisfaction, and affective
2006), and among Hispanic employees in the US (Nama- organizational commitment on turnover intentions;
sivayam & Mount, 2004). However, little work has been Namasivayam and Mount (2004) tested the direct effects
done in WFC in developing countries as well as the Indian of WFC on job satisfaction and organizational commit-
context (Karatepe & Kilic, 2007; Poelmans et al., 2003). ment. The present study extends this body of work and
While there is some research exploring the nature of examines the relationship between WFC and employees
workfamily relations in high-technology rms, nancial job satisfaction; specically, it is suggested that employees
services, manufacturing, and telecommunication organiza- commitment to their organization will moderate the effects
tions in India (Aryee, Srinivas, & Tan, 2005; Poster & of WFC on their job satisfaction. In sum, the relationship
Prasad, 2005), there is no study to our knowledge exploring of WFC to job satisfaction (JS) and organizational
WFC in the context of the hospitality industry in India. commitment (OC) is explored in the Indian hospitality
There is therefore a need to understand WFC in the Indian industry context in this paper. Data for the study were
context not only because of globalization imperatives but collected from a single hotel company in a southern Indian
also because of the nature of the hospitality industry. city. Fig. 1 provides the theoretical and conceptual model.
Authors have characterized the hospitality industry as a
very stressful work environment offering low wages yet 2. Workfamily conict
demanding long work hours contributing to employees
perceptions of WFC (Berta, 2002). Moreover, hospitality Researchers have demonstrated that WFC is a two-
employees are expected to engage in a high degree of dimensional construct consisting of conict arising when
face-to-face interactions with consumers which leads to work roles interfere with family roles (WIF) and family
stress and potential WFC (Karatepe & Sokmen, 2006). related roles interfere with work related roles (FIW) (Kossek

Affect. Commit
5a 2

Work Interferes with

Family 5b 1

5c
Cont. Commit 3 Job
Satisfaction
5a
1
5b
Family Interferes with
Work 4
5c Norm. Commit

Fig. 1. Theoretical model. Notes: Affect. Commit affective commitment; cont. continuance; norm. normative. All numbers refer to hypothesized
relationships.
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1214 K. Namasivayam, X. Zhao / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 12121223

and Ozeki, 1998). Consistent with this conceptualization, attitude while organizational commitment is considered
research has demonstrated that WIF and FIW have rather more stable (Carmeli & Freund, 2004, p. 291).
different antecedents and consequences (Hammer et al., A number of outcomes of job satisfaction have been
2003). Antecedents of WIF include long hours, lack of investigated including turnover intentions, absenteeism,
supervision, and other work role stressors and character- and motivation (for example Tett & Meyer, 1993).
istics. Antecedents of FIW are more likely to be family role A number of antecedents to JS have been proposed and
stressors such as elder care, or single parenting (Boyar et al., investigated. For example, Brown and Peterson (1993)
2003; Huang et al., 2004). Among the consequences, WIF identify individual level demographic and dispositional
has been related to life satisfaction (Adams, King, & King, variables, role perceptions, supervisory behaviors, and job
1996), family satisfaction (Beutell & Wittig-Berman, 1999), characteristics as inuences on employee job satisfaction.
alcohol abuse, depression, and poor physical health (Frone, Research has shown that supportive aspects of the work
Yardley, & Markel, 1997). Huang et al. (2004) note that environment have a positive inuence on job satisfaction
FIW is also related to lower levels of job satisfaction, higher (Boles & Babin, 1996). On the other hand, work stress,
levels of absenteeism, tardiness at work, and intentions to conceptualized as work-role conict, work-role overload,
quit. However, research has not always found consistently and work-role ambiguity, is negatively related to job
positive relationship patterns between WFC and its ante- satisfaction and positively to WFC (Boles, Howard, &
cedents and outcomes and ambivalent results have been Donofrio, 2001; Boyar et al., 2003). Work stress has been
reported. In terms of outcomes, Allen et al. (2000, p. 288) treated as an antecedent to WFC in much research (for
report that while their meta-analyses revealed the weighted example, Boyar et al., 2003; Carlson & Kacmar, 2000).
average correlation between WFC and organizational Based on a meta-analytic review, Kossek and Ozeki (1998)
commitment was moderately strong, the individual study report a consistent negative relationship between both
results were highly inconsistent. They found stronger effect dimensions of WFC and job satisfaction suggesting that
sizes in studies that employed employee samples from the reducing employees inter-role conict can lead to positive
same occupation or organization than those that had work outcomes. Boles et al. (2001, p. 376) state that
diverse samples. Similarly, research has found ambivalent workfamily conict is related to a number of negative
results for the relation between non-work related outcomes job attitudes and consequences including lower overall job
such as life satisfaction and WFC (Allen et al., 2000). Byron satisfaction. Similarly, Netemeyer, Boles, and McMurrian
(2005, p. 190) reports, contrary to hypotheses in many (1996) report an inverse relationship between both dimen-
studies, the present analysis suggests that overall men and sions of WFC and job satisfaction.
women have similar levels of WIF and FIW. Despite the More recent research has explored the effects of each
ambivalent research results, it is commonly accepted that component of WFC and gender on job satisfaction
WFC has an important role to play in organizational success (Grandey, Cordeiro, & Crouter, 2005). The research
directly through increasing productivity of the employee and showed that WIF was related to job satisfaction cross-
indirectly by reducing costs due to stress related productivity sectionally for both men and women. However, when the
losses. As a result more research is required (Byron, 2005). relationships were explored in a longitudinal model, with
It must be noted that it is important to alleviate stressors year 1 WFC predicting job satisfaction in year 2, the
originating in the family to reduce conicts and increase research found that WIF predicted womens job satisfac-
productivity at work. It is equally important for organiza- tion but not mens. No relationship existed between FIW
tions to account for work place sources of stress that may and either genders perception of job satisfaction in year 2.
affect the individual at home. Following research in While this research found that WIF predicted womens job
mainstream management research, hospitality researchers satisfaction but not mens, there was no evidence of a
in WFC model the effects of both WIF and FIW on relationship between FIW and job satisfaction suggesting
various outcomes (e.g. Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1992b; that one dimension of WFC may have a stronger relation-
Karatepe & Sokmen, 2006; Namasivayam & Mount, 2004). ship with JS than the other. Other research has also
Implicit in the research is the idea that each domain has a provided mixed ndings: while Namasivayam and Mount
reexive action on the other; that there is interdependence (2004) found that FIW was positively related to job
between the two domains. The reciprocal effects argue for satisfaction; Karatepe and Sokmen (2006), on the other
attention to both dimensions of WFC; both dimensions are hand, reported that FIW had a negative relationship to job
therefore simultaneously considered in this study so that satisfaction. It is suggested that individuals value their
more information about the directional nature of WFC families highly (explained more fully later) but also their
may be gleaned. jobs because of labor market conditions. The extent
to which individuals hold their roles, both family and
2.1. Direct effects of WFC on job satisfaction work, in high regard and perceive them as valuable will
inuence their levels of job satisfaction. If the job allows
Job satisfaction is dened as an emotional state resulting them to attain their values they will rate their satisfaction
from appraising ones job (Locke, 1969). Job satisfaction is with the job higher (Perrewe, Hochwarter, & Kiewitz,
considered a more fragile and changeable employee 1999). Therefore, similar to Karatepe and Sokmen (2006),
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K. Namasivayam, X. Zhao / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 12121223 1215

it is expected that FIW will inuence individuals job & Zajac, 1990, p. 182). When work roles interfere with
satisfaction. In sum, research has found a signicant and family roles feelings of self-fulllment may be adversely
negative relationship between WFC and job satisfaction. affected leading individuals to reduce their commitment to
Accordingly, organizations.
Following conceptualizations presented in Mathieu and
H1. Both facets of WFC (WIF and FIW) will be Zajac (1990) and empirical work adopting the organiza-
negatively related to job satisfaction. tional commitment leads to satisfaction model (e.g.
Bateman & Strasser, 1984; Yousef, 2000) it is suggested
2.2. Direct effects of organizational commitment on job here that a reduction in commitment can lead to reduced
satisfaction levels of job satisfaction. That is, when an individual feels a
reduced sense of commitment to the organization that also
Organizational commitment (OC) is a widely researched implies lower levels of satisfaction.
topic in a number of contexts including commitment to Based on extant research, Allen and Meyer (1990)
unions (Fullagar & Barling, 1989), careers (Arnold, 1990), developed a three-dimensional model of OC. They
and professions (Aranya, Pollock, & Amernic, 1981). identied normative, affective, and continuance commit-
The relationships between JS and organizational com- ment as dimensions of organizational commitment rather
mitment have been extensively explored. There is consider- than as different types of commitment and suggest that an
able debate about whether JS leads to organizational individual may perceive each of the three dimensions
commitment or vice versa (Good, Page, & Young, 1996; simultaneously.
Testa, 2001). While the vast majority of the literature
suggests that JS leads to OC, there is compelling evidence 2.2.1. Affective commitment
to the alternative (for example, Bateman & Strasser, 1984; Affective commitment is dened as the extant of an
Vandenberg & Lance, 1992). In similar vein, Yousef (2000) individuals emotional attachment to an organization and
notes that organizational commitment impacts job related is characterized by acceptance of organizational values
attitudes including job satisfaction. and by willingness to remain with the organization
Organizational commitment is said to provide people (Somers, 1995, p. 49). Individuals with strong affective
with stability and feelings of belonging (Leong, Furnham, commitment will tend to behave in ways that are in the
& Cooper, 1996, p. 1347) serving as a valuable moderator organizations best interests (Meyer, Allen, & Topolnytsky,
of the effects of stressful work conditions. Leong et al. 1998). Research has identied a number of antecedents to
note that it is important to consider organizational affective commitment including personal-, structural-, and
commitments interrelated componentsattitudinal and job-relatedcharacteristics, and work experiences (Meyer,
calculativeto explain its moderating effect on outcome Allen, & Smith, 1993). Meyer et al. (1993) further suggest
variables. that employees tend to have stronger affective attachment
Mathieu and Zajac (1990) conducted a meta-analytic when their experiences within an organization are con-
review of extant research in organizational commitment. sistent with their expectations. As noted above, when
Based on the review they note that both organizational individuals value systems and sense of accomplishment
commitment and job satisfaction are attitudinal variables and self-fulllment are consonant with their expectations
and may reect an individuals global attitude towards the they are more likely to feel a sense of commitment to their
organization. They therefore treat job satisfaction as a organization (Perrewe et al., 1999; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990).
correlate of organizational commitment rather than as a Adopting a social identity theory framework, Harris and
precursor or consequent because it is difcult to specify Cameron (2005) found that affective commitment to
the causal precedence of different affective responses individuals immediate work group predicts psychological
(1990, p. 175). Since there is ambivalence about the causal well-being. Following Johnson et al. (2005) who report a
direction, Mathieu and Zajac suggest developing theoreti- very high correlation (0.63) between psychological well-
cally based studies to examine the relationships between being and job satisfaction we make the connection between
organizational commitment and job satisfaction. affective commitment and job satisfaction. In sum, it can
Further, research has identied role states (role ambi- therefore be expected that individuals who are more highly
guity, role conict and role overload) as antecedents of committed affectively to their organizations will express
organizational commitment (Jackson & Schuler, 1985). greater job satisfaction. Hence:
When individuals experience conict in their work and
family roles due to work related issues, individuals who H2. Affective commitment to the organization will be
value their family roles highly may blame their work for positively related to individuals job satisfaction.
the conict (Perrewe et al., 1999) and reduce their affective
commitment for the organization. 2.2.2. Continuance commitment
It has also been suggested that internal motivation (e.g. Continuance commitment results from individuals
feelings of accomplishment and self-fulllment) should be calculus of potential losses to their investments of
more highly related to attitudinal commitment (Mathieu time and effort if they were to leave the organization.
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1216 K. Namasivayam, X. Zhao / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 12121223

Individuals who have a lot of investment in their organization (Meyer et al., 1993; Somers, 1995). Ko, Price,
organizations are less likely to leave. Continuance commit- and Mueller (1997, p. 963) describe normative commitment
ment also depends on individuals recognition of the as the result of both pre-entry (familial and cultural) and
availability of alternatives if they were to leave the post-entry (organizational) socialization processes. Pre-
organization (Meyer et al., 1993). Allen and Meyer (1990, entry socialization processes suggest the operation of both
p. 4) describe continuance commitment as a function of cultural and family attitudes towards work, or prevalent
two factors: the magnitude and/or number of investments work ethic. Work ethic and its impacts on organizational
(or side-bets) individuals make and a lack of alternatives. commitment and JS have received extensive research
That is, individuals who invest a great deal of time and attention (Yousef, 2001). Individuals work ethic or values
effort in learning a certain organization-specic skill are are strongly related to attitudes towards work. Desire for
betting that they can win. In this case, employees can only upward career mobility, attitude towards rewards, and the
win if they stay on in the organization. degree of job involvement are all related to an individuals
Kirschenbaum and Mano-Negrin (1999, p. 1238) argue work ethic (Yousef, 2001).
that employee turnover intentions depend not only on the Eastern and western cultures differ in substantial ways
organizational characteristics but also the occupational and (Ralston, Holt, Terpstra, & Kai-Cheng, 1997). A primary
local labor markets. Local unemployment rates, geographic difference between the East and the West has been in the
limits, the presence or absence of a good job and a good inuence of religious beliefs on the work ethic. While
organization all serve to inuence individuals continuance Western cultures emphasize personal duty and responsi-
commitment. Thus, local labor markets play an important bilities towards oneself, Eastern cultures emphasize com-
role in an individuals continuance commitment to an mitment to family and the group (Ralston et al., 1997).
organization. The present study was conducted in Chennai, Ralston et al. suggest that while Eastern cultures are driven
a major southern Indian city with a population of about primarily by Confucianism, Buddhism, or Taoism, Wes-
7 million. The National Sample Survey Organization (2005) tern cultures are mainly inuenced by Protestant or Judeo-
reported a growth in employment in the hotels, transport, Christian values. The tenet that work and nancial success
and communications sector of 4.65% in 19992000 com- are a means not only to personal success but also to the
pared to the period 19931994 for the state of Tamilnadu achievement of religious goals underpins the Protestant
(Chennai is the capital of the state). However, despite the work ethic (Weber, 1947).
growth in employment in the sector, overall unemployment Yousef (2001) notes that Islam has inuenced Arab
gures for the sector increased by about 120% from 0.9 value systems, including their work ethic. Similarly in
million job seekers in 1999 to 1.2 million job seekers in 2000 India, Hinduism is the predominant religious system and it
statewide. It is appropriate to conclude from these data that therefore inuences individuals work ethics to a great
job mobility in the Chennai labor market is limited. extent. Both the Islamic and Hindu work ethics place
Carbery, Garavan, OBrien, and McDonnell (2003) emphasis on hard work, thrift, sense of duty, respect for
reveal that while pay, gender, marital status, hotel size, family, and avoidance of unethical means of wealth
or hotel quality had little effect on employee turnover accumulation (Srinivasan, 1994; Yousef, 2001). As a
intentions, organizational commitment did have a signi- pluralistic society, individuals in India are inuenced
cant impact. In the study, affective and normative equally by Judeo-Christian and Islamic inuences. Similar
components of organizational commitment, but not to Yousef (2001), it can be argued that individuals who
continuance commitment, explained employees turnover strongly support a positive work ethic are likely to be more
intentions. committed to the organization.
Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch, and Topolnytsky (2002) Additionally, individuals feel constrained to reciprocate
suggest that continuance commitment implies psychologi- with commitment as a result of receiving rewards from the
cal costs for employees; when employees perceive a lack of organization. However, as Scholl (1981) pointed out, only
alternatives, they may feel trapped with negative con- rewards that are beyond individuals expectation levels will
sequences for their attitudes towards the organization and inuence their reciprocation. Individuals may derive a
work. It is possible that individuals who have already taken sense of psychological well-being or satisfaction when they
into account, and rationalized, their lack of mobility may have met the normative expectations of signicant others
express higher levels of continuance commitment but not (e.g. parents, co-workers). Deriving from the above,
necessarily satisfaction. Accordingly,
H4. Normative commitment will be positively related to
H3. Continuance commitment will be negatively related to job satisfaction.
satisfaction.
2.3. Moderating effects of organizational commitment on
2.2.3. Normative commitment the relationship between WFC and job satisfaction
Normative commitment to an organization results from
perceived duty towards the organization and develops as a The relationships between facets of WFC and job
result of socialization experiences that stress loyalty to the satisfaction and between components of organizational
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K. Namasivayam, X. Zhao / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 12121223 1217

commitment and job satisfaction have been discussed until relationships between affective commitment and the
this point. While many studies exist tracing the relation- relevant outcome variables.
ships between WFC and job satisfaction (e.g. Kossek & Individuals develop work attitudes such as organiza-
Ozeki, 1998; ODriscoll, Ilgen, & Hildreth, 1992), few tional commitment and job satisfaction using information
studies have considered the moderating role of organiza- about the extent that the job interferes with other valued
tional commitment on the relationship. One of the main roles (Grandey et al., 2005, p. 316). The authors suggest
purposes of this study is to examine if organizational that individuals who value family roles highly are more
commitment moderates the relationships between WFC likely to use information about WIF to form attitudes.
and job satisfaction. Some research has considered the However, it is also possible that individuals who perceive
effects of an interaction among the facets of organizational FIW may surmise that it is their work roles that prevent
commitment on outcome variables. For example Randall, them from attending to their family roles causing resent-
Fedor, and Longnecker (1990) found an interaction among ment towards job-related demands and thereby experien-
components of organizational commitment and sacrice cing lower job satisfaction (Perrewe et al., 1999). An
for the organization. Considerable debate exists about the individuals levels of commitment, especially affective or
inter-relationship between the two and whether organiza- normative, will moderate the effect of FIW and WIF on
tional commitment or job satisfaction is the causal factor. job satisfaction such that job satisfaction is either
Some research has shown that organizational commitment attenuated or amplied. Similar to Meyer et al. (1990), it
is causally antecedent to [job satisfaction] (Vandenberg is suggested that individuals who perceive WFC may
& Lance, 1992, p. 162); however, other research has shown employ their organizational commitment perceptions to
that job satisfaction leads to organizational commitment justify continuance at the workplace in the face of such
(e.g. Good et al., 1996). WFCs. Alternatively, when individuals perceive their
Mathieu and Zajac (1990) treat job satisfaction as a organizations to be lower in WFC compared to peer-
correlate of organizational commitment because both organizations, they are likely to develop stronger attitu-
satisfaction and organizational commitment are attitudinal dinal bonds with their organization. As noted, the study
variables and causal precedence of one or the other was conducted in a city that had a high level of
depends on situational issues. As noted earlier, job unemployment and it is likely that individual resolve their
satisfaction is considered a more unstable and volatile inability to leave an organization by expressing higher
attitude compared to organizational commitment which is levels of affective commitment. Taken together, the
relatively more stable and durable. If this is the case, then it discussions presented above suggest:
is reasonable to suggest that job satisfaction is inuenced
by organizational commitment. It is proposed for this H5a. Affective organizational commitment moderates the
present study that various organizational factors (e.g. effect of FIW and WIF on employee job satisfaction.
WFC) inuence individuals commitment levels that in turn H5b. Continuance organizational commitment moderates
affect job satisfaction. the effect of FIW and WIF on employee job satisfaction.
Individuals who express greater commitment to an
organization are not likely to reduce their levels of job H5c. Normative organizational commitment moderates
satisfaction even in stressful conditions. For example, it is the effect of FIW and WIF on employee job satisfaction.
possible that irrespective of difculties they may face due
to WFC, they will remain committed to the organization 3. Methods
and hence WFC may have no direct effect on their job
satisfaction. Thus, there exists a strong impetus to explore Data for the current study were collected from the
the moderating effects of organizational commitment in employees of a large independently owned and operated
the relationship between WFC and JS. Extant literature hotel in south India. Surveys were hand delivered to the
dealing with these relationships is scarce; however, existing training manager who distributed them to employees of the
research permits hypothesis generation. hotel. The employees were encouraged by the management
Self-justication theory was initially proposed by Staw to participate. All employees of the hotel were surveyed.
(1976) to explain individuals propensity to escalate their Condentiality was ensured by having the employees
commitments to a chosen course of action. The principle of return the surveys anonymously to the training ofce.
self-justication has been used to explain the interaction One hundred and twenty surveys were distributed; 93
among the components of OC. Meyer, Allen, and Gellatly usable surveys were returned yielding a response rate of 77
(1990) suggested that when individuals feel trapped in an percent. The support of the institution in completing the
organization (due to their inability to leave) they may surveys no doubt contributed to the high return rate.
distort their perceptions of their own level of affective Respondents were 88 percent male, on average 33 years
commitment to justify their continuance at the organiza- old, and 56 percent were married. About 62 percent had at
tion. Similar to Meyer et al. (1990), Somers (1995, p. 49) least a high school diploma and 38 percent had some
found that continuance commitment interacted with college or had completed undergraduate studies. About 46
affective commitment such that high sunk costs tempered percent of the sample had at least one child; of these
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1218 K. Namasivayam, X. Zhao / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 12121223

40 percent had one child, 50 percent had two children and as 7 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree). In this study,
about 10 percent had three children (see Table 1). A couple the alpha coefcient of the adapted scale was 0.83.
of reasons prompted collecting data from a single hotel
property: one, Byron (2005) suggests that lack of homo- 3.1.2. Workfamily conflict
geneity in study samples can make the interpretation of Workfamily conict was measured using the scales
results problematic. A homogenous sample allows for a reported in Boles et al. (2001): each dimension of WFC was
more ready interpretation of the results without noise measured with ve items. For example, WIF was measured
resulting from different organizational human resource by the demands of my work interfere with my home and
policies. Two, research in the social sciences in the family life, and things I want to do at home do not get
hospitality industry is nascent in India. A topic such as done because of the demands my job puts on me. FIW
WFC that has implications for labormanagement rela- was measured using items, for example, the demands of
tions is particularly sensitive and management is less ready my family or spouse/partner interfere with work-related
to provide research access. activities, and I sometimes have to miss work so that
family responsibilities are met. Responses to these items
3.1. Measures were measured as 7 (strongly agree) to 1(strongly disagree).
Boles et al., (2001) reported internal consistency reliabilities
Measures for the study were developed from published of 0.94 for the WIF and 0.82 for FIW scales. In the present
scales. study, the scale reliability for the WIF scale was 0.85 and
for FIW 0.83.
3.1.1. Job satisfaction
Job satisfaction was measured using a four-item measure 3.1.3. Organizational commitment
asking the participant to respond to on a seven-point The facets of organizational commitment were measured
response scale. The scale was adapted from the Michigan by adapting items from Meyer et al. (1993). Ko et al. (1997)
Organizational Assessment Questionnaire (Cammann, conducted a study in South Korea using the Meyer et al.
Fichman, Jenkins, & Klesh, 1983). The authors reported scales and reported coefcient alphas of 0.86 (for affective
internal consistency reliability for the scale as 0.77. The commitment), 0.58 (for continuance commitment), and
items used in the present study include Overall, how 0.78 (for normative commitment) in study 1 and 0.87, 0.64,
satised are you with your job?, (responses to this item and 0.76, respectively, in study 2. In the present study,
were measured on a 7-point scale as 7 (very satised) to internal consistency reliabilities of affective commitment
1(not at all satised), All in all I am satised with my was 0.77, normative commitment 0.77, and continuance
job, In general, I dont like my job, and In general, I commitment 0.68.
like working here (responses to these items were measured
3.1.4. Control variables
Following previous research, age was measured as a
Table 1
Characteristics of the respondents (n 93) continuous variable (mean 35.5; SD 9.55, minimum 22,
maximum 59) and its effects controlled for (Bruck, Allen,
Frequency Percentage & Spector, 2002). Gender was measured as a dichotomous
Gender
variable; number of dependents in numbers was measured
Male 11 11.8 and treated as a continuous variable; martial status was
Female 82 88.2 coded as 1single, 2married and 3separated. Finally,
Total 93 100.0 education was measured as four categories with 1some
Education school, 2high school completion, 3college graduate
Some school 11 11.8 and 4post graduate education. These variables were
High school graduate 26 28.0 treated as controls and entered in the regression equations.
College graduate 35 37.6
Post graduate 21 22.6
Total 93 100.0 4. Results
Marital status
Single 40 43.0 Table 2 provides the means, standard deviations,
Married 53 56.9 Pearsons correlations and coefcient alphas (alphas are
Total 93 100.0 on the diagonal). The correlations are appropriate. The
Number of children three organizational commitment facets are signicantly
None 49 52.6 correlated among themselves but not with WFC. Satisfac-
1 18 19.3 tion is negatively related to WFC facets but positively to
2 22 23.7 the commitment facets. The correlations provide adequate
3 4 4.4
evidence of discriminant and convergent validities of the
Total 93 100.0
scales used in collecting data.
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Table 2
Correlations and Cronbachs a

Mean (Std.dev.) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Age (1) 35.5 (9.55) 1

Gender (2) 0.184 1
Dependents (3) 1.17 (.913) 0.57** 0.197 1
Marital status (4) 0.652** 0.040 0.693** 1
Education (5) 0.234* 0.251 *
0.017 0.029 1
Job satisfaction (6) 1.80 (0.16) 0.266* 0.014 0.182 0.143 0.152 1 (0.83)
Continuance commitment (7) 4.79 (1.70) 0.068 0.178 0.020 0.037 0.086 0.257* 1 (0.68)
Normative commitment (8) 6.00 (1.19) 0.076 0.047 0.179 0.063 0.033 0.400** 0.323** 1 (0.77)
Affective commitment (9) 5.96 (1.06) 0.307** 0.026 0.212 0.196 0.144 0.658 **
0.299** 0.428** 1 (0.77)
WIF (10) 4.00 (1.73) 0.231* 0.061 0.038 0.183 0.005 0.281** 0.155 0.125 0.124 1 (0.85)
FIW (11) 2.85 (1.55) 0.249* 0.094 0.044 0.061 0.130 0.394** 0.056 0.034 0.203 0.564** 1 (0.83)

Note: *po0.05; **po0.01; (two-tailed); Cronbachs a are on the diagonal and within brackets.

Table 3 have a negative and signicant relationship with job

Results of the hierarchical regression analysis satisfaction b 0:327; po0:05. This indicates that in-
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
dividuals who perceive that their family roles interfering
with their work roles express lower job satisfaction.
Age 0.429* 0.184 0.139 Consistent with the principle of self-justication, individuals
Gender 0.075 0.017 0.002 may explain their inability to meet family role obligations
Dependents 0.067 0.105 0.093
without it also affecting their work roles by attributing their
Marital status 0.003 0.048 0.101
Education 0.344* 0.129 0.102 inability to do so to the job. That is, they are probably
WIF 0.024 0.046 0.099 thinking if only this job were not so demanding I will be
FIW 0.327* 0.189 1.388* able to meet my family obligations and also my work roles.
Continuance 0.175 0.132 Hypothesis 1 received partial support.
Normative 0.173 0.128
H2 and H4 stated that individuals affective and
Affective 0.466*** 0.048
Affective*FIW 1.183* normative commitment respectively will be positively
related to job satisfaction. The data support H2
Model F 3.181** 7.061*** 7.192***
b 0:466; po0:001. However, H4 was not supported:
Adjusted R2 0.214 0.520 0.549
R2 change 0.293*** 0.032* normative commitment had a positive but statistically
insignicant relationship with job satisfaction (b 0:173,
Note: *po0.05; **po0.01; ***po0.001. All coefcients reported are n.s.). The data suggest that affective commitment is more
standardized betas.
strongly related to job satisfaction than normative commit-
ment. H3 predicted that continuance commitment will be
Hierarchical linear regression analyses, including two-way negatively related to job satisfaction. This hypothesis was
interaction terms, were conducted using centered predictor not supported by the data.
variables to reduce multicollinearity among the interaction
terms (Aiken & West, 1991; Cohen & Cohen, 1983). Table 3 4.2. Moderation effects
presents the results of the hierarchical linear regression
analyses. Data for job satisfaction were transformed and Finally, H5a,b and c proposed that the three compo-
normalized using a natural-log transformation. Variables nents of commitment will moderate the effects of FIW and
were entered in three blocks: rst, the main effects of WFC WIF on job satisfaction. The tests revealed that only one of
were tested, next main effects of organizational commitment the six potential moderation terms was signicant. The
were examined, and nally, the interaction terms were interaction term for affective commitment and FIW had a
entered. Age was entered as a control in each block. Non- signicant and positive relationship with job satisfaction
signicant interaction terms were removed from the regres- b 1:183; po0:05. Hypothesis H5a, but not 5b or 5c, was
sion equation and the analysis rerun. supported. Table 3 also shows that the adjusted R2
was 0.549; the R2 change and the overall model were
4.1. Direct effects statistically signicant.

The results show that after controlling for the effects of 5. Discussion and research directions
age, gender, dependents, marital status, and education WIF
has negative association with job satisfaction but the effect is Research has provided evidence that WFC relates
not statistically signicant. However, as predicted FIW does negatively to job satisfaction (e.g. Kossek & Ozeki, 1998).
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1220 K. Namasivayam, X. Zhao / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 12121223

Evidence of this relationship implies that reducing conicts project follows the lead of Mathieu and Zajac (1990)
due to work and family role intersections will enhance and Vandenberg and Lance (1992) and models organiza-
employee attitudes, such as job satisfaction, towards work. tional commitment as a moderator of the relationship
Other research investigated the relationships between between WFC and job satisfaction. Further, the notion
organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Two that job satisfaction is a relatively less stable job related
streams of research emerged: one provided evidence of attitude (Carmeli & Freund, 2004) lends support to the
an organizational commitment to job satisfaction link conceptualization.
(Vandenberg & Lance, 1992) while the other concluded the Mathieu and Zajac (1990) reported that attitudinal
opposite (e.g. Good et al., 1996). Limited research has commitment was more strongly related to job satisfaction.
evaluated the relationships between WFC, organizational Similarly, the results of the present study show that
commitment, and job satisfaction together, especially in the attitudinal componentsnamely affective and norma-
hospitality industry (for exceptions, see Karatepe & Kilic, tivewere more strongly related to job satisfaction than
2007). The interrelationships among the variables were was continuance (or calculative) commitment.
modeled as follows: WFC relates negatively to job The results also indicate that only the affective compo-
satisfaction but to the extent individuals are committed nent of organizational commitment moderates the effects
to their organizations the effect of WFC on job satisfaction of WFC on job satisfaction but only in the case of FIW
is likely to be attenuated. Two overarching points are (that is when family roles interfere with work roles).
considered in explaining the results of this study: one, the Following the arguments of self-justication, it is possible
culturally driven importance of family roles over work that individuals who feel stress because of their inability to
roles (Triandis, 1994), and two, that attitudinal rather than attend to their family roles due to their work may attribute
calculative commitment is more strongly related to job such inability to their work reducing their satisfaction. In
satisfaction (another attitudinal variable) (Mathieu & this event, individuals who are highly committed to the
Zajac, 1990). organization may modify the level of such attribution and
In terms of relationships between job satisfaction and continue to remain satised.
WFC, Kossek and Ozeki (1998) reported stronger correla- The study also investigated whether normative commit-
tions between job satisfaction and WIF than FIW. ment and calculative commitment moderated the effects of
Differently, the results of this study indicate that FIW FIW and WIF on job satisfaction. No signicant relation-
was more strongly related to job satisfaction than ships were evident for these components for either FIW or
WIF. Similarly, Karatepe and Baddar (2006) report that WIF. Mathieu and Zajac (1990, p. 172) noted that
FIW was more strongly related to turnover intentions than normative commitment has been subsumed into the
WIF in a sample of Jordanian hotel employees. These attitudinal commitment. It is possible that the effects of
results together argue for more attention to situational and normative commitment in this study have been captured by
cultural inuences in WFC. Cultural orientation towards affective commitmenta component that is more purely
family, the idea of value attainment and what is more attitudinal than normative commitment. Therefore, nor-
valuablework or familyto an individual, and the mative commitment had no separate effects in this study.
operation of a self-justication principle may account for Continuance commitment is considered a form of
the attribution of FIW to job related factors. calculative commitment since individuals assess their alter-
In developing a cross-cultural model of the relationships natives in deciding whether they will continue their tenure at
between WFCs and organizationally important attitudes, it an organization (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990). Individuals
is important to account for particular cultural inuences calculative commitment to an organization may be sub-
and consequent attributions individuals make for their sumed under affective commitment when labor market
level of job satisfaction (cf. Namasivayam & Mount, 2004). conditions do not permit such calculations to be made.
Future research may want to test this notion more closely. That is, individuals may rationalize away their inability to
It is possible that the family plays a bigger role in switch jobs by increasing their affective commitment to their
individuals lives in certain nations or cultural groups jobs. It is possible that due to this continuance commitment
than in others; individuals in collectivist societies and had no signicant effect in this study.
less developed nations are more family oriented than The results extend earlier work establishing the link
are individuals in individualist and developed nations between WFC and job satisfaction (e.g. Namasivayam &
(Triandis, 1994). Mount, 2004; Grandey et al., 2005; Karatepe & Kilic, 2007;
The relationships between antecedents, consequents and Karatepe & Sokmen, 2006) by accounting for the role of
organizational commitment have been traced and summar- organizational commitment as a moderator. Future
ized in a number of reviews (e.g. Mathieu & Zajac, 1990). In studies may want to use structural equation modeling to
the present study, stress (equivalently, WFC) is considered more clearly understand the causal linkages among
an antecedent of organizational commitment and job the variables. Researchers may want to develop specic
satisfaction the consequent. As noted, there is ambivalent models of the interrelationships among the commitment
evidence regarding the precise causal relationships between components and WFC in different contexts (e.g. cultural,
organizational commitment and job satisfaction. This organization types).
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K. Namasivayam, X. Zhao / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 12121223 1221

The results of this research have implications for theory but also the characteristics of the job, supervisor quality,
development especially in the context of international and compensation among others. Therefore, managers
human resources management in hospitality industry. should identify those antecedents of commitment that may
First, while existing research suggests that both WIF and be peculiar to their constituents but also pay attention to
FIW are important antecedents to job satisfaction, the issues that recur as causes of commitment: for example,
results of this study show that cultural inuences have to be stress, role conicts, and WFC. Managers can directly deal
taken into account. In this study, FIW was a more with the conicts that arise because of the family roles
inuential factor. exible work schedules, child and elder care support,
Not only cultural but also labor market dynamics play medical and health carewill greatly reduce stresses
an important role in individuals job related attitudes. that individuals face and increase their job satisfaction.
Research has to account for industry and market For example, US Endoscopy provides free day care
characteristics in order to develop valid models of WFC to its employees at a cost of between $8000 and $15 000
and work attitudes. For this research, data were collected per child in day care while Cleveland State University
at a location which had a high level of job immobility. offers exible work start and end times, and job-sharing.
Therefore, the relationships described here are particularly Both organizations were recognized for their role in
valid for similar labor markets. Future research has to helping employees achieve a work-life balance (Glaser,
factor in the labor market dynamics as a control variable if 2006). Regional differences in what attributes actually
a more robust model of WFC and its relationships with contribute to worker stress no doubt exist. Surveying
work attitudes is to be developed. employees on the most stress-inducing factors will allow
Managers can use this research to design organizational managers to develop organizational strategies to alleviate
policies. The data suggest that it is in the interest of some of the stresses. Managers can thus adopt a two-
organizational managers to make every effort to increase pronged strategy to increase employee commitment and
the level of affective commitment among their employees. job satisfaction.
As the data show, individuals who are high in affective
commitment tend to be more satised with their jobs
irrespective of the level of WFC, particularly when their 6. Limitations
family roles interfere with their work. Allen and Meyer
(1990, p. 13) note employees who felt comfortable in their As with any study of this nature, a number of limitations
roles and who felt competent in the job, expressed greater have to be pointed out. First, the cross-sectional sampling
affective attachment to the organization. Competency at procedures limit assumptions of causality. Longitudinal
work is similar to self-efcacy which is dened as the studies tracing the effects of WFC on job satisfaction and
belief that one can perform specic tasks and behaviors the role of organizational commitment may provide a more
(Schwoerer, May, Hollensbe, & Mencl, 2005, p. 112). The ne grained analysis of the interrelationships. Second, the
authors note, Because self-efcacy is a key component in study used self-reports to collect data and may thus be
performance, designing training to build self-efcacy y susceptible to common-method variance bias. However, it
offers the potential to enhance current performance must be noted that similar to Carmeli and Freund (2004,
(p. 112). Managers may want to establish training p. 304), the organizational commitment measures are
programs that enhance the self-efcacy of their employees considered areas where perceptpercept ination is
and thereby increase employees commitment levels. neither dominant nor present. Job satisfaction is con-
Mathieu and Zajac (1990, p. 181) note, Enhanced job sidered a measure in which there may be ination
characteristics, particularly taken as an aggregate, offer due to common method bias. The use of standard and
promise as an antecedent to the development of OC validated measures, such as those used in this study,
[organizational commitment]. They suggest that distinct reduces the possibility of such bias. Future research may
aspects of jobs, such as the opportunity to demonstrate consider using multiple methods to reduce such bias.
skill variety, or the level of autonomy affect employees Third, while using data from a single hotel rm in one
commitment to the organization. While hospitality re- location controls for location- and rm-specic factors,
searchers can investigate what particular aspects of a job permitting an appropriate test of conceptual ideas, such
enhances organizational commitment, industry managers specicity precludes generalization to other locations
should attempt to design jobs that will enhance employees without further tests. Research across multiple hotel
organizational commitment. companies, locations, and countries may permit the
Meyer et al. (1998) propose that employees behavior at development of a more general model of the relationships
work and their commitment to the organization is related among the variables of interest. Finally, while a number
to multiple foci both within and outside the organization. of demographic variables normally considered in organiza-
The authors recommend managers and researchers alike to tional and WFC research were included in this study, it is
take a multiple commitment approach over approaches perhaps prudent to include personality and cultural
that consider single and isolated commitments. Thus, orientation variables to control for the effects of individual
employees commitments are driven not only by family differences.
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1222 K. Namasivayam, X. Zhao / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 12121223

7. Conclusions Bateman, T. S., & Strasser, S. (1984). A longitudinal analysis of the

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