Running head: CRISPR TECHNIQUES ON HUMANS 1

CRISPR Techniques on Humans:

Risks in Practicing CRISPR Techniques on Human DNA

Valeria Nava

University of Texas at El Paso

Abstract

The use of the enzyme CRISPR has the potential to create new opportunities in the field

of scientific research. This manipulation of DNA provides a controversial aspect that can change

the future of gene editing. CRISPR helps to change the specific genes by altering the desired

section of DNA. Along with these changes comes consequences that could in turn cause harm to

the entire genome. Epigenetics plays a key role in the functioning of various genes. Scientists are

practicing the proper protocol and methodologies necessary for performing gene editing. As time

progresses, the goal is to be able to practice these techniques on humans. Eventually these new

methods will lead to further discoveries that may benefit the curing of certain diseases. With the

genetic differences among the variety of organisms, gene editing becomes a difficult task to

standardize. Because no two organisms are alike, gene editing becomes a constant research

process that is prone to a multitude of mistakes. The human genome is a highly complicated and

detailed system, where one mutation could affect many other parts of the body. Constant caution

during procedures is necessary for the desired traits to appear in an organism. If valid methods

are not carried out, harmful mutations can occur. With the development of this new enzyme as of

right now, it is not safe to practice using CRISPR on humans.

Key Terms: CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats), enzyme, PCR
(polymerase chain reaction), epigenetics, mutation
 CRISPR Techniques on Humans 3

Risks in Practicing CRISPR Techniques on Human DNA

With the current development of genetics and scientific procedures, new methodologies

are well on their way to providing new fixes for DNA. The manipulation of DNA presents many

opportunities for research as scientists learn to practice the proper techniques. Particular genes in

the human can be fixed through the use of the Cas-9 enzyme, otherwise known as CRISPR.

CRISPR stands for clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats (Zeng et al., 2017).

Diseases with only a single error in the genome can be fixed through the use of this enzyme.

However, there are many cautions that scientists must be aware of when performing this process.

The editing of genes through the use of CRISPR presents a new methodology that has the

potential to cause dangers by manipulating epigenetics, as well as manifest controversy within

society.

What is CRISPR and how does it work?

The CRISPR enzyme goes through a detailed process as it enters the cell. In order for this

system to be practiced on humans, scientists first practice this procedure on animals who share

similar genes, such as mice. To begin this detailed process, scientists use a CRISPR Design

website that allows them to view the genome of the targeted organism. To view the desired

section of DNA, they must perform a procedure known as polymerase chain reaction, or PCR

(Kueh, 2016). In PCR, the desired section

of DNA is amplified so that it can be

operated on, thus inserting the CRISPR

enzyme. As shown in Figure 1, the enzyme

then does its job by cutting into the section

of the DNA, by binding to it.

Figure 1. DNA Process. Retrieved from

In a study from the New Scientist, there was a review done that addressed the procedures

done on mice (CRISPR controversy, 2017). A Harvard colleague reviewed this experiment

suggesting that detailed protocol should be restated and conclusions should be written out in a

comprehensive format. The importance of the description of methods is crucial in carrying out

the proper results on test subjects. CRISPR is a highly detailed process that colleagues of a

highly prestigious status believe should be implied (CRISPR controversy, 2017).

In addition to the cautions of genetic editing, there was an instance where genetic

therapy was done by vaccination on horses. The gene therapy was done on horses who had

diphtheria as well as other disorders. In this case, the treatment killed some of the patients who

also had tetanus. As a result, the Biological Control Act of 1902 was passed to establish rules for

the testing of vaccines with gene therapy. Based on this method of gene editing, The

government was coming to believe that gene engineering could also be regulated by tight

protocols (Kozubek, 2016). In conclusion, risks are presented in the manipulation of particular

sections of DNA. The genetic variation that exists among every organism presents a challenge

among researchers who try to set a definite protocol across all organisms. The unpredictability of

gene editing is an issue that many researchers must take into account before performing

procedures.

How Epigenetics Play a role in the Function of DNA

A very important factor to keep in mind is that all living organisms have DNA that is

expressed. This expression of each gene is known as epigenetics. Even though all living things

share similar DNA, not all living things have DNA expressed in the same way. Epigenetics

define how each of our genes will express different traits, as well as the functions that come

along with those traits (Terranoa, 2009). This explains why there is variation among humanistic
 CRISPR Techniques on Humans 5

features and personalities. Because genes are expressed differently among every organism, it is

important to consider that gene editing is an extremely complicated task. Proper protocol and

methodology is necessary for performing CRISPR accurately. The uncertainty of gene

expression where some genes are not fully expressed present a difficult task to successfully

accomplish. In gene therapy, the idea is to replace the

defective gene with a cloned copy of the normal gene. In

some inherited diseases, the defective gene is not expressed

at all, whereas in others, the gene expressed a defective or

inappropriate function (Kozubek, 2016). As well as

unknown factors of gene expression shown in Figure 2,

there are unknown environmental factors that come into

play. This result presents the uncharted territory of editing

Figure 2. Epigenetics. Retrieved from the human genome, even with a detailed methodology.
https://www.sciencenews.org/article/epigeneti
c-marks-may-help-assess-toxic-exposure-risk- In addition to this, there is another mishap that has
someday
occurred due to epigenetics. Information from an article

concluded the risks that are presented from previous experiments on mice. The chief attraction

of doing this with an embryo-or even with eggs and sperm containing faulty DNA is that it is a

long term fix (Brooks, 2015). They also concluded that, if the repair induces side effects, those

are passed on, too. Information from research proves how the use of CRISPR is a delicate

process that can result in many genetic problems that were not there in the first place. The

embryos contained a disturbingly high number of mutations in other parts of the genome. Even

with the most precise methods, the expression of DNA is still prone to producing severe

aftermath.
CRISPR Techniques on Humans 6

Societal Views with Counterargument

According to scientific research, [H]eritable germline editing trials must be approached

with caution, but caution does not mean that they must be prohibited. (Meilaender, 2017). The

author describes the possibility of enhancing human traits or possibly curing disorders that are

caused by one faulty gene, such as cystic fibrosis and sickle cell (Brooks, 2015). Gene editing

also provides other opportunities such as being the only or most acceptable option for

prospective parents who wish to have a genetically related child while minimizing the risk of

transmitting a serious disease or disability (Meilaender, 2017). The benefits of improving the

health of humans are presented through the use of gene editing, which could eventually

revolutionize the field of cell molecular biology. However, there is a point where gene editing

can cause serious consequences leading to the disruption of proper human function. Genetic

differences among organisms present a difficulty for defining one specific methodology to

millions of conglomerate genomes.

Conclusion/Solution

It is still important for scientists to practice human gene editing on plants and animals to

learn from any mistakes that are present before actually making the use of CRISPR a normal

procedure for scientists to practice on humans. In addition to the maintenance of having proper

protocol, there should also be methods that list the patterns of all the mishaps that have occurred

throughout gene editing stored in a database. Gene editing can one day be used to help cure

diseases and disorders, but at this time gene editing is not safe. Based on the patterns of gene

editing effects, researchers are learning how they must develop methods to properly fix a section

of DNA without having to worry about the external and internal effects of epigenetics.
CRISPR Techniques on Humans 7

References

Brooks, M. (2015). How to edit a human. New Statesman, 144(5260), 18-19.r

CRISPR controversy. (2017). New Scientist, 235(3134), 7.

Kozubek, J. (2016). Modern Prometheus: editing the human genome with Crispr-Cas9. New

York : Cambridge University Press, 2016.

Kueh, A. J., & Herold, M. J. (2016). Using CRISPR/Cas9 Technology for Manipulating Cell

Death Regulators. Programmed Cell Death, 253. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-3581-9_18

Meilaender, G. (2017). Is Caution Enough? Commonweal, 144(7), 12-15.

Saey, T. H. (2016, December 14). Epigenetic marks may help assess toxic exposure risk -

someday. Retrieved from https://www.sciencenews.org/article/epigenetic-marks-may-

help-assess-toxic-exposure-risk-someday

Saey, T. H. (2017, April 05). Gene editing of human embryos yields early results. Retrieved

from https://www.sciencenews.org/article/gene-editing-human-embryos-yields-early-

results

Tang, L., Zeng, et al.(2017). CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing in human zygotes using Cas9

protein. Molecular Genetics And Genomics: MGG, 292(3), 525-533.

doi:10.1007/s00438-017-1299-z

Terranoa. (2009). Epigenetics: The Hidden Life of Our Genes. Films on Demand.