Introduction to Programming in C ++

Chapter One
Introduction

What is programming?
Programming is a skill that can be acquired by a computer professional
that gives him/her the knowledge of making the computer perform
the required operation or task.

Why do we need to learn computer programming?

Computer programming is critical if one wants to know how to make
the computer perform a task. Most users of a computer only use the
available applications on the computer. These applications are
produced by computer programmers. Thus if someone is interested to
make such kind of applications, he/she needs to learn how to talk to
the computer, which is learning computer programming.

What is programming language?

Programming Language: is a set different category of written symbols
that instruct computer hardware to perform specified operations
required by the designer.

What skills do we need to be a programmer?

For someone to be a programmer, in addition to basic skills in
computer, needs to have the following major skills:
Programming Language Skill: knowing one or more programming
language to talk to the computer and instruct the machine to
perform a task.
Problem Solving Skill: skills on how to solve real world problem
and represent the solution in understandable format.
Algorithm Development: skill of coming up with sequence of
simple and human understandable set of instructions showing the
step of solving the problem. Those set of steps should not be
dependent on any programming language or machine.

In every programming Language there are sets of rules that govern the symbols
used in a programming language. These set of rules determine how the
programmer can make the computer hardware to perform a specific operation.
These sets of rules are called syntax.

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

1.1. Generations of programming language.

Programming languages are categorized into five generations: (1st, 2nd,
3rd, 4th and 5th generation languages)
These programming languages can also be categorized into two broad
categories: low level and high level languages.
o Low level languages are machine specific or dependent.
o High level languages like COBOL, BASIC are machine independent
and can run on variety of computers.
From the five categories of programming languages, first and second
generation languages are low level languages and the rest are high level
programming languages.
The higher the level of a language, the easier it is to understand and use
by programmers.
Languages after the forth generation are refereed to as a very high level
languages.

1.1.1. First Generation (Machine languages, 1940s):

Difficult to write applications with.
Dependent on machine languages of the specific computer being used.
Machine languages allow the programmer to interact directly with the
hardware, and it can be executed by the computer without the need for a
translator.
Is more powerful in utilizing resources of the computer.
Gives power to the programmer.
They execute very quickly and use memory very efficiently.

1.1.2. Second Generation (Assembly languages, early 1950s):

Uses symbolic names for operations and storage locations.
A system program called an assembler translates a program written in
assembly language to machine language.
Programs written in assembly language are not portable. i.e., different
computer architectures have their own machine and assembly
languages.
They are highly used in system software development.

1.1.3. Third Generation (High level languages, 1950s to 1970s):

Uses English like instructions and mathematicians were able to define
variables with statements such as Z = A + B
Such languages are much easier to use than assembly language.
Programs written in high level languages need to be translated into
machine language in order to be executed.

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

The use of common words (reserved words) within instructions makes

them easier to learn.
All third generation programming languages are procedural languages.
In procedural languages, the programmer is expected to specify what is
required and how to perform it.

1.1.4. Fourth Generation (since late 1970s):

Have a simple, English like syntax rules; commonly used to access
databases.
Forth generation languages are non-procedural languages.
The non-procedural method is easier to write, but you have less control
over how each task is actually performed.
In non-procedural languages the programmer is not required to write
traditional programming logic. Programmers concentrate on defining
the input and output rather than the program steps required.
o For example, a command, such as LIST, might display all the records in a file on
screen, separating fields with a blank space. In a procedural language, all the
logic for inputting each record, testing for end of file and formatting each column
on screen has to be explicitly programmed.
Forth generation languages have a minimum number of syntax rules.
This saves time and free professional programmers for more complex
tasks.
Some examples of 4GL are structured query languages (SQL), report
generators, application generators and graphics languages.

1.1.5. Fifth Generation (1990s):

These are used in artificial intelligence (AI) and expert systems; also
used for accessing databases.
5GLs are natural languages whose instruction closely resembles human
speech. E.g. get me Jone Browns sales figure for the 1997 financial
year.
5GLs require very powerful hardware and software because of the
complexity involved in interpreting commands in human language.

1.2. Overview of Computers and Computer Organization.

Regardless of differences in physical appearance, virtually every
computer may be envisioned as being divided into six logical units or
sections:
Input Unit: it obtains information from various input devices and places
this information at the disposal of the other units so that the information
may be processed or stored.
Output Unit: it takes information that has been processed by the
computer and places it on various output devices to make the
information available for use outside the computer.

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

Memory unit: it retains information that has been entered through the
input unit, so the information may be made immediately available for
processing when it is needed. The memory unit also retains processed
information until that information can be placed on output devices by
the output unit.
Central Processing Unit (CPU): it is the computers coordinator and is
responsible for supervising the operations of the other sections. CPU tells
the input unit when information should be read into memory, tells ALU
when information from the memory should be used in calculation and
tells output unit when to send information from the memory to certain
output devices.
Arithmetic and Logic unit: is a part found inside the Central Processing
Unit and is responsible for performing calculations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. It also performs comparisons.
Secondary Storage device: Programs or data used by other units normally
are placed on secondary storage devices (such as disks) until they are
needed, possibly hours, days, months, or even years later.

1.3. The evolution of Operating Systems.

Early computers were capable of performing only one job at a time. This
form of computer operation is often called single-user batch processing.
The computer runs a single program at a time while processing data in
groups or batches.
As computers became more powerful, it became evident that single-user
batch processing rarely utilizes the computers resources.
Therefore, computer developers thought that many jobs or tasks from
different programs or applications could be made to share the resources
of the computer to achieve better utilization. This concept is called
multiprogramming.
Multiprogramming involving the simultaneous operation of many
jobs on the computer.
In the 1960s, many groups, pioneered timesharing operating systems.
Timesharing is a special case of multiprogramming, in which users
access the computers through terminals. Here, the computer does not
run the users job paralleling, but shares the CPUs time.

1.4. Major Programming Paradigms

The major land marks in the programming world are the different kinds
of features or properties observed in the development of programming
languages. Among these the following are worth mentioning:
Procedural, Structured and Object Oriented Programming Paradigms.

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

1.4.1. Procedural Programming.

o Procedural programming is a programming paradigm based upon
the concept of procedure call. Procedural programming is often a
better choice than simple sequential programming in many
situations which involve moderate complexity or which require
significant ease of maintainability.
o Possible benefits: the ability to re-use the same code (function or
procedure) at different places, an easier way to keep track of
program flow than a collection of GO TO or JUMP statements.

1.4.2. Structured Programming.

o Process of writing a program in small, independent parts. This
makes it easier to control a program's development and to design
and test its individual component parts.
o Structured programs are built up from units called modules, which
normally correspond to single procedures or functions.
o Can be seen as a subset or sub discipline of procedural programming. It
is most famous for removing or reducing reliance on the GO TO
statement.

1.4.3. Object-Oriented Programming.

o The idea behind OOP is that, a computer program is composed of a
collection of individual units, or objects as opposed to traditional
view in which a program is a list of instructions to the computer.
o Object-oriented programming is claimed to give more flexibility,
easing changes to programs. The OOP approach is often simpler to
develop and maintain.

1.5. Problem solving process and software engineering.

1.5.1. Software Engineering.
o Software engineering is the profession that creates and maintains
software applications by applying technologies and practices from
computer science, project management, engineering, application domain
and other fields.
o The method used in solving problems in computer science and/or
information systems is called the software development life cycle.
o The software development life cycle has the following components.
preliminary investigation
analysis
design
implementation
testing and maintenance

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

1.5.2. Problem Solving

o Problem solving is the process of transforming the description of a
problem into the solution by using our knowledge of the problem
domain and by relying on our ability to select and use appropriate
problem-solving strategies, techniques, and tools.
o A problem is an undesirable situation that prevents the organization
from fully achieving its purpose, goals and objectives. Or problem
can also be defined as the gap between the existing and the desired
situation where problem solving will try to fill this gap.
There are two approaches of problem solving:
Top down design: is a systematic approach based on the
concept that the structure of the problem should determine
the structure of the solution and what should be done in
lower level. This approach will try to disintegrate a larger
problem into more smaller and manageable problems to
narrow the problem domain.
Bottom up design: is the reverse process where the lowest
level component are built first and the system builds up
from the bottom until the whole process is finally completed.
1.6. Basic Program development tips
The program we design in any programming language need to be:
Reliable: the program should always do what it is expected to do
and handle all types of exception.
Maintainable: the program should be in a way that it could be
modified and upgraded when the need arises.
Portable: It needs to be possible to adapt the software written for one
type of computer to another with minimum modification.
Efficient: the program should be designed to make optimal use of
time, space and other resources of the computer.

1.7. Algorithm designing and modeling the logic (using flow chart).
A digital computer is a useful tool for solving a great variety of
problems. A solution to a problem is called an algorithm; it describes
the sequence of steps to be performed for the problem to be solved.
Generally, an algorithm is a finite set of well-defined instructions for
accomplishing some task which, given an initial state, will terminate in a
corresponding recognizable end-state.
The algorithm should be:
Precise and unambiguous
Simple
Correct
Efficient

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

1.7.1. Modeling a programs logic using flow chart

Algorithm could be designed using many techniques and tools.
One tool of designing algorithm is by using flowcharts. Flowchart
is a graphical way of expressing the steps needed to solve a
problem.
A flow chart is a schematic (diagrammatic description) representation
of a process.

Basic flowcharting symbols are:

Terminal point

Decision

Process

Input/Output

Flow line

Inter-page connector

On-page connector

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

e.g: to check weather a number is positive or negative.

start

Enter
number

num/2==0?
Display Display odd
even

end

1.8. Compilers and Interpreters.

Any program written in a language other than machine language needs to
be translated to machine language. The set of instructions that do this
task are known as translators.
There are different kinds of translator software, among which compilers
and interpreters are of interest for most programmers.
Compilers: a compiler is a computer program that translates a series of
statements written in source code (a collection of statements in a specific
programming language) into a resulting object code (translated
instructions of the statements in a programming language). A compiler
changes or translates the whole source code into executable machine code
(also called object code) which is output to a file for latter execution. E.g.
C++, Pascal, FORTRAN, etc.
Interpreters: is a computer program that translates a single high level
statement and executes it and then goes to the next high level language
line etc. E.g. QBASIC, Lisp etc.

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

1.9. Mechanics of Creating a program (C++)

C++ programs typically go through five phases to be executed: these are
edit, preprocess, compile, link, load:
Edit: this is accomplished with an editor program. The programmer
types C++ statements with the editor and makes corrections if necessary.
The programs source file is then stored on secondary storage device such as
a disk with a .cpp file name.
After the program is edited, C++ is principally compiled in three phases:
preprocessing, translation to object code, and linking (the last two
phases are what is generally thought of as the "compilation" process).
Preprocess: In a C++ system, a preprocessor program executes
automatically before the compilers translation phase begins. The C++
preprocessor obeys command called preprocessor directives, which
indicate that certain manipulations are to be performed on the program
before compilation. The preprocessor is invoked by the compiler before
the program is converted to machine language. The C++ preprocessor
goes over the program text and carries out the instructions specified by
the preprocessor directives (e.g., #include). The result is a modified
program text which no longer contains any directives.
Compile: Then, the C++ compiler translates the program code. The
compiler may be a true C++ compiler which generates native (assembly
or machine) code. The outcome may be incomplete due to the program
referring to library routines which are not defined as a part of the
program. For example, the << operator which is actually defined in a
separate IO library.
Linking: C++ programs typically contain references to functions and data
defined else where, such as in the standard libraries. The object code
produced by the C++ compiler typically contains holes due to these
missing parts. A linker links the object code with the code for the missing
function to produce an executable image (with no missing pieces).
Generally, the linker completes the object code by linking it with the
object code of any library modules that the program may have referred
to. The final result is an executable file
Loading: the loader takes the executable file from disk and transfers it to
memory. Additional components from shared libraries that support the
program are also loaded. Finally, the computer, under the control of its
CPU, executes the program.

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

In practice all these steps are usually invoked by a single command and the
user will not even see the intermediate files generated.

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

Addis Ababa University

Faculty of Informatics

Worksheet 1
Course Title: Introduction to Programming / Fundamentals of Programming
Course No : Comp 271 / CSCE 232

For each of the problems below, develop a flow chart

1) Receive a number and determine whether it is odd or even.

2) Obtain two numbers from the keyboard, and determine and display
which (if either) is the larger of the two numbers.
3) Receive 3 numbers and display them in ascending order from smallest to
largest
4) Add the numbers from 1 to 100 and display the sum
5) Add the even numbers between 0 and any positive integer number
given by the user.
6) Find the average of two numbers given by the user.
7) Find the average, maximum, minimum, and sum of three numbers
given by the user.
8) Find the area of a circle where the radius is provided by the user.
9) Swap the contents of two variables using a third variable.
10) Swap the content of two variables without using a third variable.
11) Read an integer value from the keyboard and display a message
indicating if this number is odd or even.
12) Read 10 integers from the keyboard in the range 0 - 100, and count how
many of them are larger than 50, and display this result.
13) Take an integer from the user and display the factorial of that number

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

Chapter Two
Basics of C++

2.1. The parts of a C++ Program.

To understand the basic parts of a simple program in C++, lets have
a look at the following code:

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
cout<<\n Hello World!;
getch();

}
Any C++ program file should be saved with file name extension
.CPP
Type the program directly into the editor, and save the file as
hello.cpp, compile it and then run it. It will print the words Hello
World! on the computer screen.
The first character is the #. This character is a signal to the
preprocessor. Each time you start your compiler, the preprocessor
runs through the program and looks for the pound (#) symbols and
act on those lines before the compiler runs.
The include instruction is a preprocessor instruction that directs the
compiler to include a copy of the file specified in the angle brackets
in the source code.
If the path of the file is not specified, the preprocessor looks for the
file under c:\tc\include\ folder or in include folder of the location
where the editor is stored.
The effects of line 1, i.e. include<iostream.h> is to include the file
iostream.h into the program as if the programmer had actually typed
it.
When the program starts, main() is called automatically.
Every C++ program has a main() function.
The return value type for main() here is void, which means main
function will not return a value to the caller (which is the operating
system).
The main function can be made to return a value to the operating
system.
The Left French brace {signals the beginning of the main function
body and the corresponding Right French Brace } signals the end

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of the main function body. Every Left French Brace needs to have a
corresponding Right French Brace.
The lines we find between the braces are statements or said to be the
body of the function.
A statement is a computation step which may produce a value or
interact with input and output streams.
The end of a single statement ends with semicolon (;).
The statement in the above example causes the sting Hello World!
to be sent to the cout stream which will display it on the computer
screen.

2.2. A brief look at cout and cin

Cout is an object used for printing data to the screen.
To print a value to the screen, write the word cout, followed by the
insertion operator also called output redirection operator (<<) and
the object to be printed on the screen.
Syntax: Cout<<Object;
The object at the right hand side can be:
A literal string: Hello World
A variable: a place holder in memory
Cin is an object used for taking input from the keyboard.
To take input from the keyboard, write the word cin, followed by the
input redirection operator (>>) and the object name to hold the input
value.
Syntax: Cin>>Object
Cin will take value from the keyboard and store it in the memory.
Thus the cin statement needs a variable which is a reserved memory
place holder.
Both << and >> return their right operand as their result, enabling
multiple input or multiple output operations to be combined into one
statement. The following example will illustrate how multiple input
and output can be performed:
E.g.:
Cin>>var1>>var2>>var3;
Here three different values will be entered for the three
variables. The input should be separated by a space, tan or
newline for each variable.
Cout<<var1<<, <<var2<< and <<var3;
Here the values of the three variables will be printed where
there is a , (comma) between the first and the second variables
and the and word between the second and the third.

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

2.3. Putting Comments on C++ programs

A comment is a piece of descriptive text which explains some aspect
of a program.
Program comments are text totally ignored by the compiler and are
only intended to inform the reader how the source code is working at
any particular point in the program.
C++ provides two types of comment delimiters:
Single Line Comment: Anything after // {double forward slash}
(until the end of the line on which it appears) is considered a
comment.
o Eg:
cout<<var1; //this line prints the value of var1
Multiple Line Comment: Anything enclosed by the pair /* and
*/ is considered a comment.
o Eg:
/*this is a kind of comment where
Multiple lines can be enclosed in
one C++ program */

Comments should be used to enhance (not to hinder) the readability

of a program. The following two points, in particular, should be
noted:
A comment should be easier to read and understand than the
code which it tries to explain. A confusing or unnecessarily-
complex comment is worse than no comment at all.
Over-use of comments can lead to even less readability. A
program which contains so much comment that you can hardly
see the code can by no means be considered readable.
Use of descriptive names for variables and other entities in a
program, and proper indentation of the code can reduce the
need for using comments.

2.4. A brief look at functions

In general, a function is a block of code that performs one or more
actions.
Most functions are called, or invoked, during the course of the
program, which is after the program starts execution.
Program commands are executed line by line, in the order in which
they appear in the source code, until a function is reached. The
program then branches off to execute the function. When the
function finishes, it returns control to the line of code immediately
following the call to the function.

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Functions consist of a header and a body. The header, in turn is made

up of the return type, the function name, and the parameters to that
function.
The parameters to a function allow values to be passed into the
function. A parameter is a declaration of the type of value that will be
passed to the function; the actual value passed by the calling function
is called arguments.

Let us have an example:

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
cout<<\n In main function;
demoFunction();
cout<<\n Back in main function;
getch();
}

void demoFunction()
{
cout<<\n demoFunction;
}

Functions return either a value or void (i.e. they return nothing).

A function that adds two integers might return the sum, and thus
would be defined to return an integer value. A function that just
prints a message has nothing to return and would be declared to
return void.
A function may return a value using a return statement; a return
statement also causes the function to exit.
If there is no return statement at the end of a function, the function
will automatically return void.

2.5. Variables and Constants.

2.5.1. Variables.
A variable is a reserved place in memory to store information in.
A variable will have three components:
Variables are used for holding data values so that they can be used in
various computations in a program.
All variables have three important properties:
Data Type: a type which is established when the variable is
defined. (e.g. integer, real, character etc). Data type
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describes the property of the data and the size of the

reserved memory
Name: a name which will be used to refer to the value in
the variable. A unique identifier for the reserved memory
location
Value: a value which can be changed by assigning a new
value to the variable.

2.5.1.1. Fundamental Variable types.

Several other variable types are built into C++. They can be
conveniently classified as integer, floating-point or character
variables.
Floating-point variable types can be expressed as fraction i.e.
they are real numbers.
Character variables hold a single byte. They are used to hold
256 different characters and symbols of the ASCII and
extended ASCII character sets.
The type of variables used in C++ program are described in
the next table, which lists the variable type, how much room

Data Types
Type Length Range
unsigned char 8 bits 0 to 255
char 8 bits -128 to 127
enum 6 bits -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned int 16 bits 0 to 65,535
short int 16 bits -32,768 to 32,767
int 16 bits -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned long 32 bits 0 to 4,294,967,295
long 32 bits -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
float 32 bits -3.4x10-38 to 3.4x10+38
double 64 bits -1.7x10-308 to 1.7x10+308
long double 80 bits -3.4x10-4932 to 1.1x10+4932
bool 8 bits true or false (top 7 bits are ignored)

2.5.1.2. Signed and Unsigned.

Signed integers are either negative or positive. Unsigned
integers are always positive.
Because both signed and unsigned integers require the same
number of bytes, the largest number (the magnitude) that can
be stored in an unsigned integer is twice as the largest positive
number that can be stored in a signed integer.

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E.g.: Lets us have only 4 bits to represent numbers

Unsigned Signed
Binary Decimal Binary Decimal
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 2 0 0 1 0 2
0 0 1 1 3 0 0 1 1 3
0 1 0 0 4 0 1 0 0 4
0 1 0 1 5 0 1 0 1 5
0 1 1 0 6 0 1 1 0 6
0 1 1 1 7 0 1 1 1 7
1 0 0 0 8 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 9 1 0 0 1 -1
1 0 1 0 10 1 0 1 0 -2
1 0 1 1 11 1 0 1 1 -3
1 1 0 0 12 1 1 0 0 -4
1 1 0 1 13 1 1 0 1 -5
1 1 1 0 14 1 1 1 0 -6
1 1 1 1 15 1 1 1 1 -7
In the above example, in case of unsigned, since all the 4 bits
can be used to represent the magnitude of the number the
maximum magnitude that can be represented will be 15 as
shown in the example.
If we use signed, we can use the first bit to represent the sign
where if the value of the first bit is 0 the number is positive if
the value is 1 the number is negative. In this case we will be
left with only three bits to represent the magnitude of the
number. Where the maximum magnitude will be 7.

2.5.1.3. Declaring Variables.

Variables can be created in a process known as declaration.
Syntax: Datatype Variable_Name;
The declaration will instruct the computer to reserve a
memory location with the name and size specified during the
declaration.
Good variable names indicate the purpose of the variable or
they should be self descriptive.
E.g. int myAge; //variable used to store my age
The name of a variable sometimes is called an identifier which
should be unique in a program.
Certain words are reserved by C++ for specific purposes and
can not be used as identifiers.

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These are called reserved words or keywords and are

summarized in the following table.
asm continue float new signed try
auto default for operator sizeof typedef
break delete friend private static union
case do goto protected struct unsigned
catch double if public switch virtual
char else inline register template void
class enum int return this volatile
const extern long short throw while

Identifiers
A valid identifier is a sequence of one or more letters,
digits or underlined symbols. The length of an identifier
is not limited.
Neither space nor marked letters can be part of an
identifier.
Only letters, digits and underlined characters are valid.
Variable identifiers should always begin with a letter or
an underscore. By any means they should begin with a
digit.
Key words should not be used as names for identifiers.
C++ is not case sensitive. Small letter and capital letters
are different for C++. Eg: variable Age is not identical
with variable age

2.5.1.4. Initializing Variables.

When a variable is assigned a value at the time of declaration,
it is called variable initialization.
This is identical with declaring a variable and then assigning a
value to the variable immediately after declaration.
The syntax:
DataType variable name = initial value;
e.g. int a = 0;
or: int a;
a=0;

2.5.1.5. Scope of Variables.

Scope of a variable is the boundary or block in a program
where a variable can be accessed. The boundary or block is
identified by the left and right French brackets.

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In C++, we can declare variables any where in the source

code. But we should declare a variable before using it no
matter where it is written.
Global variables: are variables that can be referred/accessed
any where in the code, within any function, as long as it is
declared first. A variable declared before any function
immediately after the include statements are global variables.
Local Variables: the scope of the local variable is limited to the
code level or block within which they are declared.
In the following example, the integer data type num1 is
accessible everywhere whereas z and is only accessible in the
add function and num2 is accessible in main function. This
means cout<<z; or any statement involving z is only valid in
add function.
e.g:
#include<iostream.h>
int num1;

int add( int x, int y)

{
int z;
.
}
void main()
{
unsigned short age;
float num2;
cout<<\n Enter your age:;

}

In C++ the scope of a local variable is given by the block in

which it is declared.
If it is declared within a function, it will be a variable with a
function scope. If it is declared in a loop, its scope will be only
in the loop, etc.

2.5.1.6. Defining a data type (User defined data type)

The typedef Keyword is used to define a data type by the
programmer as the user of a programming language is a
programmer.
It is very difficult to write unsigned short int many times in
your program if many variables need such kind of declaration.
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C++ enables you to substitute an alias for such phrase by

using the keyword typedef, which stands for type definition.

E.g.:
#include<iostream.h>
typedef unsigned short int USHORT;
void main()
{
USHORT width = 9;

}
Immediately after the second line, whenever the compiler
encounters the word USHORT it will substitute is with
unsigned short int.

2.5.1.7. Wrapping around in signed integers.

A signed integer differs from an unsigned integer in that half
of its value is negative. When the program runs out of positive
numbers, the program moves into the largest negative
numbers and then counts back to zero.
E.g.: 32767 + 1 -32769-8 0
2.5.1.8. Wrapping around in unsigned integers
When an unsigned integer reaches its maximum value, it
wraps around and starts over.
E.g.: 65535 + 1 0 65535
2.5.1.9. Characters.
Characters variables (type char) are typically one byte in size,
enough to hold 256 different values. A char can be represented
as a small number (0 - 255).
Char in C++ are represented as any value inside a single
quote.
E.g.: x, A, 5, a, etc.
When the compiler finds such values (characters), it translates
back the value to the ASCII values. E.g. a has a value 97 in
ASCII.

2.5.1.10. Special Printing characters.

In C++, there are some special characters used for formatting.
These are:
\n new line
\t tab
\b backspace
\ double quote
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\ single quote
\? Question mark
\\ backslash
2.5.2. Constants.
A constant is any expression that has a fixed value.
Like variables, constants are data storage locations in the computer
memory. But, constants, unlike variables their content can not be
changed after the declaration.
Constants must be initialized when they are created by the program,
and the programmer cant assign a new value to a constant later.
C++ provides two types of constants: literal and symbolic constants.
Literal constant: is a value typed directly into the program wherever
it is needed.
E.g.: int num = 43;
43 is a literal constant in this statement:
Symbolic constant: is a constant that is represented by a name,
similar to that of a variable. But unlike a variable, its value cant be
changed after initialization.
E.g.:
Int studentPerClass =15;
students = classes * studentPerClass;
studentPerClass is a symbolic constant having a value of 15.
And 15 is a literal constant directly typed in the program.
In C++, we have two ways to declare a symbolic constant. These are
using the #define and the const key word.

2.5.2.1.defining constants with #define:

The #define directive makes a simple text substitution.
The define directive can define only integer constants
E.g.: #define studentPerClass 15
In our example, each time the preprocessor sees the word
studentPerClass, it inserts 15 into the text.

2.5.2.2.defining constants with the const key word:

Here, the constant has a type, and the compiler can ensure
that the constant is used according to the rules for that type.
E.g.: const unsigned short int studentPerClass = 15;

2.5.3. Enumerated constants.

Used to declare multiple integer constants using a single line with
different features.
Enables programmers to define variables and restrict the value of
that variable to a set of possible values which are integer.
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The enum type can not take any other data type than integer
enum types can be used to set up collections of named integer
constants. (The keyword enum is short for ``enumerated''.)
The traditional way of doing this was something like this:
#define SPRING 0
#define SUMMER 1
#define FALL 2
An alternate approach using enum would be
enum { SPRING, SUMMER, FALL, WINTER };
You can declare COLOR to be an enumeration, and then you can
define five possible values for COLOR: RED, BLUE, GREEN, WHITE
and BLACK.
E.g.: enum COLOR {RED,BLUE,GREEN,WHITE,BLACK};
Every enumerated constant has an integer value. If the programmer
does not specify otherwise, the first constant will have the value 0,
and the values for the remaining constants will count up from the
initial value by 1. thus in our previous example RED=0, BLUE=1,
GREEN=3, WHITE=4 and BLACK=5
But one can also assign different numbers for each.
E.g.: enum COLOR{RED=100,BLUE,GREEN=500,WHITE,BLACK};
Where RED will have 100 and BLUE will have 101 while GREEN will have
500, WHITE 501 and BLACK 502.

2.6. Setting aside memory/memory concept.

A computer provides RAM for storing executable program code as
well as the data the program manipulates.
Memory can be thought of as a contiguous sequence of bits, each of
which is capable of storing a binary digit. Typically, the memory is
divided into groups of 8 consecutive bits called bytes.
The bytes are sequentially addressed. Therefore, each byte can be
uniquely identified by its address.

Byte address

1211 1212 1213 1214 1215 1216 1217 memory

byte byte byte byte byte byte byte

1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1

bit
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2.7. Expressions and Statements.

In C++, a statement controls the sequence of execution, evaluates an
expression, or does nothing (the null statement).
All C++ statements end with a semicolon.
E.g.: x = a + b;
The meaning is: assign the value of the sum of a and b to x.
White spaces: white spaces characters (spaces, tabs, new lines) cant
be seen and generally ignored in statements. White spaces should be
used to make programs more readable and easier to maintain.
Blocks: a block begins with an opening French brace ({) and ends
with a closing French brace (}).
Expressions: an expression is a computation which yields a value. It
can also be viewed as any statement that evaluates to a value (returns
a value).
E.g.: the statement 3+2; returns the value 5 and thus is an expression.
Some examples of an expression:
E.g.1:
3.2 returns the value 3.2
PI float constant that returns the value 3.14 if the constant is
defined.
secondsPerMinute integer constant that returns 60 if the constant
is declared

E.g.2: complicated expressions:

x = a + b;
y = x = a + b;

The second line is evaluated in the following order:

1. add a to b.
2. assign the result of the expression a + b to x.
3. assign the result of the assignment expression x = a + b to y.

2.8. Operators.
An operator is a symbol that makes the machine to take an action.
Different Operators act on one or more operands and can also have
different kinds of operators.
C++ provides several categories of operators, including the
following:
Assignment operator
Arithmetic operator
Relational operator
Logical operator
Increment/decrement operator
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Conditional operator
Comma operator
The size of operator
Explicit type casting operators, etc

2.8.1. Assignment operator (=).

The assignment operator causes the operand on the left side of the
assignment statement to have its value changed to the value on the
right side of the statement.
Syntax: Operand1=Operand2;
Operand1 is always a variable
Operand2 can be one or combination of:
A literal constant: Eg: x=12;
A variable: Eg: x=y;
An expression: Eg: x=y+2;

2.8.1.1.Compound assignment operators (+=, -=, *=, /=, %=, >>=, <<=,
&=, ^=).
Compound assignment operator is the combination of the
assignment operator with other operators like arithmetic and bit
wise operators.
The assignment operator has a number of variants, obtained by
combining it with other operators.
E.g.:
value += increase; is equivalent to value = value + increase;
a -= 5; is equivalent to a = a 5;
a /= b; is equivalent to a = a / b;
price *= units + 1 is equivalent to price = price * (units + 1);
And the same is true for the rest.

2.8.2. Arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /, %).

Except for remainder or modulo (%), all other arithmetic operators
can accept a mix of integers and real operands. Generally, if both
operands are integers then, the result will be an integer. However,
if one or both operands are real then the result will be real.
When both operands of the division operator (/) are integers, then
the division is performed as an integer division and not the normal
division we are used to.
Integer division always results in an integer outcome.
Division of integer by integer will not round off to the next integer
E.g.:
9/2 gives 4 not 4.5
-9/2 gives -4 not -4.5
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To obtain a real division when both operands are integers, you

should cast one of the operands to be real.
E.g.:
int cost = 100;
Int volume = 80;
Double unitPrice = cost/(double)volume;
The module(%) is an operator that gives the remainder of a division
of two integer values. For instance, 13 % 3 is calculated by integer
dividing 13 by 3 to give an outcome of 4 and a remainder of 1; the
result is therefore 1.
E.g.:
a = 11 % 3
a is 2

2.8.3. Relational operator (==, !=, > , <, >=, <=).

In order to evaluate a comparison between two expressions, we can
use the relational operator.
The result of a relational operator is a bool value that can only be
true or false according to the result of the comparison.
E.g.:
(7 = = 5) would return false or returns 0
(5 > 4) would return true or returns 1
The operands of a relational operator must evaluate to a number.
Characters are valid operands since they are represented by
numeric values. For E.g.:
A < F would return true or 1. it is like (65 < 70)

2.8.4. Logical Operators (!, &&, ||):

Logical negation (!) is a unary operator, which negates the logical
value of its operand. If its operand is non zero, it produce 0, and if
it is 0 it produce 1.
Logical AND (&&) produces 0 if one or both of its operands
evaluate to 0 otherwise it produces 1.
Logical OR (||) produces 0 if both of its operands evaluate to 0
otherwise, it produces 1.
E.g.:
!20 //gives 0
10 && 5 //gives 1
10 || 5.5 //gives 1
10 && 0 // gives 0
N.B. In general, any non-zero value can be used to represent the
logical true, whereas only zero represents the logical false.

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2.8.5. Increment/Decrement Operators: (++) and (--)

The auto increment (++) and auto decrement (--) operators provide
a convenient way of, respectively, adding and subtracting 1 from a
numeric variable.
E.g.:
if a was 10 and if a++ is executed then a will automatically
changed to 11.

2.8.5.1. Prefix and Postfix:

The prefix type is written before the variable. Eg (++ myAge),
whereas the postfix type appears after the variable name
(myAge ++).
Prefix and postfix operators can not be used at once on a single
variable: Eg: ++age-- or --age++ or ++age++ or - - age - - is
invalid
In a simple statement, either type may be used. But in complex
statements, there will be a difference.
The prefix operator is evaluated before the assignment, and the
postfix operator is evaluated after the assignment.

E.g.
int k = 5;
(auto increment prefix) y= ++k + 10; //gives 16 for y
(auto increment postfix) y= k++ + 10; //gives 15 for y
(auto decrement prefix) y= --k + 10; //gives 14 for y
(auto decrement postfix) y= k-- + 10; //gives 15 for y

2.8.6. Conditional Operator (?:)

The conditional operator takes three operands. It has the general
form:
Syntax:
operand1 ? operand2 : operand3
First operand1 is a relational expression and will be evaluated.
If the result of the evaluation is non zero (which means TRUE),
then operand2 will be the final result. Otherwise, operand3 is
the final result.
E.g.: General Example
Z=(X<Y? X : Y)
This expression means that if X is less than Y the value of X
will be assigned to Z otherwise (if X>=Y) the value of Y will be
assigned to Z.

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E.g.:
int m=1,n=2,min;
min = (m < n ? m : n);
The value stored in min is 1.
E.g.:
(7 = = 5 ? 4: 3) returns 3 since 7 is not equal to 5
2.8.7. Comma Operator (,).
Multiple expressions can be combined into one expression using
the comma operator.
The comma operator takes two operands. Operand1,Operand2
The comma operator can be used during multiple declaration,
for the condition operator and for function declaration, etc
It the first evaluates the left operand and then the right operand,
and returns the value of the latter as the final outcome.
E.g.
int m,n,min;
int mCount = 0, nCount = 0;

min = (m < n ? (mCount++ , m) : (nCount++ , n));

Here, when m is less than n, mCount++ is evaluated and the

value of m is stored in min. otherwise, nCount++ is evaluated
and the value of n is stored in min.
2.8.8. The sizeof() Operator.
This operator is used for calculating the size of any data item or
type.
It takes a single operand (e.g. 100) and returns the size of the
specified entity in bytes. The outcome is totally machine
dependent.
E.g.:
a = sizeof(char)
b = sizeof(int)
c = sizeof(1.55) etc
2.8.9. Explicit type casting operators.
Type casting operators allows you to convert a datum of a given
type to another data type.
E.g.
int i;
float f = 3.14;
i = (int)f; equivalent to i = int(f);
Then variable i will have a value of 3 ignoring the decimal point

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2.9. Operator Precedence.

The order in which operators are evaluated in an expression is
significant and is determined by precedence rules. Operators in
higher levels take precedence over operators in lower levels.

Precedence Table:

Level Operator Order

Highest ++ -- (post fix) Right to left
sizeof() ++ -- (prefix) Right to left
* / % Left to right
+ - Left to right
< <= > >= Left to right
== != Left to right
&& Left to right
|| Left to right
? : Left to right
= ,+=, -=, *=, /=,^= ,%=, &= ,|= ,<<= ,>>= Right to left
, Left to right

E.g.
a==b+c*d
c * d is evaluated first because * has a higher precedence than + and = =.

The result is then added to b because + has a higher precedence than = =

And then == is evaluated.
Precedence rules can be overridden by using brackets.
E.g. rewriting the above expression as:
a = = (b + c) * d causes + to be evaluated before *.
Operators with the same precedence level are evaluated in the order
specified by the column on the table of precedence rule.
E.g. a = b += c the evaluation order is right to left, so the first b += c is
evaluated followed by a = b.

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

Addis Ababa University

Faculty of Informatics

Worksheet 2
Course Title: Introduction to Programming / Fundamentals of Programming
Course No : Comp 271 / CSCE 232

For each of the problems write a C++ code to perform the required task. Your
program should be based on the flow chart you drawn in the first worksheet.

1) Receive a number and determine whether it is odd or even.

2) Obtain two numbers from the keyboard, and determine and display
which (if either) is the larger of the two numbers.
3) Receive 3 numbers and display them in ascending order from smallest to
largest
4) Add the numbers from 1 to 100 and display the sum
5) Add the even numbers between 0 and any positive integer number
given by the user.
6) Find the average of two numbers given by the user.
7) Find the average, maximum, minimum, and sum of three numbers
given by the user.
8) Find the area of a circle where the radius is provided by the user.
9) Swap the contents of two variables using a third variable.
10) Swap the content of two variables without using a third variable.
11) Read an integer value from the keyboard and display a message
indicating if this number is odd or even.
12) read 10 integers from the keyboard in the range 0 - 100, and count how
many of them are larger than 50, and display this result
13) Take an integer from the user and display the factorial of that number

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Chapter Three
Program Control Constructs.
A running program spends all of its time executing instructions or statements
in that program.
The order in which statements in a program are executed is called flow of
that program.
Programmers can control which instruction to be executed in a program,
which is called flow control.
This term reflects the fact that the currently executing statement has the
control of the CPU, which when completed will be handed over (flow) to
another statement.
Flow control in a program is typically sequential, from one statement to the
next.
But we cal also have execution that might be divided to other paths by
branching statements. Or perform a block of statement repeatedly until a
condition fails by Repetition or looping.
Flow control is an important concept in programming because it will give all
the power to the programmer to decide what to do to execute during a run
and what is not, therefore, affecting the overall outcome of the program.

3. Sequential Statements
Such kind of statements are instruction in a program which will executed
one after the other in the order scripted in the program. In sequential
statements, the order will be determined during program development
and can not be changed.

4. Selection Statements
Selection statements are statements in a program where there are points at
which the program will decide at runtime whether some part of the code
should or should not be executed.
There are two types of selection statements in C++, which are the if
statement and the switch statement

4.1. The if Statement

It is sometimes desirable to make the execution of a statement
dependent upon a condition being satisfied.
The different forms of the If statement will be used to decide
whether to execute part of the program based on a condition which
will be tested either for TRUE or FALSE result.

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The different forms of the If statement are:

9 The simple if statement
9 The If else statement
9 The if else if statement
The simple if statement
The simple if statement will decide only one part of the program to
be executed if the condition is satisfied or ignored if the condition
fails.
The General Syntax is:
if (expression)
statements;

In any if statement, first the expression will be evaluated and if

the outcome is non zero (which means TRUE), then the statements
is executed. Otherwise, nothing happens (the statement will not be
executed) and execution resumes to the line immediately after the
if block.
To make multiple statements dependent on the same condition we
can use a compound statement, which will be implemented by
embracing the group of instructions within the left { and right }
French bracket.
E.g.:
if(age>18)
cout<<you are an adult;

E.g.:
if(balance > 0)
{
interest = balance * creditRate;
balance += interest;
}
Most of the time expression will have relational expressions
testing whether something is equal, greater, less, or different from
something else.
It should be noted that the output of a relational expression is
either True (represented by anything different from zero) or False
(represented by Zero).
Thus any expression, whose final result is either zero or none zero
can be used in expression

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E.g.:
int x;
cin>>x;
if(x)
cout<<you are an adult;
In the above example, the value of variable x will be an input from
the user. The if statement will be true if the user gives anything
different from zero, which means the message you are an adult
will be displayed on the screen. If the user gives zero value for x,
which will be interpreted as False, nothing will be done as the if
statement is not satisfied.
Thus, expression and be:
9 Relational expression,
9 A variable,
9 A literal constant, or
9 Assignment operation, as the final result is whatever we
have at the right hand side and the one at the left hand side
is a variable.
The If else statement
Another form of the if is the if else statement.
The if else if statement allows us to specify two alternative
statements:
9 One which will be executed if a condition is satisfied and
9 Another which will be executed if the condition is not
satisfied.
The General Syntax is:
if (expression)
statements1;
else
statements2;
First expression is evaluated and if the outcome is none zero
(true), then statements1 will be executed. Otherwise, which means
the expression is false statements2 will be executed.
E.g.:
if(balance > 0)
{
interest = balance * creditRate;
balance += interest;
}
else
{
interest = balance * debitRate;
balance += interest;
}
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E.g.1:
if(age>18)
cout<<you are an adult;
else
cout<<You are a kid;
E.g.2:
int x;
cout<<Enter a number: ;
cin>>x;
if(x%2==0)
cout<<The Number is Even;
else
cout<<The Number is Odd;
E.g.3:
int x;
cout<<Enter a number: ;
cin>>x;
if(x%2)
cout<<The Number is Odd;
else
cout<<The Number is Even;

The above three examples illustrate the if else statement.

The last two examples will do the same thing except that the
expression in the Eg3 is changed from relational to arithmetic. We
know that the result from the modulus operator is either 0 or one if
the divider is 2. Thus the final result of the expression in Eg3 will
either be 1 for odd numbers or be 0 for even numbers.
if statements may be nested by having an if statement appear
inside another if statement. For instance:
if(callHour > 3)
{
if(callDuration <= 5)
charge = callDuration * tarif1;
else
charge = 5 * tarif1 + (callDuration - 5) * tarif2;
}
else
charge = flatFee;

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e.g2. #include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
int main()
{
int testScore;
cout<<\nEnter your test score:;
cin>>testScore;

if(testScore < 70)

cout<<\n You did not pass:; then block
else
cout<<\n You did pass; else block
getch();
return 0;
}
the above sample program can be diagrammatically expressed as
follows:

False testScore < 70?

True

cout<<you did pass; cout<<you didt pass;

The if else if statement

The third form of the if statement is the if else if statement.
The if else if statement allows us to specify more than two
alternative statements each will be executed based on testing one or
more conditions.

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The General Syntax is:

if (expression1)
statements1;
else if(expression2)
statements2;
.
.
.
else if(expressionN)
statementsN;
else
statements

First expression1 is evaluated and if the outcome is none zero

(true), then statements1 will be executed. Otherwise, which means
the expression1 then expression2 will be evaluated: if the out put
of expression2 is True then statements2 will be executed
otherwise the next expression in the else if statement will be
executed and so on.
If all the expressions in the if and else if statements are False
then statements under else will be executed.
The ifelse and ifelse if statements are said to be exclusive
selection as if one of the condition (expression) is satisfied only
instructions in its block will be executed and the rest will be
ignored.
E.g.:
if(score >= 90)
cout<< \n your grade is A;
else if(score >= 80)
cout<< \n your grade is B;
else if(score >= 70)
cout<< \n your grade is C;
else if(score >= 60)
cout<< \n your grade is D;
else
cout<< \n your grade is F;
In the above example, only one of the five cout statements will be
executed and the rest will be ignored. But until one of the
conditions is satisfied or the else part is reached, the expressions
will be tested or evaluated.

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Nesting If statements within another if statement

One or more if statements can be nested with in another if
statement.
The nesting will be used to test multiple conditions to perform a
task.
It is always recommended to indent nested if statements to enhance
readability of a program

The General Syntax might be:

if (expression1)
{
if (expression2)
statementsN;
else
statementsM;
}
else
{
if (expression3)
statementsR;
else
statementsT;
}

StatementsN will be executed if and only if expression1 and

expression2 are evaluated and if the outcome of both is none zero
(TRUE).
StatementsM will be executed if and only if expression1 is TRUE
and expression2 is FALSE.
StatementsR will be executed if and only if expression1 is FALSE
and expression3 is TRUE.
StatementsT will be executed if and only if expression1 is FLASE
and expression2 is FALSE.

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Lets have an example on nested if statements

#...
int main()
{
int testScore, age;
cout<<\n Enter your test score :;
cin>>testScore;
cout<<\n enter your age:;
cin>>age;
if(testScore >= 70)
{
if(age < 10)
cout<<\n You did a great job;
else
cout<<\n You did pass;
}
else
cout<<\n You did not pass;
getch();
return 0;
}
The above program can be expressed diagrammatically as follows.

False True
testScore >=70?

True
False False
True
cout<</;you didnt pass; age < 10?

cout<<you did a great job;

cout<<you did pass;

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

4.1.1. The Switch Statement

Another C++ statement that implements a selection control flow is the
switch statement (multiple-choice statement).
The switch statement provides a way of choosing between a set of
alternatives based on the value of an expression. The general form of the
switch statement is:
The switch statement has four components:
Switch
Case
Default
Break
Where Default and Break are Optional
The General Syntax might be:
switch(expression)
{
case constant1:
statements;
.
.
.
case constant n:
statements;
default:
statements;
}

Expression is called the switch tag and the constants preceding each case
are called the case labels.
The out put of expression should always be a constant value.
First expression is evaluated, and the outcome, which is a constant value,
will compared to each of the numeric constants in the case labels, in the
order they appear, until a match is found.
Note, however, that the evaluation of the switch tag with the case labels is
only for equality
The statements following the matching case are then executed. Note the
plural: each case may be followed by zero or more statements (not just one
statement).
After one case is satisfied, execution continues until either a break
statement is encountered or all intervening statements are executed,
which means until the execution reaches the right French bracket of the
switch statement.

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

The final default case is optional and is exercised if none of the earlier
cases provide a match. This means that, if the value of the expression is
not equal to any of the case labels, then the statements under default will
be executed.
Now let us see the effect of including a break statement in the switch
statement.

Scenario One Scenario Two

switch (N){{ switch(N){
case 1: x=10; case 1: x=10; break;
case 2:
2: x=20; case 2: x=20; break;
case 3: x=30; case 3: x=30; break;
} }

Even if N is 1 or 2 x will have 30 X will have either 10, 20 or 30 based on

the value of N

true
true N==1? x = 10
N==1? x = 10

false break
false
true true
N==2? x =20 N==2? x = 20

false false break

N==3?
true x = 30 N==3?
true tru e
x = 30

false false break

The break terminates the switch statement by jumping to the very end of
it.
There are, however, situations in which it makes sense to have a case
without a break. For instance:

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E.g.:
switch(operator)
{
case +: result = operand1 + operand2;
break;
case - : result = operand1 operand2;
break;
case x:
case *: result = operand1 * operand2;
break;
case /: result = operand1 / operand2;
break;
default: cout<< unknown operator:<<operator<<\n;
}

Because case x has no break statement (in fact no statement at all!), when
this case satisfied, execution proceeds to the statements of the next case
and the multiplication is performed.
Switch evaluates expression and compares the result to each of the case
values.
Relational and Boolean operators can be used in switch tag if and only if
the expected output is either 0 to represent False or 1 to represent True as
that is the only possible output from such operators.

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

4.2. Repetition Statements

Repetition statements control a block of code to be executed repeatedly for
a fixed number of times or until a certain condition fails.
There are three C++ repetition statements:
1) The For Statement or loop
2) The While statement or loop
3) The dowhile statement or loop

4.2.1. The for statement / loop

The for statement (also called loop) is used to repeatedly execute
a block of instructions until a specific condition fails.
The General Syntax is:
for(expression1 ; expression2 ; expression3)
statements;

The for loop has three expressions:

expression1: is one or more statements that will be executed
only once and before the looping starts.
Expression2: is the part that decides whether to proceed with
executing the instructions in the loop or to stop. Expression2
will be evaluated each time before the loop continues. The
out put of expression2 should be either zero (to proceed with
the loop) or none zero (to stop the loop) to represent false
and true output respectively.
Expression3: is one or more statements that will be executed
after each iteration.
Thus, first expression1 is evaluated and then each time the loop is
executed, expression2 is evaluated. If the outcome of expression2 is
non zero then statements is executed and expression3 is evaluated.
Otherwise, the loop is terminated.
In most programs, the for loop will be used for such expressions
where expression1 is initialization, expression2 is condition and
expression3 is either increment or decrement.
The general format can be expressed as follows for the sake of
clarity:
for(initialization ; condition ; increase/decrease)
statement;

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

Steps of execution of the for loop:

1. Initialization is executed. (will be executed only once)
2. Condition is checked, if it is true the loop continues, otherwise the
loop finishes and statement is skipped.
3. Statement is executed.
4. Finally, whatever is specified in the increase or decrease field is
executed and the loop gets back to step 2.

E.g. guess the output of the following code:

int main()
{
for(int i=10;i>0;i--)
{
cout<<n<<,;
}
cout<< FIRE!;
getch();
return 0;
}
Even though it is not recommended, expression1, expression2 and
expression3 can be optional or can be ignored. This means that they
can take NULL statement.
But making expression2 null means that the loop will not terminate.
In such cases one can include an if statement inside the for
loop which will test a condition and break out from the loop using
the break statement.
While making one or more of the three expressions null, the semi
colons CAN NOT be ignored.
E.g.:
for (;n<10;) //if we want nether initialization nor increase/decrease
for (;n<10;n++) //if no initialization is needed.
for ( ; ; ) //is an infinite loop unless an otherwise there is if
statement inside the loop.
It is declared above that expression1 and expression3 can be one or
more statements. The composite statements should be separated by
a comma. This means, optionally, using the comma operator (,) we
can specify more than one instruction in any of the two fields
included in a for loop.
E.g. for(n=0,i=100;n!=i; n++,i--)
{
//what ever here
}

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

In the above example, n=0 and i=100 will be part of expression1

and will be executed only once before the loop starts. In addition,
n++ and iwill be part of expression3 and will be executed after
each looping/iteration.
Eg:1
//the following for statement adds the numbers between 0 and n
int Sum=0;
for(int i=0; i<=n;i++)
Sum=Sum+i;

Eg:2
//the following for statement adds the even numbers between 0 and n
int Sum=0;
for(int i=0; i<=n;)
{
Sum=Sum+i;
i+=2;
}

Eg:3
//the following for statement adds the even numbers between 0 and n
//where all the three expressions are null.
int Sum=0;
int i=0;
for( ; ; )
{
If(i<=n)
break;
else
{
Sum=Sum+i;
i++;
}
}
In the above example, the initialization is at the top before the
looping starts, the condition is put in if statement before the
instructions are executed and the increment is found immediately
after the statements to be executed in the loop.
NB: even though there is the option of making all the three
expressions null in a for loop, it is not recommended to make the
condition to take null statement.

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

4.2.2. The while statement

The while statement (also called while loop) provides a way of
repeating a statement or a block as long as a condition holds / is
true.
The general form of the while loop is:
while(expression)
statements;
First expression (called the loop condition) is evaluated. If the
outcome is non zero then statement (called the loop body) is
executed and the whole process is repeated. Otherwise, the loop is
terminated.
Suppose that we wish to calculate the sum of all numbers from 1 to
some integer value n. this can be expressed as :
E.g.1:// adds the numbers between 0 and any given number n
i=1;
sum = 0;
while(i <= n)
sum += i++;

E.g.2://adds the numbers between 0 and 100

number=1;
sum=0;
while(number <= 100)
{
sum += number;
number++;
}
E.g.3:
/*the following while loop will request the user to enter his/her
age which should be between 0 and 130. If the user enters a
value which is not in the range, the while loop test the value
and request the age again until the user enters a valid age.*/
cout<<\n enter your age [between 0 and 130]:;
cin>>age;
while(age < 0 || age > 130)
{
cout<<\n invalid age. Plz try again!;
cin>>age;
}

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

4.2.3. Dowhile loop.

The do statement (also called the do loop) is similar to the while
statement, except that its body is executed first and then the loop
condition is examined.
In dowhile loop, we are sure that the body of the loop will be
executed at lease once. Then the condition will be tested.
The general form is:
do
{
statement;
}
while(expression);
First statement is executed and then expression is evaluated. If the
outcome of the expression is nonzero, then the whole process is
repeated. Otherwise the loop is terminated.
E.g.:
//our previous example (Eg3) in the while loop might be changed as:

age=-1;
do
{
cout<<\n enter your valid age [between 0 and 130]:;
cin>>age;
}
while(age < 0 || age > 130);

- E.g. what do you think is the outcome of the following code:

unsigned long n;
do
{
cout<<\n enter number (0 to end):;
cin>>n;
cout<<\n you entered:<<n;
}
}while(n != 0);

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

4.2.4. Pitfalls in witting repetition statements

There are some pitfalls worth mentioning in repletion statements.
These pit falls are the most common programming errors
committed by programmers
Infinite loop: no matter what you do with the while loop (and other
repetition statements), make sure that the loop will eventually
terminates.
E.g.1:
//Do you know why the following is an infinite loop?
int product = 0;
while(product < 50)
product *= 5;

E.g.2:
//Do you know why the following is an infinite loop?
int counter = 1;
while(counter != 10)
counter += 2;
In the first example, since product is initialized with zero, the
expression product*=5 will always give us zero which will
always be less than 50.
In the second example, the variable counter is initialized to 1 and
increment is 2, counter will never be equal to 10 as the counter only
assumes odd values. In theory, this while loop is an infinite loop,
but in practice, this loop eventually terminates because of an
overflow error as counter is an integer it will have a maximum limit.

Off-By-One Bugs (OBOB): another thing for which you have to

watch out in writing a loop is the so called Off-By-One Bugs or errors.
Suppose we want to execute the loop body 10 times. Does the
following code work?
E.g.:1
count = 1;
while(count < 10)
{

count++;
}
No, the loop body is executed nine times. How about the following?

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

E.g.:2
count = 0;
while(count <= 10)
{

count++;
}
No this time the loop body is executed eleven times. The correct is

E.g.:3
count = 0;
while(count < 10)
{

count++;
}

OR

count = 1;
while(count <= 10)
{

count++;
}

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

4.2.5. Types of Loops

4.2.5.1. Count controlled loops

Repeat a statement or block a specified number of times
Count-controlled loops contain
An initialization of the loop control variable
An expression to test if the proper number of
repetitions has been completed
An update of the loop control variable to be executed
with each iteration of the body

4.2.5.2. Event-controlled loops

Repeat a statement or block until a condition within the loop
body changes that causes the repetition to stop
Types of Event-Controlled Loops
1. Sentinel controlled:
Keep processing data until a special value that is not a
possible data value is entered to indicate that processing
should stop
2. End-of-file controlled:
Keep processing data as long as there is more data in the
file
3. Flag controlled:
Keep processing data until the value of a flag changes in
the loop body

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

4.3. The continue and break statements

4.3.1. The continue statement
The continue statement terminates the current iteration of a loop and
instead jumps to the next iteration.
It is an error to use the continue statement outside a loop.
In while and do while loops, the next iteration commences from the loop
condition.
In a for loop, the next iteration commences from the loops third
expression.
E.g.:
for(int n=10;n>0;n--)
{ if(n==5)
continue; //causes a jump to n
cout<<n<< ,;
}
When the continue statement appears inside nested loops, it applies to the
loop immediately enclosing it, and not to the outer loops. For example, in
the following set of nested loops, the continue statement applies to the
for loop, and not to the while loop.
E.g.:
while(more)
{
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{ cin>>num;
if(num<0)
continue; //causes a jump to : i++
}
}

4.3.2. The break statement

A break statement may appear inside a loop (while, do, or for) or a switch
statement. It causes a jump out of these constructs, and hence terminates
them.
Like the continue statement, a break statement only applies to the loop
or switch immediately enclosing it. It is an error to use the break
statement outside a loop or a switch statement.
E.g.:
for(n=10;n>0;n--)
{ cout<<n<< ,;
if(n = = 3)
{ cout<< count down aborted!!;
break;
}
}
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Introduction to Programming in C ++

ADDIS ABAB UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF INFORMATICS
INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING (C++)
Worksheet 3: Make sure to use looping whenever applicable.
1. Write for, do-while, and while statements to compute the following sums and
products.
a. 1+2+3++100
b. 5+10+15++50
c. 1+1/2+1/3+1/4+1/15
d. 1*2*3**20
2. write an application to print out the numbers 10 through 49 in the following manner
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49
3. A prime number is an integer greater than one and divisible only by itself and one.
The first seven prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, and 17. Write a program that
displays all the prime numbers between 1 and 100.
4. Write a C++ program that counts the number of digits in an integer number. For
example; 23,498 has five digits.
5. Write a C++ application that can compute the letter grade of a student after accepting
the students mid and final mark. The program should only accept mid result [0-40]
and final [0- 60]. If the data entered violates this rule, the program should display that
the user should enter the mark in the specified range. The program is also expected to
run until the user refuses to continue.
6. Write a C++ program that accepts a positive number from the user and displays the
factorial of that number. Use for loops to find the factorial of the number.
7. Write a C++ code that computes the sum of the following series.
Sum = 1! + 2! + 3! + 4! + n!
The program should accept the number from the user.

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8. Using the ASCII table numbers, write a program to print the following output, using a
nested for loop. (Hint: the outer loop should loop from 1 to 5, and the inner loops
start variable should be 65, the value of ASCII A).
A
AB
ABC
ABCD
ABCDE
9. Write a C++ program that displays the following output using their ASCII values.
a
bc
def
gehi
jklmn
opqrst
10. Write a C++ program that will print the following shapes.
A. B. C. D.
*
* ***** *
***
** **** ***
*****
*** *** *****
***
**** ** *******
*
***** * *********
11. Write a weather-calculator program that asks for a list of the previous 10 days
temperatures, computes the average, and prints the results. You have to compute the
total as the input occurs, then divide that total by 10 to find the average. Use a while
loop for the 10 repetitions.
12. Write a C++ program using for loop that can compute the following summation:

[( i 3 )* 2]
30

i =1

13. Write a C++ program that accepts marks of five students and then displays their
average. The program should not accept mark which is less than 0 and mark greater
than 100.
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Introduction to Programming in C ++

14. Develop a calculator program that computes and displays the result of a single
requested operation.
E.g. if the input is
15 * 20, then the program should display 15 * 20 equals 300
If the operator is not legal, as in the following example
24 ~ 25 then the program displays ~ is unrecognized operator
As a final example, if the denominator for a division is 0, as in the following
input: 23 / 0 then the program should display the following:
23 / 0 cant be computed: denominator is 0.
15. Use either a switch or an if-else statement and display whether a vowel or a
consonant character is entered by the user. The program should work for both lower
case and upper case letters.
16. Write a C++ code to display only even numbers found between 0 and 20.
17. Write a C++ application that extracts a day, month and year and determine whether
the date is valid. If the program is given a valid date, an appropriate message is
displayed. If instead the program is given an invalid date, an explanatory message is
given. Note: to recognize whether the date is valid, we must be able to determine
whether the year is a leap year or not.
An example of the expected input/output behavior for a valid date follows

Please enter a date (dd mm yyyy) : 30 4 2006

30/4/2006 is a valid date
Please enter a date (dd mm yyyy) : 1 13 2006
Invalid month: 13
Please enter a date (dd mm yyyy) : 29 2 1899
Invalid day of month 29

If the year is a leap year, then February will have total of 29 days. Otherwise, it
will have 28 days. If the year is not a century year and is evenly divisible by 4,
then the year is a leap year. If the year is a century year (years whose last digits
are 00) and is evenly divisible by 400, then the year is a leap year.

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

Chapter Four
Functions

4. What is a function?
A function provides a convenient way of packaging a computational
recipe, so that it can be used as often as required.
Therefore, a function is a block of code designed to tackle a specific
problem.

4.1. Function Basics

One of the best ways to tackle a problem is to start with the overall
goal, then divide this goal into several smaller tasks. You should never
lose sight of the overall goal, but think also of how individual pieces
can fit together to accomplish such a goal.
If your program does a lot, break it into several functions. Each
function should do only one primary task.

4.2. Summarized function basics.

C++ functions generally adhere to the following rules.
1. Every function must have a name.
2. Function names are made up and assigned by the programmer
following the same rules that apply to naming variables. They
can contain up to 32 characters, they must begin with a letter,
and they can consist of letters, numbers, and the underscore (_)
character.
3. All function names have one set of parenthesis immediately
following them. This helps you (and C++ compiler)
differentiate them from variables.
4. The body of each function, starting immediately after
parenthesis of the function name, must be enclosed by braces.

4.3. Declaring, defining and calling functions

4.3.1. Declaring function:
o The interface of a function (also called its prototype) specifies how
it may be used. It consists of three entities:
o The function return type. This specifies the type of value the
function returns. A function which returns nothing should have a
return type void.
o The function name. this is simply a unique identifier

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o The function parameters (also called its signature). This is a set of

zero or more typed identifiers used for passing values to and from
the function.

4.3.2. Defining a function:

o A function definition consists of two parts: interface (prototype) &
body. The brace of a function contains the computational steps
(statements) that computerize the function. The definition consists
of a line called the decelerator.
o If function definition is done before the main function, then there is
no need to put the prototype, otherwise the prototype should be
scripted before the main function starts.

4.3.3. Calling the function:

o Using a function involves calling it.
o Calling a function means making the instruction of the function to
be executed.
o A function call consists of the function name followed by the call
operator brackets (), inside which zero or more comma-separated
arguments appear. The number and type of arguments should
match the number of function parameters. Each argument is an
expression whose type should match the type of the corresponding
parameter in the function interface.
o When a function call is executed, the arguments are first evaluated
and their resulting values are assigned to the corresponding
parameters. The function body is then executed. Finally the return
value (if any) is passed to the caller.
A function call in C++ is like a detour on a highway. Imagine that you
are traveling along the road of the primary function called main().
When you run into a function-calling statement, you must temporarily
leave the main() function and execute the function that was called. After
that function finishes (its return statement is reached), program control
returns to main(). In other words, when you finish a detour, you return
to the main route and continue the trip. Control continues as main()
calls other functions.

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

Lets have a simple example:

void func1(); prototype of function definition

void main()
{ no return type as it is void in the definition.
---------------
func1(); function call (notice the semicolon)
---------------
}
Return type is void
void func1() no semicolon. Decelerator
{
-------------- function body definition
--------------
} no semicolon.

Lets have another very simple function example:

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void starLine(); //prototype of the function with a name starLine
int main()
{
starLine(); //Calling the function with a name starLine
cout<< Data type Range << endl;
starLine();
cout<< char -128 to 127 <<endl
<< short -32,768 to 32,767 <<endl
<< int system dependent <<endl
<< long -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 << endl;
starLine();
return 0;
}

void starLine()
{
for(int j=0;j<45;j++) definition of the function
with a
cout<< *; name starLine
cout<<endl;
}

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

Given the next program, which function is the calling function and
which is the called function?
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void nextMsg()
int main()
{
cout<< Hello!\n;
nextMsg();
return 0;
}
void nextMsg()
{
cout<< GoodBye!\n;
return;
}

4.4. Function Parameters and arguments

The parameters of a function are list of variables used by the function
to perform its task and the arguments passed to the function during
calling of a function are values sent to the function.
The arguments of function calling can be using either of the two
supported styles in C++: passing by value or passing by reference.

4.4.1. Passing by value:

o A value parameter receives a copy of only the value of the
argument passed to it. As a result, if the function makes any
changes to the parameters, this will not affect the argument. For
instance:
#.....
void Foo(int num)
{ Num = 0;
cout<< num = << num << \n;
}
int main(void)
{ int x = 10;
Foo(x);
cout<< x = <<x<< \n;
getch();
return 0;
}
o The single parameter of Foo is a value parameter. As far as this
function is concerned, num behaves just like a local variable inside

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the function. When the function is called and x passed to it, num
receives a copy of the value of x. As a result, although num is set to
0 by the function, this does not affect x. the program produces the
following output:
Num = 0
x = 10
o Passing arguments in this way, where the function creates copies of
the arguments passed to it is called passing by value.

4.4.2. Passing by Reference:

o A reference parameter, on the other hand, receives the argument
passed to it and works on it directly. Any change made by the
function to a reference parameter is in effect directly applied to the
argument.
o Passing parameters in this way is called pass-by-reference.
o Taking the same example above:
#.....
#.....
void Foo(int & num)
{
num = 0;
cout<< num = << num << \n;
}
int main(void)
{
int x = 10;
Foo(x);
cout<< x = <<x<< \n;
getch();
return 0;
}

o The parameter of Foo is a reference parameter. Num will

correspond to x for this specific program as it x is sent by its
reference and not its value. Any change made on num will be
effected to x. Thus, the program produces the following output:
num = 0
x=0

o Suppose you have pairs of numbers in your program and you want
to be sure that the smaller one always precedes the larger one. To
do this, you call a function, order(), which checks two numbers

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

passed to it by reference and swaps the originals if the first is larger

than the second.

#.......
#.......
void order(int &, int &);
int main()
{
int n1 = 99, n2=11;
int n3 = 22, n4=88;
order(n1,n2);
order(n3,n4);
cout<< n1=<<n1<<endl;
cout<< n2=<<n2<<endl;
cout<< n3=<<n3<<endl;
cout<< n4=<<n4<<endl;
return 0;
}

void order(int & num1,int & num2)

{
if(num1 > num2)
{
int temp=num1;
num1 = num2;
num2 = temp;
}
}
o In main() there are two pairs of numbers-the first pair is not
ordered and the second pair is ordered. The order() function is
called once for each pair, and then all the numbers are printed out.
The output revels that the first pair has been swapped while the
second pair has not. Here it is:
N1 = 11
N2 = 99
N3 = 22
N4 = 88

o In the order() function the first variable is called num1 and the
second is num2. If num1 is greater than num2, the function stores
num1 in temp, puts num2 in num1, and finally puts temp back in
num2.

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

o Using reference arguments in this way is a sort of remote control

operation. The calling program tells the function what variables in
the calling program to operate on, and the function modifies these
variables without ever knowing their real names.

4.5. Global versus local variables

Everything defined at the program scope level (outside functions) is
said to have a global scope, meaning that the entire program knows each
variable and has the capability to change any of them.
Eg.
int year = 1994;//global variable
int max(int,int);//gloabal funcrion
int main(void)
{
//
}
Global variables are visible (known) from their point of definition
down to the end of the program.
Each block in a program defines a local scope. Thus the body of a
function represents a local scope. The parameters of a function have
the same scope as the function body.
Variables defined within a local scope are visible to that scope only.
Hence, a variable need only be unique within its own scope. Local
scopes may be nested, in which case the inner scope overrides the
outer scopes. Eg:
int xyz;//xyz is global
void Foo(int xyz)//xyz is local to the body of Foo
{
if(xyz > 0)
{
Double xyz;//xyz is local to this block

}
}

4.6. Scope Operator

Because a local scope overrides the global scope, having a local
variable with the same name as a global variable makes the latter
inaccessible to the local scope.

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Eg
int num1;
void fun1(int num1)
{
//
}
The global num1 is inaccessible inside fun1(), because it is overridden
by the local num1 parameter.
This problem is overcome using the scope operator :: which takes a
global entity as argument.
int num1 = 2;
void fun1(int num1)
{
//
num1=33;
cout<<num1; // the out put will be 33
cout<<::num1; //the out put will be 2 which is the global
if(::num1 != 0)//refers to global num1
//
}

4.7. Automatic versus static variables

The terms automatic and static describe what happens to local
variables when a function returns to the calling procedure. By default,
all local variables are automatic, meaning that they are erased when
their function ends. You can designate a variable as automatic by
prefixing its definition with the term auto.
Eg. The two statements after main()s opening brace declared
automatic local variables:
main()
{
int i;
auto float x;

}
The opposite of an automatic is a static variable. All global variables
are static and, as mentioned, all static variables retain their values.
Therefore, if a local variable is static, it too retains its value when its
function ends-in case this function is called a second time.
To declare a variable as static, place the static keyword in front of the
variable when you define it. The following code section defines three
variables i, j, k. the variable i is automatic, but j and k are static.

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Static variables can be declared and initialized within the function, but
the initialization will be executed only once during the first call.
If static variables are not declared explicitly, they will be declared to 0
automatically.
Eg. void my_fun()
{
static int num;
static int count = 2;
count=count*5;
num=num+4;
}

In the above example:

o During the first call of the function my_fun(), the static variable count will be
initialized to 2 and will be multiplied by 5 at line three to have the value 10.
During the second call of the same function count will have 10 and will be
multiplied by 5.
o During the first call of the function my_fun(), the static variable num will be
initialized to 0 (as it is not explicitly initialized) and 4 will be added to it at line
four to have the value 4. During the second call of the same function num will
have 4 and 4 will be add to it again.
N.B. if local variables are static, their values remain in case the
function is called again.

4.8. Inline functions

Suppose that a program frequently requires finding the absolute value
of an integer quantity. For a value denoted by n, this may be expressed
as:
(n > 0 ? n : -n)
However, instead of replicating this expression in many places in the
program, it is better to define it as a function:
int Abs(int n)
{
return n > 0 ? n : -n;
}
The function version has a number of advantages.
It leads to a more readable program.
It is reusable.
The disadvantage of the function version, however is that
Its frequent use can lead to considerable performance
penalty due to overheads associated with calling a function.
The overhead can be avoided by defining Abs as an inline function.
inline int Abs(int n)
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{
Return n > 0 ? n : -n;
}
The effect of this is that when Abs is called, the compiler, instead of
generating code to call Abs, expands the program body and substitutes
the body of Abs in place of the call. While essentially the same
computation is performed, no function call is involved and hence no
stack frame is allocated.
The "inline" keyword is merely a hint to the compiler or development
environment.
Not every function can be inlined. Some typical reasons why inlining
is sometimes not done include:
the function calls itself, that is, is recursive
the function contains loops such as for(;;) or while()
the function size is too large
Another good reason to inline is that you can sometimes speed up
your program by inlining the right function. Instead of calling the
function every time it is invoked, the compiler will replace the function
call with a copy of the function body. If it's a small function which gets
called a lot, this can sometimes speed things up.
Most of the advantage of inline functions comes from avoiding the
overhead of calling an actual function. Such overhead includes saving
registers, setting up stack frames, and so on. But with large functions
the overhead becomes less important.
Concerning inline functions, the compiler is free to decide whether a
function qualifies to be an inline function. If the inline function is
found to have larger chunk (amount) of code, it will not be treated as
an inline function, but as like other normal functions.
Then, Why not inline everything? :Since the compiler will copy the
entire function body every time the function is called, if it is a large
function (more than three or four lines), inlining can increase the size
of your executable program significantly.

4.9. Default arguments and function overloading

C++ has two capabilities that regular C doesnt have. Default
arguments and function overloading.

4.9.1. Default arguments

Default argument is a programming convenience which removes
the burden of having to specify argument values for all function
parameters.

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Eg. You might pass a function an error message that is stored in a

character array, and the function displays the error for a certain
period of time. The prototype for such a function can be this:
Void pr_msg(char note[]);
Therefore, to request that pr_msg() display the line Turn printer
on, you call it this way:
Pr_msg(Turn printer on);
As you write more of the program, you begin to realize that you
are displaying one message-for instance, the Turn printer on msg-
more often than any other message.
Instead of calling the function over and over, typing the same
message each time, you can set up the prototype for pr_msg() so
that it defaults to the turn printer on message in this way:
Void pr_msg(char note[] = Turn printr on);
This makes your programming job easier. Because you would
usually want pr_msg() to display turn printer on, the default
argument list takes care of the message and you dont have to pass
the message when you call the function.
For functions having more than one argument with default, the
parameters with possible default value should be declared in the
right side of the function definition and prototype.
E.g.: Let us develop part of the program with default arguments.
#include..
void Add_Display(int x=10, int y=20, int z=30)
{
cout<< (x+y+z);
}
void Mult_Dispaly (int x, int y=70)
{
cout<< (x*y);
}

void main()
{
int a=40, b=50, c=60;
Add_Display(a,b,c); //will print 150 (ie 40+50+60)
Add_Display(a,b); //will print 120 (ie 40+50+30)
Add_Display(a); //will print 90 (ie 40+20+30)
Add_Display(); //will print 60 (ie 10+20+30)
Mult_Display(a,b) //will print 2000 (40*50)
Mult_Display(a) //will print 2800 (40*70)
//Mult_Display() //is invalid as there is no default for x
getch();

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}
//the following function definition is invalid as z is
//a parameter without a default and written after y
//parameters with default should always be at the
//right side of function declaration
void Mult_Dispaly (int x, int y=70, int z)
{
cout<< (x*y*z);
}

//thus the following function definition will be correct

void Mult_Dispaly (int x, int z, int y=70)
{
cout<< (x*y*z);
}

4.9.2. Overloaded Functions

Unlike C, C++ lets you have more than one function with the same
name. In other words, you can have three functions called abs() in
the same program.
Functions with the same name are called overloaded functions.
C++ requires that each overloaded functions differ in its argument
list. Overloaded functions enable you to have similar functions that
work on different types of data.
Suppose that you wrote a function that returned the absolute value
of what ever number you passed to it:
int iabs(int i)
{ if(i<0)
Return (i*-1);
else
Return (i);
}

float fabs(float x)
{ if(x<0.0)
Return (x * -1.0);
else
Return (x);
}
Without using overloading, you have to call the function as:
int ans = iabs(weight);//for int arguments
float ans = fabs(weight);//for float arguments
But with overloading, the above code can be used as:

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int abs(int i);

float abs(float x);
int main()
{

ians = abs(i);//calling abs with int arguments
fans = abs(p);//calling abs with float arguments

}
int abs(int i)
{
if(i<0)
Return i*-1;
else
Return I;
}

float abs(flaot x)
{
if(x<0.0)
Return x*-1.0;
else
Return x;
}
N.B: if two or more functions differ only in their return types, C++
cant overload them. Two or more functions that differ only in their
return types must have different names and cant be overloaded

4.10. Recursion
A function which calls itself is said to be recursive. Recursion is a
general programming technique applicable to problems which can be
defined interms of themselves. Take the factorial problem, for instance
which is defined as:
- factorial of 0 is 1
- factorial of a positive number n is n time the factorial of n-
1.
The second line clearly indicates that factorial is defined in terms of
itself and hence can be expressed as a recursive function.
int Factorial(unsigned int n )
{
return n = = 0 ? 1 : n * factrial(n-1);
}
For n set to 4, the following figure shows the recursive call:

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Factorial(4)
24
4 * Factorial(3)

6 3 * Factorial(2)

2 2* Factorial(1)

1 1
The stack frames for these calls appear sequentially on the runtime
stack, one after the other.
A recursive function must have at least one termination condition
which can be satisfied. Otherwise, the function will call itself
indefinitely until the runtime stack overflows.

The three necessary components in a recursive method are:

1. A test to stop or continue the recursion
2. An end case that terminates the recursion
3. A recursive call(s) that continues the recursion
let us implement two more mathematical functions using recursion
e.g the following function computes the sum of the first N positive
integers 1,2,,N. Notice how the function includes the three necessary
components of a recursive method.
int sum(int N)
{
if(N==1)
return 1;
else
return N+sum(N);
}
The last method computes the exponentiation An where A is a real
number and N is a positive integer. This time, we have to pass two
arguments. A and N. the value of A will not change in the calls, but the
value of N is decremented after each recursive call.
float expo(float A, int N)
{
if(N==1)
return A;
else
return A * expo(A,N-1);
}

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Try to use a recursive function call to solve the Fibonacci series. The
Fibonacci series is :
0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,
the recursive definition of the Fibonacci series is as follows:
Fibonacci (0) =0
Fibonacci (1) =1
Fibonacci (n) =Fibonacci (n-1) +Fibonacci (n-2);

4.11. Recursion versus iteration

Both iteration and recursion are based on control structure. Iteration
uses a repetition structure (such as for, while, dowhile) and
recursive uses a selection structure (if, if else or switch).
Both iteration and recursive can execute infinitely-an infinite loop
occurs with iteration if the loop continuation test become false and
infinite recursion occurs id the recursion step doesnt reduce the
problem in a manner that coverage on a base case.
Recursion has disadvantage as well. It repeatedly invokes the
mechanism, and consequently the overhead of method calls. This can
be costly in both processor time and memory space. Each recursive call
creates another copy of the method (actually, only the functions
variables); this consumes considerable memory.
N.B: Use recursion if:
1. A recursive solution is natural and easy to understand
2. A recursive solution doesnt result in excessive duplicate
computation.
3. the equivalent iterative solution is too complex and
4. of course, when you are asked to use one in the exam!!

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF INFORMATICS
DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION SCIENCE
Worksheet 4.
1. Write an int function cube () that returns the cube of its single int formal
parameter.
2. Write a float function triangle() that computes the area of a triangle using its two
formal parameters h and w, where h is the height and w is the length of the bases
of the triangle.
3. Write a float function rectangle() that computes and returns the area of a rectangle
using its two float formal parameters h and w, where h is the height and w is the
width of the rectangle
4. The formula for a line is normally given as y = mx + b. Write a function Line()
that expects three float parameters, a slop m, a y-intercept b, and an x-coordinate
x. the function computes the y-coordinate associated with the line specified by m
and b at x-coordinate.
5. Write a function Intersect() with four float parameters m1,b1,m2,b2. The
parameters come conceptually in two pairs. The first pair contains the coefficients
describing one line; the second pair contains coefficients describing a second line.
The function returns 1 if the two lines intersect. Otherwise, it should return 0;
6. Write a program that accepts a positive integer from the user and displays the
factorial of the given number. You should use a recursive function called
factorial() to calculate the factorial of the number.
7. Write another program that accepts a number from the user and returns the
Fibonacci value of that number. You should use recursion in here.
8. Develop a program that uses the function factorial() of exercise 6 to compute an
approximation of e (Eulers number). Base your approximation on the following
formula for e:
1 + 1/1! + 1/2! + 1/3! +
9. Write a function called isPrime() that accepts a number and determine whether the
number is prime or not.
10. Write a function called isEven() that uses the remainder operator(%) to determine
whether an integer is even or not.
11. Modify our calculator problem of worksheet-3 using four functions
sum(),product(),quotient() and difference().

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

Chapter Five
Arrays and Structures

5. What is An Array
9 A collection of identical data objects, which are stored in consecutive memory
locations under a common heading or a variable name. In other words, an
array is a group or a table of values referred to by the same name. The
individual values in array are called elements. Array elements are also variables.
9 Set of values of the same type, which have a single name followed by an index.
In C++, square brackets appear around the index right after the name
9 A block of memory representing a collection of many simple data variables stored
in a separate array element, and the computer stores all the elements of an array
consecutively in memory.

5.1. Properties of arrays:

9 Arrays in C++ are zero-bounded; that is the index of the first element in the
array is 0 and the last element is N-1, where N is the size of the array.
9 It is illegal to refer to an element outside of the array bounds, and your program
will crash or have unexpected results, depending on the compiler.
9 Array can only hold values of one type

5.2. Array declaration

9 Declaring the name and type of an array and setting the number of elements in
an array is called dimensioning the array. The array must be declared before
one uses in like other variables. In the array declaration one must define:

1. The type of the array (i.e. integer, floating point, char etc.)
2. Name of the array,
3. The total number of memory locations to be allocated or the maximum value of each
subscript. i.e. the number of elements in the array.

9 So the general syntax for the declaration is:

DataTypename arrayname [array size];

9 The expression array size, which is the number of elements, must be a constant
such as 10 or a symbolic constant declared before the array declaration, or a
constant expression such as 10*sizeof (int), for which the values are known at the
time compilation takes place.

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Note: array size cannot be a variable whose value is set while the program is running.

9 Thus to declare an integer with size of 10 having a name of num is:

int num [10];

This means: ten consecutive two byte memory location will be reserved
with the name num.

9 That means, we can store 10 values of type int without having to declare 10
different variables each one with a different identifier. Instead of that, using an
array we can store 10 different values of the same type, int for example, with a
unique identifier.

5.3. Initializing Arrays

9 When declaring an array of local scope (within a function), if we do not specify

the array variable will not be initialized, so its content is undetermined until
we store some values in it.
9 If we declare a global array (outside any function) its content will be initialized
with all its elements filled with zeros. Thus, if in the global scope we declare:

int day [5];

9 every element of day will be set initially to 0:

9 But additionally, when we declare an Array, we have the possibility to assign

initial values to each one of its elements using curly brackets { } . For example:

int day [5] = { 16, 2, 77, 40, 12071 };

9 The above declaration would have created an array like the following one:

9 The number of elements in the array that we initialized within curly

brackets { } must be equal or less than the length in elements that we
declared for the array enclosed within square brackets [ ]. If we have less
number of items for the initialization, the rest will be filled with zero.

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

9 For example, in the example of the day array we have declared that it had
5 elements and in the list of initial values within curly brackets { } we
have set 5 different values, one for each element. If we ignore the last
initial value (12071) in the above initialization, 0 will be taken
automatically for the last array element.
9 Because this can be considered as useless repetition, C++ allows the
possibility of leaving empty the brackets [ ], where the number of items in
the initialization bracket will be counted to set the size of the array.

int day [] = { 1, 2, 7, 4, 12,9 };

9 The compiler will count the number of initialization items which is 6 and set the
size of the array day to 6 (i.e.: day[6])
9 You can use the initialization form only when defining the array. You
cannot use it later, and cannot assign one array to another once. I.e.

int arr [] = {16, 2, 77, 40, 12071};

int ar [4];
ar[]={1,2,3,4};//not allowed
arr=ar;//not allowed

9 Note: when initializing an array, we can provide fewer values than the
array elements. E.g. int a [10] = {10, 2, 3}; in this case the compiler sets the
remaining elements to zero.

5.4. Accessing and processing array elements

9 In any point of the program in which the array is visible we can access
individually anyone of its elements for reading or modifying it as if it was
a normal variable. To access individual elements, index or subscript is
used. The format is the following:

name [ index ]

9 In c++ the first element has an index of 0 and the last element has an
index, which is one less the size of the array (i.e. arraysize-1). Thus, from
the above declaration, day[0] is the first element and day[4] is the last
element.
9 Following the previous examples where day had 5 elements and each
element is of type int, the name, which we can use to refer to each
element, is the following one:

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9 For example, to store the value 75 in the third element of the array
variable day a suitable sentence would be:

day[2] = 75; //as the third element is found at index 2

9 And, for example, to pass the value of the third element of the array
variable day to the variable a , we could write:

a = day[2];

9 Therefore, for all the effects, the expression day[2] is like any variable of
type int with the same properties. Thus an array declaration enables us to
create a lot of variables of the same type with a single declaration and we
can use an index to identify individual elements.
9 Notice that the third element of day is specified day[2] , since first is
day[0] , second day[1] , and therefore, third is day[2] . By this same
reason, its last element is day [4]. Since if we wrote day [5], we would be
acceding to the sixth element of day and therefore exceeding the size of
the array. This might give you either error or unexpected value
depending on the compiler.
9 In C++ it is perfectly valid to exceed the valid range of indices for an
Array, which can cause certain detectable problems, since they do not
cause compilation errors but they can cause unexpected results or serious
errors during execution. The reason why this is allowed will be seen
ahead when we begin to use pointers.
9 At this point it is important to be able to clearly distinguish between the
two uses the square brackets [ ] have for arrays.
o One is to set the size of arrays during declaration
o The other is to specify indices for a specific array element when
accessing the elements of the array
9 We must take care of not confusing these two possible uses of brackets [ ]
with arrays:
Eg: int day[5]; // declaration of a new Array (begins with a type name)
day[2] = 75; // access to an element of the Array.
Other valid operations with arrays in accessing and assigning:
int a=1;
day [0] = a;
day[a] = 5;
b = day [a+2];
day [day[a]] = day [2] + 5;
day [day[a]] = day[2] + 5;
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Eg: Arrays example ,display the sum of the numbers in the array

#include <iostream.h>
int day [ ] = {16, 2, 77, 40, 12071};
int n, result=0;
void main ()
{
for ( n=0 ; n<5 ; n++ )
{
result += day[n];
}
cout << result;
getch();

5.5. Arrays as parameters

9 At some moment we may need to pass an array to a function as a parameter.

In C++ it is not possible to pass by value a complete block of memory as a
parameter, even if it is ordered as an array, to a function, but it is allowed to pass
its address, which has almost the same practical effect and is a much faster and
more efficient operation.
9 In order to admit arrays as parameters the only thing that we must do when
declaring the function is to specify in the argument the base type for the array
that it contains, an identifier and a pair of void brackets [] . For example, the
following function:

void procedure (int arg[])

9 admits a parameter of type "Array of int " called arg . In order to pass to this
function an array declared as:

int myarray [40];

9 it would be enough with a call like this:

procedure (myarray);

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Here you have a complete example:

// arrays as parameters

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
void printarray (int arg[], int length)
{
for (int n=0; n<length; n++)
cout << arg[n] << " ";
cout << "\n";
}

void mult(int arg[], int length)

{
for (int n=0; n<length; n++)
arg[n]=2*arg[n];
}

void main ()
{
int firstarray[] = {5, 10, 15};
int secondarray[] = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10};
printarray (firstarray,3);
printarray (secondarray,5);
mult(firstarray,3);
cout<<first array after being doubled is\n;
printarray (firstarray,3);
getch()
}

9 As you can see, the first argument (int arg[] ) admits any array of type int ,
whatever its length is, for that reason we have included a second parameter
that informs the function the length of each array that we pass to it as the first
parameter so that the for loop that prints out the array can have the
information about the size we are interested about. The function mult
doubles the value of each element and the firstarray is passed to it. After that
the display function is called. The output is modified showing that arrays are
passed by reference.
9 To pass an array by value, pass each element to the function

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5.6. Strings of Characters:

What are Strings?

9 In all programs and concepts we have seen so far, we have used only
numerical variables, used to express numbers exclusively. But in addition to
numerical variables there also exist strings of characters that allow us to
represent successive characters, like words, sentences, names, texts, etc. Until
now we have only used them as constants, but we have never considered
variables able to contain them.
9 In C++ there is no specific elementary variable type to store string of
characters. In order to fulfill this feature we can use arrays of type char,
which are successions of char elements. Remember that this data type (char)
is the one used to store a single character, for that reason arrays of them are
generally used to make strings of single characters.
9 For example, the following array (or string of characters) can store a string up
to 20 characters long. You may imagine it thus:

char name [20];

name

9 This maximum size of 20 characters is not required to be always fully used.

For example, name could store at some moment in a program either the
string of characters "Hello" or the string "studying C++. Therefore, since the
array of characters can store shorter strings than its total length, there has been
reached a convention to end the valid content of a string with a null character,
whose constant can be written as '\0.
9 We could represent name (an array of 20 elements of type char) storing the
strings of characters "Hello" and "Studying C++" in the following way:

H e l l 0 \0

S t u d y i n g C + + \0

9 Notice how after the valid content it is included a null character ('\0') in order
to indicate the end of string. The empty cells (elements) represent
indeterminate values.

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5.7. Initialization of Strings

9 Because strings of characters are ordinary arrays they fulfill same rules as any
array. For example, if we want to initialize a string of characters with
predetermined values we can do it in a similar way to any other array:

char mystring[] = { 'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0' };

9 In this case we would have declared a string of characters (array) of 6

elements of type char initialized with the characters that compose Hello plus
a null character '\0' .
9 Nevertheless, string of characters have an additional way to initialize its
values: using constant strings.
9 In the expressions we have used in examples of previous chapters there have
already appeared several times constants that represented entire strings of
characters. These are specified enclosed between double quotes ( ), for
example:

Eg: "the result is: "

is a constant string that we have probably used in some occasion.

9 Unlike single quotes ( ' ) which allow to specify single character constants,
double quotes ( " ) are constants that specify a succession of characters. These
strings enclosed between double quotes have always a null character ( '\0' )
automatically appended at the end.
9 Therefore we could initialize the string mystring with values by any of these
two ways:

char mystring [] = { 'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0' };

char mystring [] = "Hello";

9 In both cases the Array or string of characters mystring is declared with a size
of 6 characters (elements of type char ): the 5 characters that compose Hello
plus a final null character ( '\0' ) which specifies the end of the string and
that, in the second case, when using double quotes ( " ) it is automatically
appended.
9 Before going further, you should note that the assignation of multiple
constants like double-quoted constants ( " ) to arrays are only valid when
initializing the array, that is, at the moment when declared.
9 The following expressions within a code are not valid for arrays
mystring="Hello";
mystring[] = "Hello";
9 neither would be: mystring = { 'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0' };

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9 So remember: We can "assign" a multiple constant to an Array only at the

moment of initializing it. The reason will be more comprehensible when you
know a bit more about pointers, since then it will be clarified that an array is
simply a constant pointer pointing to an allocated block of memory. And
because of this constant feature, the array itself cannot be assigned any value,
but we can assign values to each of the elements of the array.
9 At the moment of initializing an Array it is a special case, since it is not an
assignation, although the same equal sign ( = ) is used. Anyway, have always
present the rule previously underlined.

Assigning Values to Strings

9 Just like any other variables, array of character can store values using
assignment operators. But the following is not allowed.
mystring=Hello;
9 This is allowed only during initialization. Therefore, since the lvalue of an
assignation can only be an element of an array and not the entire array, what
would be valid is to assign a string of characters to an array of char using a
method like this:
mystring[0] = 'H';
mystring[1] = 'e';
mystring[2] = 'l';
mystring[3] = 'l';
mystring[4] = 'o';
mystring[5] = '\0';
9 But as you may think, this does not seem to be a very practical method.
Generally for assigning values to an array, and more specifically to a string of
characters, a series of functions like strcpy are used. strcpy ( str ing c o py ) is
defined in the ( string.h ) library and can be called the following way:
strcpy ( string1 , string2 );
9 This does copy the content of string2 into string1 . string2 can be either an
array, a pointer, or a constant string , so the following line would be a valid
way to assign the constant string "Hello" to mystring :
strcpy (mystring, "Hello");
For example:
#include <iostream.h>
#include <string.h>
int main ()
{
char szMyName [20];
strcpy (szMyName,"Abebe");
cout << szMyName;
return 0;
}

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

9 Look how we have needed to include <string.h> header in order to be able to use
function strcpy.
9 Although we can always write a simple function like the following setstring with the
same operating than cstring's strcpy :
// setting value to string

#include <iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>

void namecopy(char dest[], char source[])

{
int c = 0;
while(source[c] != \0)
{
dest[c] = source[c];
c++;
}
dest[c] = \0;
cout<< \n your name after copying : <<dest;
}
void main()
{
clrscr();
char name[10],dest[10];
cout<< \n enter your name : ;
cin>>name;
namecopy(dest,name);
getch();
}

9 Another frequently used method to assign values to an array is by using

directly the input stream ( cin ). In this case the value of the string is assigned
by the user during program execution.
9 When cin is used with strings of characters it is usually used with its getline
method, that can be called following this prototype:
9 cin.getline ( char buffer [], int length , char delimiter = ' \n');
9 where buffer is the address where to store the input (like an array, for
example), length is the maximum length of the buffer (the size of the array)
and delimiter is the character used to determine the end of the user input,
which by default - if we do not include that parameter - will be the newline
character ( '\n' ).
9 The following example repeats whatever you type on your keyboard. It is
quite simple but serves as example on how you can use cin.getline with
strings:
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Introduction to Programming in C ++

// cin with strings

#include <iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
int main ()
{
char mybuffer [100];
cout << "What's your name? ";
cin.getline (mybuffer,100);
cout << "Hello " << mybuffer << ".\n";
cout << "Which is your favourite team? ";
cin.getline (mybuffer,100);
cout << "I like " << mybuffer << " too.\n";
getch();
return 0;
}
9 Notice how in both calls to cin.getline we used the same string identifier (
mybuffer ). What the program does in the second call is simply step on the
previous content of buffer by the new one that is introduced.
9 If you remember the section about communication through console, you will
remember that we used the extraction operator ( >> ) to receive data directly
from the standard input. This method can also be used instead of cin.getline
with strings of characters. For example, in our program, when we requested
an input from the user we could have written:

cin >> mybuffer;

9 this would work, but this method has the following limitations that
cin.getline has not:

It can only receive single words (no complete sentences) since this method
uses as delimiter any occurrence of a blank character, including spaces,
tabulators, newlines and carriage returns.
It is not allowed to specify a size for the buffer. What makes your program
unstable in case that the user input is longer than the array that will host
it.

9 For these reasons it is recommendable that whenever you require strings of

characters coming from cin you use cin.getline instead of cin >> .

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Converting strings to other types

9 Due to that a string may contain representations of other data types like
numbers it might be useful to translate that content to a variable of a numeric
type. For example, a string may contain "1977" , but this is a sequence of 5
chars not so easily convertible to a single integer data type. The cstdlib (
stdlib.h ) library provides three useful functions for this purpose:

atoi: converts string to int type.

atol: converts string to long type.
atof: converts string to float type.

9 All of these functions admit one parameter and return a value of the
requested type ( int , long or float ). These functions combined with getline
method of cin are a more reliable way to get the user input when requesting a
number than the classic cin>> method:
// cin and ato* functions

#include <iostream.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include<conio.h>
int main()
{ clrscr();
char mybuffer[100];
float price;
int quantity;
cout << "Enter price: ";
cin.getline (mybuffer,100);
price = atof (mybuffer);
cout << "Enter quantity: ";
cin.getline (mybuffer,100);
quantity = atoi (mybuffer);
cout<<"\nafter conversion :\n";
cout<<"\nprice is : "<<price;
cout<<"\nquantity is : "<<quantity;
cout << "\nTotal price: " << price*quantity;
getch();
return 0;
}

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

Functions to manipulate strings

9 The cstring library ( string.h ) defines many functions to perform some manipulation
operations with C-like strings (like already explained strcpy). Here you have a brief
with the most usual:
a) String length
Returns the length of a string, not including the null character (\0).
strlen (const char* string );
b) String Concatenation:
Appends src string at the end of dest string. Returns dest.
The string concatenation can have two forms, where the first one is to
append the whole content of the source to the destination the other
will append only part of the source to the destination.
o Appending the whole content of the source
strcat (char* dest , const char* src );
o Appending part of the source
strncat (char* dest , const char* src, int size );
Where size is the number characters to be appended
c) String Copy:
Overwrites the content of the dest string by the src string. Returns dest.
The string copy can have two forms, where the first one is to copying
the whole content of the source to the destination and the other will
copy only part of the source to the destination.
o Copy the whole content of the source
strcpy (char* dest , const char* src );
o Appending part of the source
strncpy (char* dest , const char* src, int size );
Where size is the number characters to be copied
d) String Compare:
Compares the two string string1 and string2.
The string compare can have two forms, where the first one is to
compare the whole content of the two strings and the other will
compare only part of the two strings.
o Copy the whole content of the source
strcmp (const char* string1 , const char* string2 );
o Appending part of the source
strncmp (const char* string1 , const char* string2, int size );
Where size is the number characters to be compaired
Both string compare functions returns three different values:
o Returns 0 is the strings are equal
o Returns negative value if the first is less than the second string
o Returns positive value if the first is greater than the second
string

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Multidimensional Arrays
9 Multidimensional arrays can be described as arrays of arrays. For example, a
bi-dimensional array can be imagined as a bi-dimensional table of a uniform
concrete data type.

9 Matrix represents a bi-dimensional array of 3 per 5 values of type int . The

way to declare this array would be:

int matrix[3][5];

9 For example, the way to reference the second element vertically and fourth
horizontally in an expression would be:

matrix[1][3]

(remember that array indices always begin by 0 )

9 Multidimensional arrays are not limited to two indices (two dimensions). They
can contain so many indices as needed, although it is rare to have to represent
more than 3 dimensions. Just consider the amount of memory that an array
with many indices may need. For example:

char century [100][365][24][60][60];

9 Assigns a char for each second contained in a century, that is more than 3
billion chars ! What would consume about 3000 megabytes of RAM memory if
we could declare it?
9 Multidimensional arrays are nothing else than an abstraction, since we can
simply obtain the same results with a simple array by putting a factor
between its indices:

int matrix [3][5]; is equivalent to

int matrix [15]; (3 * 5 = 15)

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

9 With the only difference that the compiler remembers for us the depth of each
imaginary dimension. Serve as example these two pieces of code, with exactly
the same result, one using bi-dimensional arrays and the other using only
simple arrays:
// multidimensional array

#include <iostream.h>
#define WIDTH 5
#define HEIGHT 3
int matrix [HEIGHT][WIDTH];
int n,m;

int main ()
{
for (n=0;n<HEIGHT;n++)
for (m=0;m<WIDTH;m++)
{
matrix [n][m]=(n+1)*(m+1);
}
return 0;
}
9 None of the programs above produce any output on the screen, but both
assign values to the memory block called matrix in the following way:

9 We have used defined constants ( #define ) to simplify possible future

modifications of the program, for example, in case that we decided to enlarge
the array to a height of 4 instead of 3 it would be enough by changing the
line:
#define HEIGHT 3
by the following code
#define HEIGHT 4

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Structures
9 A structure is a collection of one or more variable types grouped together that
can be referred using a single name (group name) and a member name.
9 You can refer to a structure as a single variable, and you also can initialize,
read and change the parts of a structure (the individual variables that make it
up).
9 Each element (called a member) in a structure can be of different data type.
9 The General Syntax of structures is:
Struct [structure tag]
{
Member definition;
Member definition;

Member definition;
}[one or more structure variables];

9 Let us see an example

E.g.: Structure tag
struct Inventory
{
char description[15];
char part_no[6];
int quantity; members of the structure
float cost;
}; // all structures end with semicolon
9 Another example might be:
struct Student
{
char ID[8];
char FName[15];
char LName[15];
char Sex;
int age;
float CGPA;
};
9 The above Student structure is aimed to store student record with all the
relevant details.
9 After the definition of the structure, one can declare a structure variable using
the structure tag. If we need two variables to have the above structure
property then the declaration would be:
struct Inventory inv1,inv2; //or
struct Student Stud1,stud2,Stud3;

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9 Structure tag is not a variable name. Unlike array names, which reference the
array as variables, a structure tag is simply a label for the structures format.
9 The structure tag Inventory informs C++ that the tag called Inventory looks
like two character arrays followed by one integer and one float variables.
9 A structure tag is actually a newly defined data type that you, the
programmer, defined.

Referencing members of a structure

9 To refer to the members of a structure we need to use the dot operator (.)
9 The General syntax to access members of a structure variable would be:
VarName.Member
9 Where VarName is the varaibale name of the structure variable And Member is
varaibale name of the members of the structure
Eg:
For the above student structure:

struct Student Stud; //declaring Stud to have the property of the Student structure
strcpy(Stud.FName,Abebe); //assigned Abebe as First Name
Stud.CGPA=3.21; //assignes 3.21 as CGPA value of Abebe
sout<<Stud.FName; //display the name
sout<<Stud.CGPA; // display the CGPA of Abebe

Initializing Structure Data

9 You can initialize members when you declare a structure, or you can initialize
a structure in the body of the program. Here is a complete program.
..
.
struct cd_collection
{
char title[25];
char artist[20];
int num_songs;
float price;
char date_purchased[9];
} cd1 = {"Red Moon Men","Sams and the Sneeds", 12, 11.95,"08/13/93"};

cout<<"\nhere is the info about cd1"<<endl;

cout<<cd1.title<<endl;
cout<<cd1.artist<<endl;
cout<<cd1.num_songs<<endl;
cout<<cd1.price<<endl;
cout<<cd1.date_purchased<<endl;
..
.
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Introduction to Programming in C ++

9 A better approach to initialize structures is to use the dot operator(.). the dot
operator is one way to initialize individual members of a structure variable in
the body of your program. The syntax of the dot operator is :
structureVariableName.memberName
here is an example:
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
struct cd_collection{
char title[25];
char artist[20];
int num_songs;
float price;
char date_purchased[9];
}cd1;
//initialize members here
strcpy(cd1.title,"Red Moon Men");
strcpy(cd1.artist,"Sams");
cd1.num_songs= 12;
cd1.price = 11.95f;
strcpy(cd1.date_purchased,"22/12/02");
//print the data
cout<<"\nHere is the info"<<endl;
cout<<"Title : "<<cd1.title<<endl;
cout<<"Artist : "<<cd1.artist<<endl;
cout<<"Songs : "<<cd1.num_songs<<endl;
cout<<"Price : "<<cd1.price<<endl;
cout<<"Date purchased : "<<cd1.date_purchased;
getch();
}

Arrays of Structures
9 Arrays of structures are good for storing a complete employee file, inventory
file, or any other set of data that fits in the structure format.
9 Consider the following structure declaration:
struct Company
{
int employees;
int registers;
double sales;
}store[1000];
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Introduction to Programming in C ++

9 In one quick declaration, this code creates 1,000 store structures with the
definition of the Company structure, each one containing three members.
9 NB. Be sure that your computer does not run out of memory when you create
a large number of structures. Arrays of structures quickly consume valuable
information.
9 You can also define the array of structures after the declaration of the
structure.

struct Company
{
int employees;
int registers;
double sales;
}; // no structure variables defined yet

#include<iostream.h>

void main()
{
struct Company store[1000]; //the variable store is array of the structure Company

}

Referencing the array structure

9 The dot operator (.) works the same way for structure array element as it does
for regular variables. If the number of employees for the fifth store (store[4])
increased by three, you could update the structure variable like this:
store[4].employees += 3;
9 Unlike in the case of arrays, where the whole content of an array could not be
copied to another one using a simple statement, in structures, you can assign
complete structures to one another by using array notation.
9 To assign all the members of the 20th store to the 45th store, you would do this:
store[44] = store[19];//copies all members from 20th store to 45th

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9 Here is a complete C++ code that shows you how to use array of structures,
and how to pass and return structures to functions.
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
#include<iomanip.h>
struct inventory
{
long storage;
int accesstime;
char vendorcode;
float cost;
float price;
};
void disp_menu(void);
struct inventory enter_data();
void see_data(inventory disk[125],int num_items);

void main()
{ clrscr();
inventory disk[125];
int ans;
int num_items = 0; //total number of items in the inventory

do{
do{
disp_menu();
cin>>ans;
}while(ans<1 || ans>3);

switch(ans)
{ case 1:
disk[num_items] = enter_data();
num_items++;
break;
case 2:
see_data(disk,num_items);
break;
default :
break;
}
}while(ans != 3);
return;
}//end main

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void disp_menu()
{
cout<<"\n\n*** Disk Drive Inventory System ***\n\n";
cout<<"Do you want to : \n\n";
cout<<"\t1. Enter new item in inventory\n\n";
cout<<"\t2. See inventory data\n\n";
cout<<"\t3. Exit the program\n\n";
cout<<"What is your choice ? ";
return;
}

inventory enter_data()
{
inventory disk_item;//local variable to fill with input
cout<<"\n\nWhat is the next drive's storage in bytes? ";
cin>>disk_item.storage;
cout<<"\nWhat is the drive's access time in ms ? ";
cin>>disk_item.accesstime;
cout<<"What is the drive's vendor code (A, B, C, or D)? ";
disk_item.vendorcode = getchar();
cout<<"\nWhat is the drive's cost? ";
cin>>disk_item.cost;
cout<<"\nWhat is the drive's price? ";
cin>>disk_item.price;
return (disk_item);
}

void see_data(inventory disk[125], int num_items)

{
int ctr;
cout<<"\n\nHere is the inventory listing:\n\n";
for(ctr=0;ctr<num_items;ctr++)
{
cout<<"Storage: "<<disk[ctr].storage<<"\n";
cout<<"Access time: "<<disk[ctr].accesstime<<endl;
cout<<"Vendor code: "<<disk[ctr].vendorcode<<"\n";
cout<<"Cost : $ "<<disk[ctr].cost<<"\n";
cout<<"Price: $ "<<disk[ctr].price<<endl;
}
return;
}

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 Introduction to Programming in C ++

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF INFORMATICS
Worksheet No 5:
1. Define strlen function (i.e write the function body of strlen)
2. Define the strcmp function and the strncmp function
3. Define strcpy function and the strncpy function
4. Define strcat function and the strncat function
5. Write a program to store the ages of six of your friends in a single array. Store each of the
six ages using the assignment operator. print the ages on the screen
6. Write a C++ program that accepts 10 integers from the user and finally displays the
smallest value and the largest value.
7. Write a program that accepts ten different integers from the user and display these
numbers after sorting them in increasing order.
8. Write a program to store six of your friends ages in a single array. Assign the ages in a
random order. print the ages, from low to high, on-screen
9. Modify the program on Q8 to print the ages in descending order.
10. Write a C++ program that calculates the letter grades of 20 students. The program should
accept the mid result and the final result from the students. Use the appropriate validity
control mechanism to prevent wrong inputs.
11. Write a C++ program that has two functions toBinary and toDecimal. The program should
display a menu prompting the user to enter his choice. If the user selects toBinary, then the
function should accept a number in base ten and displays the equivalent binary
representation. The reverse should be done if the user selects toDecimal.
12. Develop a C++ program that accepts a word from the user and then checks whether the
word is palindrome or not. (NB a word is palindrome if it is readable from left to right as
well as right to left).
13. Write a C++ program that accepts a word from the user and then displays the word after
reversing it.
14. Develop a C++ program that accepts the name of a person and then counts how many
vowels the persons name have.
15. Modify the question in Q14 in such a way that it should replace vowel characters with * in
the person name.
16. Write a program in C++ which read a three digit number and generate all the possible
permutation of numbers using the above digits. For example n = 123 then the permutations
are
123, 213, 312, 132, 231, 321
17. Write a program which read a set of lines until you enter #.
18. Write a program which read two matrixes and then print a matrix which is addition of
these two matrixes.
19. Write a program which reads two matrix and multiply them if possible
20. Write a program which reads a 3 x 2 matrix and then calculates the sum of each row and
store that in a one dimension array.

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

Chapter Six
Pointers

6. Introduction
We have already seen how variables are memory cells that we can access by
an identifier. But these variables are stored in concrete places of the computer
memory. For our programs, the computer memory is only a succession of 1
byte cells (the minimum size for a datum), each one with a unique address.
A pointer is a variable which stores the address of another variable. The only
difference between pointer variable and regular variable is the data they hold.
There are two pointer operators in C++:
& the address of operator
* the dereference operator
Whenever you see the & used with pointers, think of the words address of.
The & operator always produces the memory address of whatever it
precedes. The * operator, when used with pointers, either declares a pointer
or dereferences the pointers value. The dereference operator can be literally
translated to "value pointed by" .
A pointer is simply the address of an object in memory. Generally, objects can
be accessed in two ways: directly by their symbolic name, or indirectly
through a pointer. The act of getting to an object via a pointer to it, is called
dereferencing the pointer. Pointer variables are defined to point to objects of
a specific type so that when the pointer is dereferenced, a typed object is
obtained.
At the moment in which we declare a variable this one must be stored in a
concrete location in this succession of cells (the memory). We generally do not
decide where the variable is to be placed - fortunately that is something
automatically done by the compiler and the operating system on runtime, but
once the operating system has assigned an address there are some cases in
which we may be interested in knowing where the variable is stored.
This can be done by preceding the variable identifier by an ampersand sign (&), which
literally means, "address of. For example:

ptr= &var;

This would assign to variable ptr the address of variable var , since when
preceding the name of the variable var with the ampersand ( & ) character we
are no longer talking about the content of the variable, but about its address
in memory.
We are going to suppose that var has been placed in the memory address
1776 and that we write the following:

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 Introduction to Programming in C ++

var=25;
x=var;
ptr = &var;

The result will be the one shown in the following diagram:

We have assigned to x the content of variable var as we have done in many

other occasions in previous sections, but to ptr we have assigned the address
in memory where the operating system stores the value of var , that we have
imagined that it was 1776 (it can be any address). The reason is that in the
allocation of ptr we have preceded var with an ampersand ( & ) character.
The variable that stores the address of another variable (like ptr in the
previous example) is what we call a pointer.

6.1. Declaring Pointers:

Is reserving a memory location for a pointer variable in the heap.
Syntax:
type * pointer_name ;
to declare a pointer variable called p_age, do the following:
int * p_age;
Whenever the dereference operator, *, appears in a variable declariation, the
variable being declared is always a pointer variable.

6.2. Assigning values to pointers:

p_age is an integer pointer. The type of a pointer is very important. p_age can
point only to integer values, never to floating-point or other types.
To assign p_age the address of a variable, do the following:
int age = 26;
int * p_age;
p_age = &age;
OR
int age = 26;
int * p_age = & age;
Both ways are possible.
If you wanted to print the value of age, do the following:
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 Introduction to Programming in C ++

cout<<age;//prints the value of age

Or by using pointers you can do it as follows
cout<<*p_age;//dereferences p_age;
The dereference operator produces a value that tells the pointer where to
point. Without the *, (i.e cout<<p_age), a cout statement would print an
address (the address of age). With the *, the cout prints the value at that
address.
You can assign a different value to age with the following statement:
age = 13; //assigns a new value to variable age
*p_age = 13 //assigns 13 as a value to the memory p_age points at.
N.B: the * appears before a pointer variable in only two places: when you
declare a pointer variable and when you dereference a pointer variable (to find
the data it points to).
- The following program is one you should study closely. It shows more
about pointers and the pointer operators, & and *, than several pages of
text could do.

#...
#...
void main()
{
int num = 123; // a regular integer variable
int *p_num; //declares an integer pointer
cout<< num is <<num<<endl;
cout<< the address of num is <<&num<<endl;
p_num = &num;// puts address of num in p_num;
cout<< *p_num is <<*p_num<<endl; //prints value of num
cout<< p_num is <<p_num<<endl; //prints value of P_num
getch();
}

6.3. Pointer to void

note that we cant assign the address of a float type variable to an integer
pointer variable and similarly the address of an interger variable can not be
stored in a float or character pointer.
flaot y;
int x;
int *ip;
float *fp;
ip = &y; //illegal statement
fp = &x; //illegal statement
That means, if a variable type and pointer to type is same, then only we can
assign the address of variable to pointer variable. And if both are different
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type then we cant assign the address of variable to pointer variable but this is
also possible in C++ by declaring pointer variable as a void as follows:
void *p;
Let us see an example:
void *p;
int x;
float y;
p = &x; //valid assignment
p = &y; //valid assignment
The difficulty on void pointers is that, void pointers can not be de referenced.
They are aimed only to store address and the dereference operator is not
allowed for void pointers.

6.4. Arrays of Pointers

If you have to reserve many pointers for many different values, you might
want to declare an array of pointers.
The following reserves an array of 10 integer pointer variables:
int *iptr[10]; //reserves an array of 10 integer pointers
The above statement will create the following structure in RAM

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

iptr[4] = &age;// makes iptr[4] point to address of age.

6.5. Pointer and arrays

The concept of array goes very bound to the one of pointer. In fact, the
identifier of an array is equivalent to the address of its first element, like a
pointer is equivalent to the address of the first element that it points to, so in
fact they are the same thing. For example, supposing these two declarations:

int numbers [20];

int * p;
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 Introduction to Programming in C ++

the following allocation would be valid:

p = numbers;

At this point p and numbers are equivalent and they have the same
properties, with the only difference that we could assign another value to the
pointer p whereas numbers will always point to the first of the 20 integer
numbers of type int with which it was defined. So, unlike p, that is an
ordinary variable pointer, numbers is a constant pointer (indeed that is an
Array: a constant pointer). Therefore, although the previous expression was
valid, the following allocation is not:

numbers = p;

Because numbers is an array (constant pointer), and no values can be

assigned to constant identifiers.
N.B: An array name is just a pointer, nothing more. The array name always
points to the first element stored in the array. There for , we can have the
following valid C++ code:

int ara[5] = {10,20,30,40,50};

cout<< *(ara + 2); //prints ara[2];
The expression *(ara+2) is not vague at all if you remember that an array
name is just a pointer that always points to the arrays first element. *(ara+2)
takes the address stored in ara, adds 2 to the address, and dereferences that
location.
Consider the following character array:
char name[] = C++ Programming;
What output do the following cout statements produce?
cout<<name[0]; // ____C__
cout<<*name; // _____C__
cout<<*(name+3); //_________
cout<<*(name+0); //____C____

6.6. Pointer Advantage

You cant change the value of an array name, because you cant change constants.
This explains why you cant assign an array a new value during a programs
execution: eg: if Cname is array of characters then:
Cname = Football; //invalid array assignment;

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

Unlike arrays, you can change a pointer variable. By changing pointers, you
can make them point to different values in memory. Have a look at the
following code:

#...
#...
void main()
{
clrscr();
float v1 = 679.54;
float v2 = 900.18;
float * p_v;

p_v = &v1;
cout<< \nthe first value is <<*p_v;
p_v = &v2;
cout<< \nthe second value is <<*p_v;
getch();
}

You can use pointer notation and reference pointers as arrays with array
notation. Study the following program carefully. It shows the inner workings
of arrays and pointer notation.
void main()
{
clrscr();
int ctr;
int iara[5] = {10,20,30,40,50};
int *iptr;
iptr = iara; //makes iprt point to arrays first element. Or iprt = &iara[0]
cout<< using array subscripts:\n
cout<< iara\tiptr\n;
for(ctr=0;ctr<5;ctr++)
{
cout<<iara[ctr]<< \t<< iptr[ctr]<< \n;
}

cout<< \nUsing pointer notation\n;

for(ctr=0;ctr<5;ctr++)
{
cout<< *(iara+ctr) << \t << *(iptr+ctr)<< \n;
}
getch();
}
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 Introduction to Programming in C ++

Suppose that you want to store a persons name and print it. Rather than
using arrays, you can use a character pointer. The following program does
just that.

void main()
{
clrscr();
char *c = Meseret Belete;
cout<< your name is : <<c;
}
Suppose that you must change a string pointed to by a character pointer, if
the persons name in the above code is changed to Meseter Alemu: look at the
following code:

void main()
{
char *c = Meseret Belete;
cout<< youe name is : <<c;
c = Meseret Alemu;
cout<< \nnew person name is : <<c;
getch();
}
If c were a character array, you could never assign it directly because an array
name cant be changed.

6.7. Pointer Arithmetic

To conduct arithmetical operations on pointers is a little different than to
conduct them on other integer data types. To begin, only addition and
subtraction operations are allowed to be conducted, the others make no sense
in the world of pointers. But both addition and subtraction have a different
behavior with pointers according to the size of the data type to which they
point to.

When we saw the different data types that exist, we saw that some occupy
more or less space than others in the memory. For example, in the case of
integer numbers, char occupies 1 byte, short occupies 2 bytes and long
occupies 4.
Let's suppose that we have 3 pointers:

char *mychar;
short *myshort;
long *mylong;

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

And that we know that they point to memory locations 1000 , 2000 and 3000
respectively. So if we write:

mychar++;
myshort++;
mylong++;

mychar , as you may expect, would contain the value 1001 . Nevertheless,
myshort would contain the value 2002 , and mylong would contain 3004 . The
reason is that when adding 1 to a pointer we are making it to point to the
following element of the same type with which it has been defined, and
therefore the size in bytes of the type pointed is added to the pointer.

This is applicable both when adding and subtracting any number to a pointer.
It is important to warn you that both increase ( ++ ) and decrease ( -- )
operators have a greater priority than the reference operator asterisk ( * ),
therefore the following expressions may lead to confusion:

*p++;
*p++ = *q++;

The first one is equivalent to *(p++) and what it does is to increase p (the
address where it points to - not the value that contains).
The second, because both increase operators ( ++ ) are after the expressions to
be evaluated and not before, first the value of *q is assigned to *p and then
they are both q and p increased by one. It is equivalent to:

*p = *q;
p++;
q++;

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 Introduction to Programming in C ++

Now let us have a look at a code that shows increments through an integer
array:
void main()
{
int iara[] = {10,20,30,40,50};
int * ip = iara;
cout<<*ip<<endl;
ip++;
cout<<*ip<<endl;
ip++;
cout<<*ip<<endl;
ip++;
cout<<*ip<<endl;
}

6.8. Pointer and String

If you declare a character table with 5 rows and 20 columns, each row would
contain the same number of characters. You can define the table with the
following statement.
char names[5][20] ={{George},{Mesfin},{John},{Kim},{Barbara}};
The above statement will create the following table in memory:

G e o r g e \0
M e s f i n \0
J o h n \0
K i m \0
B a r b a r a \0

Notice that much of the table is waster space. Each row takes 20 characters,
even though the data in each row takes far fewer characters.
To fix the memory-wasting problem of fully justified tables, you should
declare a single-dimensional array of character pointers. Each pointer points
to a string in memory and the strings do not have to be the same length.
Here is the definition for such an array:

char *name [5] = {{George},{Mesfin},{John}, {Kim},{Barbara}};

This array is a single-dimension array. The asterisk before names makes this
array an array of pointers. Each string takes only as much memory as is
needed by the string and its terminating zero. At this time, we will have this
structure in memory:

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 Introduction to Programming in C ++

To print the first string, we should use:

cout<<*names; //prints George.

To print the second use:

cout<< *(names+1); //prints Michael

Whenever you dereference any pointer element with the * dereferencing

operator, you access one of the strings in the array.

6.9. Pointer to pointer:

As the memory address where integer, float or character is stored in can be
stored into a pointer variable, the address of a pointer can also be stored in
another pointer. This pointer is said to be pointer to a pointer.
An array of pointer is conceptually same as pointer to pointer type. The
pointer to pointer type is declared as follows:
Data_type ** pointer_name;

Note that the asterisk is double here.

int **p; //p is a pointer which holds the address another pointer.

E.g.:
char a;
char * b;
char ** c;
a = 'z';
b = &a;
c = &b;

This, supposing the randomly chosen memory locations of 7230 , 8092 and
10502 , could be described thus:

(inside the cells there is the content of the variable; under the cells its location)

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

Have a look at the following code:

#...
#...
void main()
{
clrscr();
int data;
int *p1;
int **p2;
data = 15;
cout<< data = <<data<<endl;
p1 = &data;
p2 = &p1;
cout<< data through p1 = <<*p1<<endl;
cout<< data through p2 = << **p2<<endl;
getch();
}

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 Introduction to Programming in C ++

6.10. Dynamic memory:

Until now, in our programs, we have only had as much memory as we have
requested in declarations of variables, arrays and other objects that we
included, having the size of all of them to be fixed before the execution of the
program. But, What if we need a variable amount of memory that can only be
determined during the program execution (runtime)? For example, in case
that we need a user input to determine the necessary amount of space. The
answer is dynamic memory, for which C++ integrates the operators new and
delete.
Pointers are useful for creating dynamic objects during program execution.
Unlike normal (global and local) objects which are allocated storage on the
runtime stack, a dynamic object is allocated memory from a different storage
area called the heap. Dynamic objects do not obey the normal scope rules.
Their scope is explicitly controlled by the programmer.

a) The New Operator

In C++ new operator can create space dynamically i.e at run time, and
similarly delete operator is also available which releases the memory
taken by a variable and return memory to the operating system.
When the space is created for a variable at compile time this approach
is called static. If space is created at run time for a variable, this
approach is called dynamic. See the following two lines:
int a[10];//creation of static array
int *a;
a = new int[10];//creation of dynamic array
Lets have another example:

int * ptr3;
ptr3 = new int [5];

In this case, the operating system has assigned space for 5 elements of
type int in the heap and it has returned a pointer to its beginning that
has been assigned to ptr3 . Therefore, now, ptr3 points to a valid block
of memory with space for 5 int elements.

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

You could ask what is the difference between declaring a normal array
and assigning memory to a pointer as we have just done. The most
important one is that the size of an array must be a constant value,
which limits its size to what we decide at the moment of designing the
program before its execution, whereas the dynamic memory allocation
allows assigning memory during the execution of the program using
any variable, constant or combination of both as size.

The dynamic memory is generally managed by the operating system,

and in the multi-task interfaces can be shared between several
applications, so there is a possibility that the memory exhausts. If this
happens and the operating system cannot assign the memory that we
request with the operator new , a null pointer will be returned. For that
reason it is recommendable to always verify if after a call to instruction
new the returned pointer is null:

int * ptr3;
ptr3 = new int [5];
if (ptr3 == NULL) {
// error assigning memory. Take measures.
};

if ptr3 is NULL, it means that there is no enough memory location in

the heap to be given for ptr3.

b) Operator delete
Since the necessity of dynamic memory is usually limited to concrete
moments within a program, once this one is no longer needed it shall
be freed so that it become available for future requests of dynamic
memory. For this exists the operator delete , whose form is:
delete pointer ;
or
delete [] pointer ;
The first expression should be used to delete memory allocated for a
single element, and the second one for memory allocated for multiple
elements (arrays).
In most compilers both expressions are equivalent and can be used
without distinction, although indeed they are two different operators
and so must be considered for operator overloading.
In the following simple example, a program that memorizes numbers,
does not have a limited amount of numbers that can be introduced,
thanks to the concept and power of pointer that we request to the

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

system as much space as it is necessary to store all the numbers that

the user wishes to introduce.

#include <iostream.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include<conio.h>
int main ()
{
char input [100];
int i,n;
long * num;// total = 0;
cout << "How many numbers do you want to type in? ";
cin.getline (input,100);
i=atoi (input);
num= new long[i];
if (num == NULL)
{
cout<<"\nno enough memory!";
getch();
exit (1);
}
for (n=0; n<i; n++)
{
cout << "Enter number: ";
cin.getline (input,100);
num[n]=atol (input);
}
cout << "You have entered: ";
for (n=0; n<i; n++)
cout << num[n] << ", ";
delete[] num;
getch();
return 0;
}

NULL is a constant value defined in C++ libraries specially designed

to indicate null pointers. In case that this constant is not defined you
can do it yourself by defining it to 0:

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

Chapter Seven
File Operations (File I/O)

7. Introduction
- The data created by the user and assigned to variables with an assignment
statement is sufficient for some applications. With large volume of data
most real-world applications use a better way of storing that data. For this,
disk files offer the solution.
- When working with disk files, C++ does not have to access much RAM
because C++ reads data from your disk drive and processes the data only
parts at a time.

7.2 Stream
- Stream is a general name given to flow of data. In C++, there are different
types of streams. Each stream is associated with a particular class, which
contains member function and definition for dealing with file. Lets have a
look at the figure:

ios

istream ostream

iostream
ifstream ofstream

fstream

- According to the above hierarchy, the class iostream is derived from the
two classes istream and ostream and both istream and ostream are
derived from ios. Similarly the class fstream is derived from iostream.
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Introduction to Programming in C ++

Generally two main header files are used iostream.h and fstream.h. The
classes used for input and output to the video display and key board are
declared in the header file iostream.h and the classes used for disk file
input output are declared in fstream.h.
- Note that when we include the header file fstream.h in our program then
there is no need to include iostream.h header file. Because all the classes
which are in fstream.h they are derived from classes which are in
iostream.h therefore, we can use all the functions of iostream class.

7.3: Operation With File

- First we will see how files are opened and closed. A file can be defined by
following class ifstream, ofstream, fstream, all these are defined in
fstream.h header file.
if a file object is declared by ifstream class, then that object can be
used for reading from a file.
if a file object is declared by ofstream class, then that object can
be used for writing onto a file.
If a file object is declared by fstream class then, that object can be
used for both reading from and writing to a file

7.4: Types of Disk File Access

- Your program can access files either in sequential manner or random
manner. The access mode of a file determines how one can read, write,
change, add and delete data from a file.
- A sequential file has to be accessed in the same order as the file was
written. This is analogues to cassette tapes: you play music in the same
order as it was recorded.
- Unlike the sequential files, you can have random-access to files in any
order you want. Think of data in a random-access file as being similar to
songs on compact disc (CD): you can go directly to any song you want to
play without having to play or fast-forward through the other songs.

7.4.1: Sequential File Concepts

- You can perform three operations on sequential disk files. You can create
disk files, add to disk files, and read from disk files.

7.4.1.1: Opening and Closing Sequential Files

- When you open a disk file, you only have to inform C++, the file name
and what you want to do with it. C++ and your operating system work
together to make sure that the disk is ready, and they create an entry in
your file directory for the filename (if you are creating a file). When you

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

close a file, C++ writes any remaining data to the file, releases the file from
the program, and updates the file directory to reflect the files new size.
- You can use either of the two methods to open a file in C++:
using a Constructor or
using the open function
- The following C++ statement will create an object with the name fout of
ofstream class and this object will be associated with file name hello.txt.

ofstream fout (hello.txt);

- This statement uses the constructor method.

- The following C++ statement will create an object with the name fout of
ofstream class and this object will be associated with file name hello.txt.

ofstream fout;
fout.open(hello.txt);

- If you open a file for writing (out access mode), C++ creates the file. If a
file by that name already exists, C++ overwrite the old file with no
warning. You must be careful when opening files not to overwrite existing
data that you want.
- If an error occurs during opening of a file, C++ does not create a valid file
pointer (file object). Instead, C++ creates a file pointer (object) equal to
zero. For example if you open a file for output, but use an invalid disk
name, C++ cant open the file and therefore makes the file object equal to
zero.
- You can also determine the file access mode when creating a file in C++. If
you want to use the open function to open a file then the syntax is:
fileobject.open(filename,accessmode);
File name is a string containing a valid file name for your computer.
Accessmode is the sought operation to be taken on the file and must be
one of the values in the following table.

Mode Description
app Opens file for appending
ate Seeks to the end of file while opening the file
in Opens the file for reading
out Opens the file for writing
binary Opens the file in binary mode

- You should always check for the successful opening of a file before
starting file manipulation on it. You use the fail() function to do the task:
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Introduction to Programming in C ++

- Lets have an example here:

ifstream indata;
indata.open(c:\\myfile.txt,ios::in);
if(indata.fail())
{
//error description here
}
- In this case, the open operation will fail (i.e the fail function will return
true), if there is no file named myfile.txt in the directory C:\
- After you are done with your file manipulations, you should use the close
function to release any resources that were consumed by the file
operation. Here is an example
indata.close();
- The above close() statement will terminate the relationship between the
ifstream object indata and the file name c:\myfile.txt, hence releasing
any resource needed by the system.

7.4.1.2: Writing to a sequential File

- The most common file I/O functions are
get() and put()
- You can also use the output redirection operator (<<) to write to a file.
- The following program creates a file called names.txt in C:\ and saves the
name of five persons in it:
#include<fstream.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
ofstream fp;
void main()
{
fp.open(c:\\names.txt ,ios::out);
if(fp.fail())
{
cerr<< \nError opening file;
getch();
exit(1);
}
fp<< Abebe Alemu<<endl;
fp<< Lemelem Berhanu<<endl;
fp<< Tesfaye Mulugeta<<endl;
fp<< Mahlet Kebede<<endl;
fp<< Assefa Bogale<<endl;
fp.close();
}//end main
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Introduction to Programming in C ++

Writing characters to sequential files:

- A character can be written onto a file using the put() function. See the
following code:
#include<fstream.h>
#include<stdlib.h>// for exit() function

void main()
{
char c;
ofstream outfile;
outfile.open(c:\\test.txt,ios::out);

if(outfile.fail())
{
cerr<< \nError opening test.txt;
getch();
exit(1);
}

for(int i=1;i<=15;i++)
{
cout<< \nEnter a character : ;
cin>>c;
outfile.put(c);
}
output.close();
}//end main

- The above program reads 15 characters and stores in file test.txt.

- You can easily add data to an existing file, or create new files, by opening
the file in append access mode.
- Files you open for append access mode (using ios::app) do not have to exist.
If the file exists, C++ appends data to the end of the file (as is done when
you open a file for write access).

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Introduction to Programming in C ++

- The following program adds three more names to the names.txt file
created in the earlier program.
#include<fstream.h>
#include<stdlib.h>

void main()
{
ofstream outdata;
outdata.open(c:\\names.txt,ios::app);
if(outdata.fail())
{
cerr<< \nError opening names.txt;
getch();
exit(1);
}
outdata<< Berhanu Teka<<endl;
outdata<< Zelalem Assefa<<endl;
outdata<< Dagim Sheferaw<<endl;
outdata.close();
}//end main
- If the file names.txt does not exist, C++ creates it and stores the three names
to the file.
- Basically, you have to change only the open() functions access mode to
turn a file-creation program into a file-appending program.

7.4.1.3: Reading from a File

- Files you open for read access (using ios::in) must exist already, or C++
gives you an error message. You cant read a file that does not exist.
Open() returns zero if the file does not exist when you open it for read
access.
- Another event happens when you read files. Eventually, you read all the
data. Subsequently reading produces error because there is no more data to
read. C++ provides a solution to the end-of-file occurrence.
- If you attempt to read a file that you have completely read the data from,
C++ returns the value zero. To find the end-of-file condition, be sure to
check for zero when reading information from files.

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Addis Ababa University, Faculty of Informatics
Introduction to Programming in C ++

- The following code asks the user for a file name and displays the content
of the file to the screen.

#include<fstream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
char name[20],filename[15];
ifstream indata;
cout<<"\nEnter the file name : ";
cin.getline(filename,15);
indata.open(filename,ios::in);
if(indata.fail())
{
cerr<<"\nError opening file : "<<filename;
getch();
exit(1);
}
while(!indata.eof())// checks for the end-of-file
{
indata>>name;
cout<<name<<endl;
}
indata.close();
getch();
}

Reading characters from a sequential file

- You can read a characters from a file using get() function. The following
program asks for a file name and displays each character of the file to the
screen. NB. A space among characters is considered as a character and
hence, the exact replica of the file will be shown in the screen.
#include<fstream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
void main()
{
char c,filename[15];
ifstream indata;
cout<<"\nEnter the file name : ";

Compiled by: Mahder Alemayehu and Wondwossen Mulugeta 7

Addis Ababa University, Faculty of Informatics
Introduction to Programming in C ++

cin.getline(filename,15);
indata.open(filename,ios::in);
if(indata.fail())// check id open succeeded
{
cerr<<"\nError opening file : "<<filename;
getch();
exit(1);
}
while(!indata.eof())// check for eof
{
indata.get(c);
cout<<c;
}
indata.close();
getch();
}

7.4.1.4: File Pointer and their Manipulators

- Each file has two pointers one is called input pointer and second is output
pointer. The input pointer is called get pointer and the output pointer is
called put pointer.
- When input and output operation take places, the appropriate pointer is
automatically set according to the access mode.
- For example when we open a file in reading mode, file pointer is
automatically set to the start of the file.
- When we open a file in append mode, the file pointer is automatically set
to the end of file.
- In C++ there are some manipulators by which we can control the
movement of the pointer. The available manipulators are:
1. seekg()
2. seekp()
3. tellg()
4. tellp()
1. seekg(): this moves get pointer i.e input pointer to a specified location.
For eg. infile.seekg(5); move the file pointer to the byte number 5
from starting point.
2. seekp(): this move put pointer (output pointer) to a specified location for
example: outfile.seekp(5);
3. tellg(): this gives the current position of get pointer (input pointer)
4. tellp(): this gives the current position of put pointer (output pointer)
eg. ofstream fileout;
Compiled by: Mahder Alemayehu and Wondwossen Mulugeta 8
Addis Ababa University, Faculty of Informatics
Introduction to Programming in C ++

fileout.open(c:\\test.txt,ios::app);
int length = fileout.tellp();
- By the above statement in length, the total number bytes of the file are
assigned to the integer variable length. Because the file is opened in
append mode that means, the file pointer is the last part of the file.
- Now lets see the seekg() function in action

#include<fstream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
fstream fileobj;
char ch; //holds A through Z
//open the file in both output and input mode
fileobj.open("c:\\alph.txt",ios::out|ios::in);
if(fileobj.fail())
{
cerr<<"\nError opening alph.txt";
getch();
exit(1);
}
//now write the characters to the file
for(ch = 'A'; ch <= 'Z'; ch++)
{
fileobj<<ch;
}
fileobj.seekg(8L,ios::beg);//skips eight letters, points to I
fileobj>>ch;
cout<<"\nThe 8th character is : "<<ch;
fileobj.seekg(16L,ios::beg);//skips 16 letters, points to Q
fileobj>>ch;
cout<<"\nThe 16th letter is : "<<ch;
fileobj.close();
getch();
}
- To point to the end of a data file, you can use the seekg() function to
position the file pointer at the last byte. This statement positions the file
pointer to the last byte in the file. Fileobj.seekg(0L,ios::end);

Compiled by: Mahder Alemayehu and Wondwossen Mulugeta 9

Addis Ababa University, Faculty of Informatics
Introduction to Programming in C ++

- This seekg() function literally reads move the file pointer 0 bytes from the
end of the file. The file pointer now points to the end-of-file marker, but
you can seekg() backwards to find other data in the file.
- The following program is supposed to read c:\alph.txt file backwards,
printing each character as it skips back in the file.
- Be sure that the seekg() in the program seeks two bytes backwards from
the current position, not from the beginning or the end as the previous
programs. The for loop towards the end of the program needs to perform
a skip-two-bytes-back, read-one-byte-forward method to skip through
the file backwards.

#include<fstream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>

void main()
{
clrscr();
ifstream indata;
int ctr=0;
char inchar;

indata.open("c:\\alph.txt",ios::in);
if(indata.fail())
{
cerr<<"\nError opening alph.txt";
getch();
exit(1);
}
indata.seekg(-1L,ios::end);//points to the last byte in the file
for(ctr=0;ctr<26;ctr++)
{
indata>>inchar;
indata.seekg(-2L,ios::cur);
cout<<inchar;
}
indata.close();
getch();
}

Compiled by: Mahder Alemayehu and Wondwossen Mulugeta 10

Addis Ababa University, Faculty of Informatics
Introduction to Programming in C ++

Text Files And Binary Files (Comparison)

- The default access mode for file access is text mode. A text file is an ASCII
file, compatible with most other programming languages and
applications. Programs that read ASCII files can read data you create as
C++ text files.
- If you specify binary access, C++ creates or reads the file in binary format.
Binary data files are squeezed- that is, they take less space than text files.
The disadvantage of using binary files is that other programs cant always
read the data files. Only C++ programs written to access binary files can
read and write them. The advantage of binary files is that you save disk
space because your data files are more compact.
- The binary format is a system-specific file format. In other words, not all
computers can read a binary file created on another computer.

7.4.2: Random Access File Concepts

- Random access enables you to read or write any data in your disk file with
out having to read and write every piece of data that precedes it.
- Generally you read and write file records. A record to a file is analogues to
a C++ structure. A record is a collection of one or more data values (called
fields) that you read and write to disk. Generally you store data in the
structures and write structures to disk.
- When you read a record from disk, you generally read that record into a
structure variable and process it with your program.
- Most random access files are fixed-length records. Each record (a row in
the file) takes the same amount of disk space.
- With fixed length records, your computer can better calculate where on
the disk the desired record is located.

0 100 200 300 400 500

Byte
offsets

100 100 100 100

Bytes bytes bytes bytes

Compiled by: Mahder Alemayehu and Wondwossen Mulugeta 11

Addis Ababa University, Faculty of Informatics
Introduction to Programming in C ++

7.2.2.1 Opening Random-Access Files

- There is really no difference between sequential files and random files in
C++. The difference between the files is not physical, but lies in the
method that you use to access them and update them.
- The ostream member function write outputs a fixed number of bytes,
beginning at a specific location in memory, to the specified stream.
- When the stream is associated with a file, function write writes the data at
the location in specified by the put file position pointer.
- The istream member function read inputs a fixed number of bytes from
the specified stream into an area in memory beginning at the specified
address.
- When the stream is associated with a file, function read inputs bytes at the
location in the file specified by the get file poison pointer.
- Syntax of write: fileobject.write((char*) & NameOfObject, sizeof(name of
object))
- Function write expects data type const char* as its first argument. The
second argument of write is an integer of type size specifying the number
of bytes to be written.

Writing randomly to a random access file

- Here is an example that shows how to write a record to a random access
file.
#include<fstream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
struct stud_info{
int id;
char name[20];
char fname[20];
float CGPA;
}student;

void main()
{
clrscr();
char filename[15];
ofstream outdata;
cout<<"\nenter file name : ";
cin>>filename;
outdata.open(filename,ios::out);
if(outdata.fail())
{
Compiled by: Mahder Alemayehu and Wondwossen Mulugeta 12
Addis Ababa University, Faculty of Informatics
Introduction to Programming in C ++

cerr<<"\nError opening "<<filename;

getch();
exit(1);
}
//stud_info student;
//accept data here
cout<<"\nEnter student id : ";
cin>>student.id;
cout<<"\nEnter student name : ";
cin>>student.name;
cout<<"\nEnter student father name : ";
cin>>student.fname;
cout<<"\nEnter student CGPA : ";
cin>>student.CGPA;

//now write to the file

outdata.seekp(((student.id)-1) * sizeof(student));
outdata.write((char*) &student, sizeof(student));
outdata.close();
cout<<"\nData has been saved";
getch();
}

- The above code uses the combination of ostream function seekp and write
to store data at exact locations in the file.
- Function seekp sets the put file-position pointer to a specific position in
the file, then the write outputs the data.
- 1 is subtracted from the student id when calculating the byte location of
the record. Thus, for record 1, the file position pointer is set to the byte 0 of
the file.
- The istream function read inputs a specified number of bytes from the
current position in the specified stream into an object.
- The syntax of read : read((char*)&name of object, sizeof(name of object));
- Function read requires a first argument of type char *. The second
argument of write is an integer of type size specifying the number of bytes
to be read.

Compiled by: Mahder Alemayehu and Wondwossen Mulugeta 13

Addis Ababa University, Faculty of Informatics
Introduction to Programming in C ++

- Here is a code that shows how to read a random access record from a file.
#include<fstream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
struct stud_info{
int studid;
char name[20];
char fname[20];
float CGPA;
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
ifstream indata;
char filename[15];
cout<<"\nEnter the file name : ";
cin>>filename;
indata.open(filename,ios::in);
if(indata.fail())
{
cerr<<"\nError opening "<<filename;
getch();
exit(1);
}
stud_info student;
cout<<"\nEnter the id no of the student : ";
int sid;
cin>>sid;
indata.seekg((sid-1) * sizeof(student));
indata.read((char*) &student, sizeof(student));
cout<<"\nhere is the information";
cout<<"\nstudent id : "<<student.studid;
cout<<"\nstudent name : "<<student.name;
cout<<"\nstudent fname : "<<student.fname;
cout<<"\nstudent CGPA : "<<student.CGPA;
indata.close();
getch();
}

Compiled by: Mahder Alemayehu and Wondwossen Mulugeta 14

Addis Ababa University, Faculty of Informatics
Introduction to Programming in C ++

7.5: Command Line Argument

- Command line argument means facility by which you can supply
arguments to the main() function. These arguments are supplied to the
program when the main function is called from the command line. Eg.
c:\> file-name arg1 arg2
- Where file-name is the name of file(the program) and arg1, arg2 are
arguments passed to the program.
- If we want to pass arguments to the main function, then main function
should be written as follow.
Return type main(int argc, char * argv[])
- The first argument argc represents the number of arguments in a
command line. The second argument argv is an array of character type
pointers that points to the command line arguments. Argc is known as
argument counter and argv is called argument vector.
- C:\> student A B. the value of argc is 3 (student, A & B) and the argv
would be an array of three pointers to string as follows:
Argv[0] points to student
Argv[1] points to A
Argv[2] points to B
- note that argv[0] always reperesents the command name that invokes the
program.
- Here is a sample command line argument code
#include<fstream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
void main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
clrscr();
char ch;
if(argc < 3)
{
cerr<<"\ntoo few parameters";
getch();
exit(1);
}
else if(argc > 3)
{
cerr<<"\ntoo many parametes";
getch();
exit(1);
}
else//number of parameters okay
Compiled by: Mahder Alemayehu and Wondwossen Mulugeta 15
Addis Ababa University, Faculty of Informatics
Introduction to Programming in C ++

{
ofstream outdata;
ifstream indata;
outdata.open(argv[2],ios::out);
if(outdata.fail())
{
cerr<<"\nlow disk space to create file : "<<argv[2];
getch();
exit(1);
}
indata.open(argv[1],ios::in);
if(indata.fail())
{
cerr<<"\nfile : "<<argv[1]<<" does not exist";
getch();
exit(1);
}
//now start copying the file
while(!indata.eof())
{
indata.get(ch);
outdata.put(ch);
}
indata.close();
outdata.close();
cout<<"\nfinished copying";
}
}

Compiled by: Mahder Alemayehu and Wondwossen Mulugeta 16

Addis Ababa University, Faculty of Informatics