Reciprocating Internal

Combustion Engines

M ic h ele M a nno
D ep a rtm ento fInd u stria lE ng ineering
U niversity o fRo m e T o r Verg a ta

L a stu p d a te: O c to b er 3 0 th , 2 0 1 5

Internal Combustion Engines 1

Contents

1 . G enera lrem a rk s a nd eng ine c la ssific a tio n

2 . M a ino p era ting p a ra m eters

3 . A ir inta k e

4 . S u p erc h a rg ing a nd tu rb o c h a rg ing

5 . F u elm etering insp a rk ig nitio neng ines

6. F u elinjec tio ninc o m p ressio nig nitio neng ines

7 . O p era ting c h a ra c teristic s a nd p erfo rm a nc e m a p s

8. L o a d m a tc h ing : to rq u e a nd ro ta tio na lsp eed req u irem ents

9 . P o llu ta ntfo rm a tio na nd c o ntro l

Internal Combustion Engines 2

General remarks and engine classification
Engine components

Im a g e so u rc es:
(left) M . E h sa ni, Y . G a o , S .E . G a y , A . E m a d i, M o d ern E lec t ric , H y b rid
E lec t ric , a n d F u elC ellV eh ic les, C RC P ress L L C , N ew Y o rk , 2 0 0 5 .
(rig h t) J .B . H ey w o o d , In t ern a lC o m b u st io n E n g in e F u n d a m en t a ls, M c G ra w -
H ill, N ew Y o rk , 1 9 88.

Internal Combustion Engines 3

General remarks and engine classification
Engine classification

1. Method of ignition
a) Spark Ignition, SI (O tto eng ines)
b) Compression Ignition, CI (D ieseleng ines)

2. Working cycle
a ) fu llc y c le in4 p isto nstro k es (four-stroke engine, 4S)
b ) fu llc y c le in2 p isto nstro k es (two-stroke engine, 2S)

3. Fuel
g a so line, fu elo il (d iesel), na tu ra lg a s, liq u id p etro leu m g a s (L P G ), a lc o h o ls (m eth a no l, eth a no l)...

4. Air intake
a ) N a tu ra lly aspirated eng ine
b ) supercharged eng ine
c ) turbocharged eng ine

5. Air/fuel mixture preparation

a ) C a rb u retio n
b ) Ind irec tfu elinjec tio n
c ) D irec tfu elinjec tio n

6. Application
P ro p u lsio n(a u to m o b ile, tru c k , lig h ta irc ra ft, m a rine), p o rta b le p o w er sy stem s, p o w er g enera tio n

Internal Combustion Engines 4

General remarks and engine classification
Engine classification

Method of ignition

Spark ignition engines

A m ix tu re o fa ir a nd fu el(u su a lly g a so line) va p o r is ig nited b y a nelec tric a ld isc h a rg e (sp a rk ) a c ro ss
th e sp a rk p lu g .

Compression ignition engines

T h e fu elis injec ted d irec tly into th e eng ine c y lind er ju stb efo re th e c o m b u stio np ro c ess is req u ired to
sta rt. T h e liq u id fu eljetis a to m ized into tiny d ro p lets, a nd eva p o ra tes insid e th e h o tc o m p ressed a ir;
a fter a sh o rtd ela y perio d , th e a ir/fu elm ix tu re sp o nta neo u sly ig nites, b ec a u se tem p era tu re a nd
p ressu re a re a b o ve th e fu els ig nitio n p o int(th a nk s to h ig h c o m p ressio nra tio s).

Working cycle

Four-stroke engines
th e w o rk ing c y c le ta k es fo u r p isto nstro k es, o r tw o c ra nk sh a ftrevo lu tio ns, a nd m o re th a nh a lfis
d ed ic a ted to ex h a u stg a s ex p u lsio n(sc a veng ing ) fro m th e c y lind er a nd to fresh m ix tu re inta k e insid e
th e c y lind er: th e w o rk ing flu id is th u s rep la c ed effic iently a tea c h c y c le.

Two-stroke engines
th e w o rk ing c y c le ta k es ju sttw o p isto nstro k es, i.e. o ne c ra nk sh a ftrevo lu tio n: p o w er d ensity is
th erefo re h ig h er th a nin4 S eng ines, b u tth e sc a veng ing p ro c ess is less effic ient.

Internal Combustion Engines 5

General remarks and engine classification
Geometric and kinematic parameters
B o re (c y lind er d ia m eter)

C ra nk ra d iu s

C o nnec ting ro d leng th

P isto nstro k e

U nitd isp la c em ent

D isp la c em ent
( : nu m b er o fc y lind ers)

M inim u m c h a m b er vo lu m e

Vo lu m etric c o m p ressio nra tio

W o rk ing c y c le freq u enc y

(2 S : ;4S : )

Ro ta tio na lsp eed

T C o r T D C : T o p D ea d C enter
C ra nk a ng le B C o r B D C : B o tto m D ea d C enter

M ea np isto nvelo c ity

Im a g e so u rc e: R. S to ne, In t ro d u c t io n t o In t ern a lC o m b u st io n E n g in es, P a lg ra ve M a c m illa n, 2 0 1 2

Internal Combustion Engines 6

General remarks and engine classification
Geometric and kinematic parameters
T y p ic a lva lu es o fg eo m etric a nd k inem a tic p a ra m eters:

Ra tio o fc y lind er b o re to p isto nstro k e 0 .8 - 1 .2

Ra tio o fc o nnec ting ro d leng th to c ra nk ra d iu s 3 .0 - 4 .0

Vo lu m etric c o m p ressio nra tio (S I eng ines) 8- 1 2

Vo lu m etric c o m p ressio nra tio (C I eng ines) 12 -24

M ea np isto nsp eed 8 - 1 5 m /s

Internal Combustion Engines 7

General remarks and engine classification
Four-stroke engine working cycle
1. Intake stroke: fresh m ix tu re is d ra w ninto th e c y lind er
b y th e d ep ressio nind u c ed b y th e p isto nstro k e.
T o inc rea se th e m a ss ind u c ted , th e inletva lve o p ens
sh o rtly b efo re th e stro k e sta rts a nd c lo ses a fter itend s.

2. Compression stroke: a ir (o r a ir/fu el m ix tu re) is

c o m p ressed to a sm a llfra c tio no fits initia l vo lu m e,
rea c h ing p ressu re a nd tem p era tu re levels th a td ep end
o ninitia lp ressu re a nd vo lu m etric c o m p ressio nra tio .
T o w a rd th e end o fth e c o m p ressio nstro k e, c o m b u stio n
is initia ted a nd th e c y lind er p ressu re rises m o re ra p id ly .

3. Power stroke: h ig h tem p era tu re a nd p ressu re g a ses 1 2 3 4

p u sh th e p isto nd o w n, fo rc ing th e c ra nk to ro ta te.
A s th e p isto na p p ro a c h es B D C th e ex h a u stva lve o p ens
to initia te th e ex h a u stp ro c ess a nd d ro p th e c y lind er
p ressu re to c lo se to th e ex h a u stp ressu re.

4. Exhaust stroke: ex h a u stg a ses ex itth e c y lind er, first

sp o nta neo u sly b ec a u se th e p ressu re insid e th e c y lind er
is h ig h er th a ninsid e th e ex h a u stm a nifo ld (b lo w d o w n
p ro c ess), th enb ec a u se th ey a re d ispla c ed b y th e p isto n
a s itm o ves to w a rd T D C . A s th e p isto na p p ro a c h es T D C
th e inletva lve o p ens, a nd ju sta fter T D C th e ex h a u st
va lve c lo ses, so th e c y c le sta rts a g a in.
Im a g e so u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1

Internal Combustion Engines 8

General remarks and engine classification
Two-stroke engine working cycle

I. Compression stroke: a s th e p isto nm o ves to w a rd

T D C , th e m ix tu re insid e th e c y lind er is
c o m p ressed , w h ile a tth e sa m e tim e th e p ressu re
insid e th e c ra nk c a se d ec rea ses, so fresh a ir is
d ra w na s so o na s th e in let po rt s(2 ) a re u nc o vered
b y th e p isto n. A s th e p isto na p p ro a c h es T D C ,
c o m b u stio nis initia ted .

II. Power (or expansion) stroke: a ll p o rts a re c lo sed

b y th e p isto ninth e firstp a rto fth e stro k e, th enth e
exh a u st po rt s(1 ) a re firstu nc o vered , a nd m o sto f
th e b u rntg a ses ex itth e c y lind er ina nex h a u st
b lo w d o w np ro c ess. T h enth e t ra n sfer po rt s(3 ) a re
u nc o vered a nd fresh c h a rg e, w h ic h h a s b een
c o m p ressed inth e c ra nk c a se d u ring th e
c o m p ressio nstro k e, flo w s into th e c y lind er. T h e
p isto na nd th e p o rts a re g enera lly sh a p ed to d eflec t
th e inc o m ing c h a rg e fro m flo w ing d irec tly into th e
ex h a u stp o rts, so a s to a c h ieve effec tive
sc a veng ing o fth e resid u a lg a ses.

Im a g e so u rc e: (to p ) R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1

Internal Combustion Engines 9

General remarks and engine classification
Naturally aspirated SI 4S engine cutaway

1. A ir filter 9 . C ra nk sh a ft
2. C a rb u reto r 1 0 .S u m p
1 1 .O il p u m p
3. E ng ine h ea d
1 2 .C a m sh a ft
4. E x h a u stp ip e 1 3 .P u sh ro d
5 . C y lind er b lo c k 1 4 .C o il ig nitio n
6. P isto n 1 5 .S p a rk p lu g
7 . A lterna to r 1 6.E x h a u stva lve
1 7 .Ro c k er a rm
8. C o nnec ting ro d

Im a g e so u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1

Internal Combustion Engines 10

General remarks and engine classification
3-cylinder SI 4S engine cutaway

Im a g e so u rc e: M T Zw o rld w id e, F eb ru a ry 2 0 1 3

Internal Combustion Engines 11

General remarks and engine classification
Naturally aspirated CI (Diesel) 4S engine cutaway

1. E ng ine h ea d 7 . O il p u m p
2. P isto n 8. O il filter
3. C y lind er b lo c k 9 . Injec tio np u m p
4. C o nnec ting ro d 1 0 .G lo w p lu g
5 . C ra nk sh a ft 1 1 .Injec to r
6. S um p 1 2 .C a m sh a ft

Im a g e so u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1

Internal Combustion Engines 12

General remarks and engine classification
Combustion process in SI engines

th e fu elis c o m p letely va p o rized b efo re th e sta rto fc o m b u stio n,

th a nk s to its h ig h vo la tility : th erefo re th e fu el/a ir m ix tu re is ph y sic a lly
h o m o g en eo u s(g a s m ix tu re);

th e fu el/a ir m ix tu re d o es no tig nite sp o nta neo u sly , b ec a u se p ressu re

a nd tem p era tu re a re b elo w a u to -ig nitio nva lu es;

th e c o m b u st io n isst a rt ed b y a spa rk , w h ic h p ro vid es th e nec essa ry

a c tiva tio nenerg y to th e fu el/a ir m ix tu re su rro u nd ing th e sp a rk p lu g ;

a fter th e ig nitio n, th e fla m e pro pa g a t esreg u la rly t o t h e w h o le m ixt u re;

th e req u ired a c tiva tio nenerg y is p ro vid ed to th e u nb u rntfu el/a ir
m ix tu re b y th e fla m e itself;

fla m e p ro p a g a tio nreq u ires th a ta ir/fu elra t io ish o m o g en eo u sin t h e

c o m b u st io n c h a m b er, a nd c lo se to sto ic h io m etric , o th erw ise th e
fla m e c o u ld b e ex ting u ish ed ;

th e p ro c ess is fa stb ec a u se itisc o n t ro lled b y c h em ic a lrea c t io n ra t es

a n d t u rb u len c e -> h ig h ro ta tio na lsp eed s a re p o ssib le; th e id ea l
rep resenta tio nis a c o nsta nt-vo lu m e p ro c ess inth e O tto c y c le.

Im a g e: ty p ic a l fla m e p ro p a g a tio n im a g es in th e c o m b u stio nc h a m b er a t1 0 0 0 rp m (A S O S : A fter S ta rto fS p a rk ; fu el: iso -o c ta ne)

S o u rc e: M ero la , Va g liec o , O pt ic a lin v est ig a t io n so f fu eld epo sit io n b u rn in g in po rt ed fu elin jec t io n (PF I)spa rk -ig n it io n (S I)en g in e, E nerg y 3 4 (2 0 0 9 ) 2 1 0 8 2 1 1 5 .

Internal Combustion Engines 13

General remarks and engine classification
Combustion process in CI engines

th e c o m b u stio np ro c ess sta rts a fter liq u id fu elis injec ted , a nd a ir is a t

tem p era tu re a nd p ressu re h ig h eno u g h fo r a u to -ig nitio n;

th ere is n o prem ixin g o f a ir a n d fu el: th e fu elm u stfirstva p o rize a nd

d iffu se th ro u g h th e su rro u nd ing a ir, ino rd er to c rea te a lo c a lly
sto ic h io m etric a ir/fu elm ix tu re th a tc a nig nite sp o nta neo u sly
(d iffu siv e c o m b u st io n );

t h e o v era lla ir/fu elm ixt u re c a n b e lea n (c o m b u stio nis b a sed o na u to -

ig nitio nra th er th a nfla m e p ro p a g a tio n);

th e c o m b u st io n pro c essisc o n t ro lled b o t h b y ph y sic a l(fu el

va p o riza tio na nd d iffu sio n) a n d c h em ic a lpa ra m et ers(rea c tio nra tes):
h enc e itis slo w er th a ninsp a rk ig nitio neng ines a nd th e id ea l
rep resenta tio nis a c o nsta nt-p ressu re inth e D iesel c y c le.

Im a g es: (rig h t) c o nc ep tu a l sc h em a tic o fc o nventio na l d iesel c o m b u stio n, fro m J o h nE . D ec , A d v a n c ed c o m pressio n -ig n it io n en g in es u n d erst a n d in g t h e in -
c y lin d er pro c esses, P ro c eed ing s o fth e C o m b u stio nInstitu te, 3 2 (2 0 0 9 ) 2 7 2 7 -2 7 4 2 ; (b o tto m ) visib le fla m e im a g es a tsevera l c ra nk a ng les a t1 5 0 0 rp m , fro m
M a nc a ru so , Va g liec o , A n experim en t a lc o m pa riso n o f n -H ept a n e, RM E a n d d ieselfu elo n c o m b u st io n c h a ra c t erist ic sin a c o m pressio n ig n it io n en g in e, F u el
P ro c essing T ec h no lo g y 1 0 7 (2 0 1 3 ) 4 4 -4 9 .

Internal Combustion Engines 14

General remarks and engine classification
Comparison between SI and CI engines

CI engine limitations:

heavier weight, d u e to h ig h er c o m p ressio nra tio s nec essa ry to rea c h p ressu res a nd tem p era tu res
req u ired fo r fu ela u to -ig nitio n;

lower specific power (w ith referenc e to eng ine d isp la c em ent), a nd c o nseq u ently h ig h er fo o tp rint
fo r th e sa m e p o w er, d u e to lo w er ro ta tio na lsp eed ;

higher noise level, b ec a u se o fth e d ifferentna tu re o fth e c o m b u stio np ro c ess.

CI engine advantages:

higher overall efficiency, th a nk s to h ig h er c o m p ressio nra tio s, w h ic h inS I eng ines a re lim ited in
o rd er to a vo id c o m b u stio na no m a lies (k n o c k in g );

better part-load performance, th a nk s to th e d ifferentp o w er c o ntro lsy stem (no need to th ro ttle a ir
inth e inta k e m a nifo ld : p a rtia liza tio nis o b ta ined sim p ly th ro u g h th e c o ntro lo fth e to ta la m o u nto f
fu elinjec ted );

lower quality fuel required (eventh o u g h em issio nreg u la tio ns h a ve inc rea sed m a nu fa c tu re
c o sts).

Internal Combustion Engines 15

General remarks and engine classification
Comparison between 4S and 2S engines

2S engine limitations:

lower efficiency, b ec a u se w o rk is no td elivered d u ring th e w h o le ex p a nsio nstro k e, b u to nly

d u ring th e firstp a rto fit, b efo re ex h a u stp o rts a re u nc o vered to a llo w ex h a u stg a s b lo w d o w na nd
sc a veng ing ;

worse exchange of working fluid -> higher pollutant emissions;

higher thermal and mechanical stresses, b ec a u se every stro k e (c o m p ressio na nd ex p a nsio n) is

m a rk ed b y h ig h p ressu res a nd tem p era tu res, w h ile in4 S eng ines tw o stro k es o u to ffo u r a re
d ed ic a ted to th e g a s ex c h a ng e p ro c ess (a ir ind u c tio na nd ex h a u stg a s ex p u lsio n), w h ic h ta k es
p la c e a tlo w p ressu res a nd tem p era tu res.

2S engine advantages:

higher specific power: th eo retic a lly d o u b le th a n4 S eng ines, b ec a u se in2 S eng ines th ere is a
p o w er stro k e a tevery c ra nk sh a ftrevo lu tio n; inp ra c tic e, sp ec ific p o w er is o nly a b o u t5 0 60 %
h ig h er d u e to w o rse g a s ex c h a ng e p ro c ess;

simpler construction, b ec a u se po rt so r a u to m a tic va lves c a nb e u sed to c o ntro la ir inta k e a nd

ex h a u std isc h a rg e, ra th er th a nc a m -c o ntro lled va lves nec essa ry in4 S eng ines;

more uniform torque, inp a rtic u la r fo r lo w -p o w er eng ines, b ec a u se a u sefu lw o rk p h a se ta k es

p la c e fo r every c ra nk sh a ftrevo lu tio n.

Internal Combustion Engines 16

Operating parameters
Ideal thermodynamic cycles
Constant-volume Constant-pressure Limited-pressure
Otto Diesel Sabath

Thermodynamic processes Ideal cycles parameters

1 -2 A d ia b a tic c o m p ressio n
Vo lu m etric c o m p ressio nra tio :
2 -3 H ea tinp u t:
O tto : c o nsta ntvo lu m e H ea tinp u tra tio a tc o nsta ntvo lu m e:
D iesel: c o nsta ntp ressu re
H ea tinp u tra tio a tc o nsta ntp ressu re:
S a b a th : m ix ed (iso c h o ric 2 -3 , iso b a ric 3 -3 )
3 -4 A d ia b a tic ex p a nsio n
4 -1 C o nsta ntvo lu m e h ea trejec tio n
Im a g e so u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1

Internal Combustion Engines 17

Operating parameters
Ideal cycle analysis

H ea tinp u t:

Rejec ted h ea t:

C y c le effic ienc y :

Reversib le a d ia b a tic c o m p ressio n:

Iso c h o ric h ea tinp u t:

Iso b a ric h ea tinp u t:

Reversib le a d ia b a tic ex p a nsio n:

Internal Combustion Engines 18

Operating parameters
Ideal cycle efficiency

S a b a th c y c le effic ienc y :

O tto c y c le effic ienc y :

D iesel c y c le effic ienc y :

Id ea lc y c le effic ienc y :

depends on fluid properties though the ratio of specific

heats

increases with volumetric compression ratio ,

b ec a u se itinc rea ses th e a vera g e tem p era tu re o fh ea tinp u t

decreases as the ratio increases

Internal Combustion Engines 19

Operating parameters
Fuel/air cycle efficiency

Ino rd er to ta k e into a c c o u ntth e rea l

th erm o d y na m ic b eh a vio r o fth e w o rk ing flu id ,
a fuel/air cycle is d efined . Its c h a ra c teristic s a re:

a ir a nd c o m b u stio np ro d u c ts a re p erfec tg a ses,

w ith sp ec ific h ea t( , ) a nd sp ec ific h ea t
ra tio d ep end ento ntem p era tu re;

th e c o m b u stio np ro c ess is c o m p lete a nd

insta nta neo u s;

no h ea ttra nsfer ta k es p la c e w ith eng ine w a lls;

reversib le c o m p ressio na nd ex p a nsio n.

T h e fuel/air cycle efficiency (o r ) is

th u s d efined a s th e ra tio b etw eenth e w o rk o u tp u t
o fsu c h a c y c le a nd its h ea tinp u t:

T h e p lo to n th e rig h tsh o w s th e influ enc e o fvo lu m etric c o m p ressio n ra tio

o nfu el/a ir c y c le effic ienc y fo r d ifferenteq u iva lenc e ra tio s
(d efined la ter a s ), in th e c a se o fa c o nsta nt-vo lu m e (O tto ) c y c le.
is th e a b so lu te h u m id ity ; th e fra c tio n o fex h a u stg a s resid u a ls.
Im a g e so u rc e: R. S to ne, In t ro d u c t io n t o In t ern a lC o m b u st io n E n g in es, P a lg ra ve M a c m illa n, 2 0 1 2

Internal Combustion Engines 20

Operating parameters
Air/fuel cycle vs real thermodynamic cycle

F u rth er d ifferenc es b etw eena ir/fu elc y c le a nd rea lc y c le a re d u e to :

Finite combustion time: th e c o m b u stio np ro c ess u su a lly la sts a tlea st5 0 c ra nk a ng le d eg rees

Incomplete combustion and chemical dissociation

Heat transfer b etw eenb u rned g a ses a nd c y lind er w a lls a nd b etw eena ir a nd inta k e m a nifo ld

Crevice effects and leakage

Exhaust blowdown loss d u e to a ntic ip a ted o p ening o fex h a u stva lve

Pressure losses a tinta k e a nd ex h a u stva lves: inna tu ra lly a sp ira ted eng ines, th is m ea ns in
p a rtic u la r th a tw o rk m u stb e d o ne b y th e p isto no nth e g a s d u ring th e inta k e a nd th e ex h a u st
p ro c esses (pumping work)

Finite valve opening and closing time

T h e rea l w o rk ing c y c le is d efined a s ind ic a ted c y c le (see th e fo llo w ing slid e), so a n
indicated thermodynamic efficiency m a y b e d efined a s th e ra tio o fth e a c tu a lw o rk o u tp u ta nd th e
w o rk o u tp u to fa c o rresp o nd ing fu el/a ir c y c le:

Internal Combustion Engines 21

Operating parameters
Indicated cycle
T h e rea lw o rk ing c y c le a nd eng ine p erfo rm a nc e a re
m ea su red w ith a d y na m o m eter: th e eng ine is c la m p ed o n
a testb ed a nd th e sh a ftis c o nnec ted to th e d y na m o m eter
ro to r, w h ic h is c o u p led to th e sta to r b y elec tro m a g netic ,
h y d ra u lic o r m ec h a nic a l(fric tio n) m ea ns.

T h e fo rc e req u ired to b a la nc e th e sta to r g ives th e

eng ine to rq u e:

E ng ine p o w er is th eng ivenb y th e p ro d u c to fto rq u e a nd

ro ta tio na lsp eed

T h is is th e u sa b le p o w er th a tis d elivered b y th e eng ine to

th e lo a d , w h ic h is inth is c a se a b ra k e (brake power):
h enc e th e su ffix b .

B esid es, p ressu re insid e th e eng ine is m ea su red b y

senso rs c a lled indicators (h enc e th e d efinitio no f
indicated cycle) a s a fu nc tio no fc ra nk a ng le a nd ,
c o nseq u ently , c y lind er vo lu m e .

Internal Combustion Engines 22

Operating parameters
Real (indicated) cycle
Pressure vs. crank angle ( - ) diagram
C o m p ressio n E x p a nsio n
E x h a u st
Inta k e
0 Inta k e va lve o p ening (IVO )

1 Inta k e va lve c lo sing (IVC )

IVO

IVC
E VO

E VC
* S ta rto fc o m b u stio n(S O C )

4 E x h a u stva lve o p ening (E VO )

6 E x h a u stva lve c lo sing (E VC )

TD C BD C TD C BD C TD C

Indicated cycle
(p ressu re vs c y lind er vo lu m e d ia g ra m , - )

L eft: ind ic a ted c y c le o fa 4 S , S I eng ine

Rig h t: ind ic a ted c y c le o fa 4 S , C I eng ine

Im a g e so u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1

Internal Combustion Engines 23

Operating parameters
Indicated cycle
Ind ic a ted w o rk p er c y c le (p er c y lind er) B ra k e m ea neffec tive p ressu re (bmep)

bmep is th e w o rk a va ila b le p er c y c le a nd u nit

Ind ic a ted m ea neffec tive p ressu re (imep) d isp la c em ent

F ric tio nm ea neffec tive p ressu re (fmep)

Ind ic a ted fu elc o nversio neffic ienc y

fmep is h ere d efined to inc lu d e w o rk sp entto

d rive a c c esso ries
Ind ic a ted c y c le p o w er o u tp u t
M ec h a nic a lb a la nc e interm s o fp o w er

M ec h a nic a leffic ienc y

M ec h a nic a lb a la nc e interm s o feffec tive
p ressu res:

is th e fra c tio no fth e eng ine p o w er need ed

to d rive a c c esso ries a nd o verc o m e fric tio n

Internal Combustion Engines 24

Operating parameters
Overall fuel conversion efficiency and specific consumption

O vera llfuel conversion efficiency m u stta k e into a c c o u ntenerg y lo sses d u e to fric tio na nd w o rk
nec essa ry to d rive a c c esso ries, so itis d efined interm s o fb ra k e p o w er:

Itis th erefo re th e p ro d u c to find ic a ted fu elc o nversio neffic ienc y a nd m ec h a nic a leffic ienc y :

T h e specific fuel consumption is, b y d efinitio n, th e fu elm a ss flo w ra te th a tm u stb e b u rned inth e
eng ine to o b ta ina u nitp o w er o u tp u t: th u s, itis g ivenb y th e inverse o fth e p ro d u c to ffu elc o nversio n
effic ienc y a nd h ea ting va lu e. Itis u su a lly ex p ressed in[g /k W h ] :

Internal Combustion Engines 25

Operating parameters
Volumetric efficiency

Vo lu m etric effic ienc y is u sed to m ea su re th e effec tiveness o fa n eng ines ind u c tio np ro c ess, a nd is
d efined a s th e m a ss o fa ir th a teffec tively flo w s into th e inta k e sy stem d ivid ed b y th e m a ss o fa ir
th a tw o u ld fill a vo lu m e eq u a lto th e d isp la c em ent a tinleta ir c o nd itio ns (inleta ir d ensity ):

Inna tu ra lly a sp ira ted eng ines vo lu m etric effic ienc y is lo w er th a n1 b ec a u se o fp ressu re lo sses inth e
inta k e sy stem (d istrib u ted lo sses inth e inta k e m a nifo ld a nd c o nc entra ted lo sses inth e inta k e va lve).
Typical maximum values are in the range 8090% for SI engines, and somewhat higher in CI
engines (b ec a u se th ere a re no th ro ttling lo sses, w h ic h inso m e m ea su re a re a lw a y s p resentinS I
eng ines evena tfu ll lo a d ).

Insu p erc h a rg ed a nd tu rb o c h a rg ed eng ines inleta ir d ensity is h ig h er th a nth e a m b ientva lu e, so

vo lu m etric effic ienc y is h ig h er th a n1 (a nd fo r th is rea so nitis no tto ta lly a p p ro p ria te to ta lk a b o u t
effic ienc y in th is c a se).

Inleta ir m a ss flo w ra te c a nb e ex p ressed a s fo llo w s:

Internal Combustion Engines 26

Operating parameters
Air/fuel ratio, torque and power output

A no b vio u sly im p o rta ntp a ra m eter fo r th e T h e energ y inp u tinto th e sy stem p er u nittim e
c o m b u stio np ro c ess is th e air/fuel ratio : c a nth u s b e ex p ressed a s:

T h e fuel/air equivalence ratio is a neven Power output:

m o re info rm a tive p a ra m eter fo r d efining
m ix tu re c o m p o sitio n, b ec a u se itc o m p a res th e
sto ic h io m etric a ir/fu elra tio to th e a c tu a lo ne:
Brake mean effective pressure

Its inverse is th e relative air/fuel ratio :

Torque is p ro p o rtio na lto b m ep a nd eng ine
d isp la c em ent:

A c c o rd ing to th ese d efinitio ns:

fo r fu el-lea nm ix tu res: ,

fo r sto ic h io m etric m ix tu res: ,

fo r fu el-ric h m ix tu res: ,

Internal Combustion Engines 27

Operating parameters
Thermal energy balance

F u nd a m enta lenerg y b a la nc e eq u a tio n:

H ea tflu x a b so rb ed b y refrig era ting flu id a nd lu b ric a tio no il:

H ea tflu x rejec ted a s sensib le h ea tinth e ex h a u stg a ses:

O th er fo rm s o fh ea td issip a tio n( ):

inc o m p lete c o m b u stio n;

ra d ia tio n.

Spark Igni
ti
on Engi
nes Compressi
on Igni
ti
on Engi
nes

20 30% 28 40%

16 33% 15 37%

30 50% 24 40%

4 20% 4 12%

S o u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1

Internal Combustion Engines 28

Operating parameters
Influence of air/fuel ratio on efficiencies in SI engines

Fuel/air cycle efficiency : fo r fu el-ric h m ix tu res ( ,

) a fra c tio no fth e fu elc a nno tb u rn, so itd ec rea ses a lm o st
linea rly w ith th e a ir/fu elra tio , fo r fu el-lea nm ix tu res, ( ,
), th ere is a slig h tinc rea se d u e to h ig h er d ilu tio n

Indicated thermodynamic efficiency : itis h ig h ly d ep end ent

o na ir/fu elra tio b ec a u se o fits influ enc e o nrea c tio nsp eed . F o r
a ir/fu elra tio s m a rk ed ly h ig h er o r lo w er th a nth e sto ic h io m etric
va lu e th e sp eed o fth e c h em ic a lrea c tio ns d ec rea ses
sig nific a ntly , b ring ing a b o u th ig h er energ y lo sses a nd th erefo re
effic ienc y lo sses. E q u iva lenc e ra tio
M a x im u m rea c tio nsp eed s a re o b ta ined w ith slig h tly ric h
m ix tu res ( ); rea c tio ns a re effec tively fro zen fo r
o r .

F ric tio nm ea neffec tive p ressu re d o es no td ep end o na ir/fu el

ra tio : mechanical efficiency th u s d ep end s o na ir/fu elra tio o nly
th ro u g h its influ enc e o nim ep , a nd th erefo re itva ries a s th e
ind ic a ted effic ienc y d o es
Ric h m ix tu re L ea nm ix tu re
S p ec ific p o w er o u tp u t[k W /d m 3 ]
S p ec ific fu elc o nsu m p tio n[g /M J ]

(b ec a u se a nd ).
O vera llfu elc o nversio neffic ienc y [%]

A ir/fu elra tio

Im a g e so u rc e (b o tto m ): G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6

Internal Combustion Engines 30

Operating parameters
Influence of air/fuel ratio on efficiencies in CI engines

S inc e C I eng ines w o rk ex c lu sively w ith lea nm ix tu res

( ), inc rea sing a ir/fu elra tio s is a lw a y s b enefic ia l
w ith referenc e to d isso c ia tio na nd inc o m p lete
c o m b u stio n, so th e indicated thermodynamic
efficiency inc rea ses.

T h e d ifferentc o m b u stio nm ec h a nism m a k es th e effec ts

rela ted to rea c tio nsp eed s m u c h less im p o rta nt.
O nly w ith ex trem ely lea nm ix tu res th e ind ic a ted
th erm o d y na m ic effic ienc y d ro p s sig nific a ntly .

Reg a rd ing th e influ enc e o fa ir/fu elra tio o nm ec h a nic a l

effic ienc y , th e sa m e c o nsid era tio ns a p p ly to C I a nd S I
eng ines, b u tth e m ec h a nic a leffic ienc y c u rve fo r C I
eng ines is d ifferentth a nfo r S I eng ine b ec a u se im ep
b eh a ves d ifferently .

Internal Combustion Engines 31

Operating parameters
Typical design and operating data for internal combustion engines

S o u rc e: J .B . H ey w o o d , In t ern a lC o m b u st io n E n g in e F u n d a m en t a ls, M c G ra w -H ill, N ew Y o rk , 1 9 88.

Internal Combustion Engines 32

Air intake
Polar valve timing diagram

Intake Valve

Intake valve opens (IVO) before TDC ino rd er to h a ve th e va lve c o m p letely o p enw h enth e
ind u c tio nstro k e b eg ins, so a s to m a x im ize a ir ind u c tio ninto th e c y lind er.

Intake valve close (IVC) after BDC ino rd er to ta k e a d va nta g e o fk inetic energ y o fex h a u stg a ses in
th e inta k e m a nifo ld , so a s to a c h ieve a g o o d a ir ind u c tio n, th a nk s to inertia leffec ts, evena fter B D C .

Im a g e so u rc es:
(left) R.N. Brady, Internal Combustion (Gasoline and Diesel) Engines, In: Encyclopedia of Energy, Elsevier, New York, 2004, Pages 515-528, ISBN 9780121764807.
(rig h t) A. Paul, P.K. Bose, R. S. Panua, R. Banerjee, An experimental investigation of performance-emission trade off of a CI engine fueled by dieselcompressed natural gas (CNG) combination and
dieselethanol blends with CNG enrichment, Energy, Volume 55, 15 June 2013, Pages 787-802, ISSN 0360-5442, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.04.002.

Internal Combustion Engines 33

Air intake
Polar valve timing diagram

Exhaust Valve

Exhaust Valve Closes (EVC) after TDC ino rd er to ta k e a d va nta g e o fth e inertia o fth e ex h a u st
g a ses, w h ic h d ra w evenm o re fresh a ir into th e c y lind er th a nk s to th e overlap period (tim e w h ile
inta k e a nd ex h a u stva lve a re sim u lta neo u sly o p en).

Exhaust Valve Opens (EVO) before BDC so a s to d isc h a rg e initia lly th e b u rned g a ses d u e to th e
p ressu re d ifferenc e b etw eenth e c y lind er a nd th e ex h a u stsy stem (blowdown); a fter B D C th e
c y lind er is sc a veng ed b y th e p isto na s itm o ves to w a rd T D C (displacement p ro c ess).
A d va nc ed E VO a llo w s to red u c e p u m p ing w o rk (p ressu re d ec rea ses inth e c y lind er) b u tita lso
red u c es th e p o w er stro k e, so a no p tim u m va lu e ex ists a s a c o m p ro m ise b etw eenth ese effec ts.

Im a g e so u rc es:
(left) R.N. Brady, Internal Combustion (Gasoline and Diesel) Engines, In: Encyclopedia of Energy, Elsevier, New York, 2004, Pages 515-528, ISBN 9780121764807.
(rig h t) A. Paul, P.K. Bose, R. S. Panua, R. Banerjee, An experimental investigation of performance-emission trade off of a CI engine fueled by dieselcompressed natural gas (CNG) combination and
dieselethanol blends with CNG enrichment, Energy, Volume 55, 15 June 2013, Pages 787-802, ISSN 0360-5442, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.04.002.

Internal Combustion Engines 34

Air intake
Intake and exhaust valves

Vo lu m etric effic ienc y inc rea ses a s th e c ro ss-sec tio n

a va ila b le to ind u c ed a ir a nd to ex h a u stg a ses
inc rea ses.

T h e influ enc e o finta k e c ro ss-sec tio nis m u c h m o re

p ro no u nc ed th a nth a to fth e ex h a u stc ro ss-sec tio n, b y
a fa c to r eq u a lto (b ec a u se ita ffec ts th e flu id filling
th e w h o le c y lind er, a nd no to nly th e d ea d vo lu m e).

Ino rd er to inc rea se inta k e a nd ex h a u stc ro ss-sec tio ns,

itis o b vio u sly b etter to a d o p tmultivalve systems
ra th er th a ninc rea sing th e size o fa sing le va lve.

T h erefo re th e fo llo w ing sy stem s a re c o m m o nly u sed :

3 va lves (2 inta k e a nd 1 ex h a u st)
4 va lves (2 inta k e a nd 2 ex h a u st)
5 va lves (3 inta k e a nd 2 ex h a u st)
(a ny w a y , ex h a u stva lves a re u su a lly sm a ller)

Im a g e so u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1

Internal Combustion Engines 35

Air intake
Phenomena influencing gas exchange processes

Inna tu ra lly a sp ira ted eng ines, th e vo lu m etric effic ienc y is

lo w er th a n1 b ec a u se o fsevera lp h eno m ena ta k ing p la c e
inth e g a s ex c h a ng e p ro c ess. T h e m o stim p o rta nta re:

1. Exhaust gas expansion: a tth e end o fth e ex h a u st

stro k e, th e d ea d vo lu m e is filled w ith ex h a u stg a ses,
w h o se p ressu re is h ig h er th a nth e a tm o sp h eric p ressu re Inta k e E x h a u st

( ): th ese g a ses ex p a nd a s th e ind u c tio np ro c ess

b eg ins a nd th e p ressu re inth e c y lind er d ec rea ses, a nd
o c c u p y a vo lu m e la rg er th a nth e d ea d vo lu m e.

2. Pressure losses through the intake valve: w h enth e

ind u c tio nstro k e end s, p ressu re insid e th e c y lind er is P ressu re [k P a ]
lo w er th a na tm o sp h eric p ressu re ( ) b ec a u se o f
energ y lo sses ta k ing p la c e a s th e fresh a ir (o r m ix tu re)
flo w s th ro u g h th e va lve, so th e a ir d ensity is a lso lo w er
th a na tm o sp h eric a ir d ensity ( ). Vo lu m es

3. Heat exchanges b etw eeneng ine w a lls a nd ind u c ed a ir

a lso m a k e a irs d ensity lo w er th a n a tm o sp h eric d ensity .

Im a g e so u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6

Internal Combustion Engines 36

Air intake
Volumetric efficiency: quasi-static effects
F u elva p o r (a nd a lso w a ter va p o r) red u c es th e air partial pressure
b elo w th e m ix tu re p ressu re. If is th e m ix tu re p ressu re (a tth e
b eg inning o fth e c o m p ressio nstro k e), th en
(a -> a ir, f-> fu el, w -> w a ter). P a rtia lp ressu re o fa ir is g ivenb y :

This effect can be quite large for gaseous fuels.

Fuel vaporization: th e m ix tu re tem p era tu re d ec rea ses a s liq u id fu el is

va p o rized . T h e tem p era tu re d ifferenc e th a to c c u rs a fter eva p o ra tio nis:

w ith : fra c tio no ffu eleva p o ra ted ; enth a lp y o fva p o riza tio n.
F o r iso o c ta ne, a t , ; fo r a lc o h o ls, g iventh eir la rg e
enth a lp y o fva p o riza tio n, th e effec tc a nb e q u ite la rg e (
fo r m eth a no l) a nd c o m p ensa te fo r th e red u c tio nina ir p a rtia lp ressu re.

A s th e pressure in the exhaust manifold increases, th e vo lu m e

o c c u p ied b y th e resid u a l g a s inth e c y lind er a lso inc rea ses, so th e
volumetric efficiency decreases.
Im a g e so u rc e: J .B . H ey w o o d , In t ern a lC o m b u st io n E n g in e F u n d a m en t a ls, M c G ra w -H ill, N ew Y o rk , 1 9 88.

Internal Combustion Engines 37

Air intake
Volumetric efficiency: influence of ambient and refrigerant temperature

Vo lu m etric effic ienc y inc rea ses w ith a m b ient

tem p era tu re (a c c o rd ing to a p o w er ),
b ec a u se less h ea tis ex c h a ng ed b etw een
m ix tu re a nd w a lls. Ina ny c a se, th e m a ss o f
ind u c ed a ir d ec rea ses a s a m b ient
tem p era tu re inc rea ses:

Vo lu m etric effic ienc y ra tio

A m b ienttem p era tu re [K ]
Refrig era nttem p era tu re a ffec ts w a ll
tem p era tu re a nd th u s h ea ttra nsfer d u ring
th e g a s ex c h a ng e p ro c ess: th erefo re,
vo lu m etric effic ienc y slig h tly inc rea ses a s
refrig era nttem p era tu re d ec rea ses.
Vo lu m etric effic ienc y ra tio

Im a g e so u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6 Refrig era nttem p era tu re [K ]

Internal Combustion Engines 38

Air intake
Volumetric efficiency: influence of rotational speed

Vo lu m etric lo sses d u e to charge heating

d ec rea se a s (a nd th erefo re ) inc rea ses
b ec a u se th e tim e a va ila b le fo r h ea tex c h a ng e
b etw eenflu id a nd eng ine w a lls a lso d ec rea ses.

T h e effec to ffriction, b o th a tth e inta k e a nd a t

th e ex h a u st, is p ro p o rtio na lto a tlo w -m ed iu m
sp eed s, a nd inc rea ses evenm o re stro ng ly w ith
a th ig h sp eed s, w h enso nic flo w c o nd itio ns
(choking) a re rea c h ed a tth e inta k e va lve.

Backflow: b ec a u se th e inletva lve c lo ses a fter

th e sta rto fth e c o m p ressio nstro k e, a reverse
flo w o ffresh c h a rg e fro m th e c y lind er b a c k into
th e inta k e c a no c c u r a s th e p isto nm o ves
to w a rd T D C . T h is flo w is la rg er a tlo w er sp eed s.

Dynamic effects: inertial effects a nd wave

effects (tuning).

Im a g e so u rc e: J .B . H ey w o o d , In t ern a lC o m b u st io n E n g in e F u n d a m en t a ls, M c G ra w -H ill, N ew Y o rk , 1 9 88.

Internal Combustion Engines 39

Air intake
Volumetric efficiency: effect of valve timing

Early Exhaust Valve Opening (EEVO)

Ifth e ex h a u stva lve c lo ses m u c h ea rlier th a nB D C , E VO p o int
(d eg rees b efo re B D C )
energ y lo sses fo r inc o m p lete ex p a nsio ninc rea se,
b u tth e b lo w d o w np ro c ess is m o re effec tive, th u s
red u c ing th e w o rk inth e ex h a u ststro k e.
T h erefo re, a c o m p ro m ise va lu e m u stb e so u g h t.

P ressu re [M P a ]
TD C BDC

C y lind er vo lu m e
[rp m ]
Late Intake Valve Closing (LIVC)
A s th e d ifferenc e b etw eenB D C a nd inta k e va lve
c lo sing inc rea ses, th e vo lu m etric effic ienc y vs
eng ine sp eed c u rve sh ifts to w a rd s h ig h er ro ta tio na l
IVC p o int
sp eed s. W ith fix ed va lve tim ing , th is a lso m ea ns (d eg rees a fter B D C )

th a tb a c k flo w inc rea ses a tlo w sp eed s.

Vo lu m etric effic ienc y

Im a g e so u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6 E ng ine sp eed [rp s]

Internal Combustion Engines 40

Air intake
Volumetric efficiency: inertial effect
T h e p ressu re inth e inletm a nifo ld va ries d u ring ea c h c y lind ers
inta k e p ro c ess d u e to th e p isto nvelo c ity va ria tio n, a nd th e u nstea d y
g a s-flo w effec ts th a tresu ltfro m th ese g eo m etric va ria tio n.
A th ig h er eng ine sp eed s, th e inertia o fth e g a s a s th e inta k e va lve is
c lo sing inc rea ses th e p ressu re in th e inletp o rta nd c o ntinu es th e
c h a rg ing p ro c ess a s th e p isto nslo w s d o w na ro u nd B D C a nd sta rts
th e c o m p ressio nstro k e. T h e inletva lve is c lo sed so m e 4 0 to 60
a fter B D C , inp a rtto ta k e a d va nta g e o fth is ra m p h eno m eno n.

T h e flu id filling inta k e m a nifo ld a nd c y lind er c a nb e a p p ro x im a ted a s

a 1 -d eg ree o ffreed o m o sc illa to r (H elm h o ltz reso na to r), w h o se
na tu ra lfreq u enc y is:

P ressu re o sc illa tio ns inc rea se vo lu m etric effic ienc y w h enth e inta k e
sy stem s na tu ra l freq u enc y is tw ic e th e ro ta tio na l sp eed : .
T h erefo re, g iventh e g eo m etry o fth e inta k e sy stem , th e ro ta tio na l
sp eed th a tm a x im izes vo lu m etric effic ienc y is:
Vo lu m etric effic ienc y ra tio

Im a g e so u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6 F req u enc y ra tio

Internal Combustion Engines 41

Air intake
Volumetric efficiency: wave effects (tuning)
P ressu re o sc illa tio ns d u e to w a ve p ro p a g a tio ninth e
inta k e sy stem influ enc e th e g a s ex c h a ng e p ro c ess. Resu lting p ressu re

Reflec ted
W h enth e inta k e va lve o p ens, a ra refa c tio nw a ve w a ve

p ro p a g a tes u p strea m ; itis th enreflec ted b a c k a s a TD C BDC

E IVO L IVC
p ressu re w a ve a tth e firstd isc o ntinu ity . W ith o u treflec tio n

P ressu re [M P a ]
Ifth e reflec ted w a ve rea c h es th e inta k e va lve inth e
sec o nd h a lfo fth e ind u c tio np h a se (a b o u t9 0 a fter T D C ),
p ressu re a tth e va lve inc rea ses ju sta s th e inta k e stro k e is
a lm o stc o m p lete, a id ing th e ind u c tio np ro c ess.
C ra nk sh a fta ng le [d eg ]
Inth is c a se th e inta k e sy stem is sa id to b e t u n ed .

T h e tim e req u ired fo r a w a ve to tra vela lo ng th e sy stem is

, w h ic h , interm s o fc ra nk sh a fta ng le, is:

T h e sy stem is tu ned if:

G ivena c tu a lva lu es o fso u nd sp eed , a ninta k e sy stem is

u su a lly tu ned a th ig h ro ta tio na l sp eed s; itc o u ld a lso b e
tu ned a trela tively lo w sp eed s w ith very lo ng p ip es.

Im a g e so u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6

Internal Combustion Engines 42

Air intake
Supercharging and turbocharging: layouts

a ) M ec h a nic a lsu p erc h a rg ing

b ) T u rb o c h a rg ing

c ) E ng ine-d rivenc o m p resso r a nd tu rb o c h a rg er

d ) T w o -sta g e tu rb o c h a rg ing

e) T u rb o c h a rg ing w ith tu rb o c o m p o u nd ing

f) T u rb o c h a rg er w ith interc o o ler

C C o m p resso r

E E ng ine

I Interc o o ler

T T u rb ine

Im a g e so u rc e: J .B . H ey w o o d , In t ern a lC o m b u st io n E n g in e F u n d a m en t a ls, M c G ra w -H ill, N ew Y o rk , 1 9 88

Internal Combustion Engines 43

Air intake
Supercharging: Roots compressor (positive displacement)

Im a g e so u rc e:
(rig h t) R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1
(left) P .W .W etzel, J .P .T ru d ea u , N ew su perc h a rg er fo r d o w n sized E n g in es, M T Zw o rld w id e, F eb ru a ry 2 0 1 3

Internal Combustion Engines 44

Air intake
Turbocharger

Im a g e so u rc e: E . C h eb li et a l., D ev elo pm en t o f a n exh a u st -g a st u rb o c h a rg er fo r H D D a im ler C V en g in es, M T ZW o rld w id e, F eb ru a ry 2 0 1 3

Internal Combustion Engines 45

Air intake
Turbocharging with intercooler

Im a g e so u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1

Internal Combustion Engines 46

Air intake
Turbocharging

A d ia b a tic ex p a nsio n

p ressu re
TD C BDC

Vo lu m e

T u rb o c h a rg ing is b a sed o nth e resid u a lenerg y o fth e ex h a u stg a ses

B a c k p ressu re inc rea ses a s ex h a u stg a ses flo w th ro u g h th e tu rb ine

A rea 2 -3 -4 -5 rep resents th e energ y rela ted to a sp o nta neo u s d isc h a rg e ina tm o sp h ere, a nd itis th e
m a x im u m energ y th a tc o u ld th eo retic a lly b e ex tra c ted fro m th e ex h a u stg a ses ina nid ea lim p u lse
la y o u t(w h ere ea c h c y lind er is d irec tly c o nnec ted to th e tu rb ine inlet)

Ina c o nsta ntp ressu re sy stem , ea c h c y lind er d isc h a rg es to a nex h a u stm a nifo ld th a tis la rg e eno u g h
to d a m p enp ressu re o sc illa tio ns; k inetic energ y is th enlo stw h ile ex h a u stg a ses ex p a nd to p ressu re
(2 -3 p ro c ess), w ith a n inc rea se into ta lenth a lp y a nd tem p era tu re
Im a g e so u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6

Internal Combustion Engines 47

Air intake
Supercharging vs. turbocharging

F o r p o sitive d isp la c em entc o m p resso rs, p ressu re ra tio is a lm o stind ep end ento n th e eng ines
ro ta tio na lsp eed : th erefo re, g o o d p erfo rm a nc es c a nb e a c h ieved evena tlo w ro ta tio na lsp eed s a nd
w h ena c c elera ting fro m lo w sp eed s.

T h e tu rb o c h a rg er o nth e o th er h a nd p ro vid es inc rea sing p ressu re ra tio s a s th e eng ine sp eed
inc rea ses: inletp ressu re m a y b e eith er insu ffic ienta tlo w sp eed s o r to o h ig h a th ig h sp eed s.

T h e tu rb o c h a rg er is m o re relia b le; insta lla tio na nd m a intena nc e a re ea sier.

T h e tu rb o c h a rg er w eig h s less a nd is sm a ller th a na su p erc h a rg er, o th er th ing s b eing eq u a l

(inp a rtic u la r, fo r th e sa m e p ressu re ra tio a nd a ir flo w ra te).

P ressu re ra tio is a p p ro x im a tely u p to 3 fo r a tu rb o c h a rg er a nd u p to 2 fo r a Ro o ts c o m p resso r.

D u ring tra nsientresp o nse, tu rb o c h a rg ers d o no tresp o nd a s fa st

a s m ec h a nic a lly d rivenc o m p resso rs (t u rb o la g ), d u e to th e tim e
need ed fo r th e ex h a u stsy stem a nd tu rb o c h a rg er to g enera te M ec h a nic a lly d riven
th e req u ired b o o st.
Inertia , fric tio n, a nd c o m p resso r lo a d a re th e p rim a ry c o ntrib u to rs T u rb o

N a tu ra lly A sp ira ted

T o rq u e

to tu rb o la g .
T h e m ec h a nic a lly d rivenc o m p resso r h a s a fa ster resp o nse
b ec a u se its ro ta tio na lsp eed is d irec tly c o u p led to th e eng ines sp eed .
Im a g e so u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1 T im e [s]

Internal Combustion Engines 48

Air intake
Turbocharging: applications

Spark Ignition engines:

T h e d eg ree o fsu p erc h a rg ing inS I eng ines is m a inly lim ited b y th e k no c k : su p erc h a rg ing red u c es
ig nitio nd ela y w h ic h inc rea ses th e k no c k ing tend enc y .

B efo re th e a d vento fd irec tinjec tio nsy stem s, tu rb o c h a rg ing req u ired a d ec rea se o fth e
c o m p ressio nra tio ino rd er to red u c e th e risk o fk no c k ing -> h ig h er sp ec ific fu elc o nsu m p tio n.

W ith th e a d vento fd irec tinjec tio nsy stem s a nd th e a va ila b ility o fb etter fu els (h ig h er o c ta ne
nu m b ers), tu rb o c h a rg ing c o u ld b e m o re ea sily a d o p ted , b ec a u se fu elva p o riza tio n, to g eth er w ith a
w id e u se o fc h a rg e c o o ling , a llo w s to a vo id th e need to red u c e c o m p ressio nra tio s.

Compression Ignition engines:

S inc e inC I eng ines th ere is no risk o fk no c k ing , su p erc h a rg ing is lim ited o nly b y th e m a x im u m
p erm issib le m ec h a nic a la nd th erm a llo a d s. Ind eed , su p erc h a rg ing h a s evena p o sitive influ enc e o n
th e c o m b u stio np ro c ess.

T h erefo re, tu rb o c h a rg ing is ex tensively u sed inC I eng ines, a nd itm a k es th eir p erfo rm a nc e rea c h
th e sa m e levelo fna tu ra lly a sp ira ted S I eng ines.

Internal Combustion Engines 49

Air intake
Turbocharging: exhaust gas by-pass valve
T u rb o c h a rg er

E x h a u stg a s

F resh a ir

T u rb ine D isc h a rg e Inlet

E ng ine

Bypass valve

T h e tu rb o c h a rg er is sized insu c h a w a y th a titc a n

p ro vid e m a x im u m su p erc h a rg ing p ressu re a t
4 0 5 0 % o fth e m a x im u m ro ta tio na lsp eed , ino rd er
to a c h ieve g o o d to rq u e o u tp u tevena tlo w sp eed s.

A th ig h ro ta tio na lsp eed s, th e ex c ess ex h a u st

g a ses a re d isc h a rg ed th ro u g h a bypass valve.

Im a g e so u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6

Internal Combustion Engines 5 0

Air intake
Turbocharging: variable geometry turbine

A s a na lterna tive, ino rd er to a c h ieve

g o o d p erfo rm a nc es o na w id e ra ng e
o fro ta tio na lsp eed s, a va ria b le-
g eo m etry tu rb ine c a nb e u sed , w h ic h
is eq u ip p ed w ith va ria b le-p itc h no zzle
b la d es.

Im a g e so u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6

Internal Combustion Engines 5 1

Fuel metering in SI engines
Requirements of a 4S, SI engine

Fuel volatility E q u iva lenc e ra tio

F u elm u stb e p rem ix ed w ith a ir, b efo re th e

sp a rk sta rts th e c o m b u stio np ro c ess.

Air/fuel ratio
T h e m etering sy stem m u stp ro vid e th e
a p p ro p ria te q u a ntity o ffu el, so a s to o b ta inth e
req u ired a ir/fu elra tio fo r every o p era ting p o int.

Ric h m ix tu re L ea nm ix tu re

S p ec ific p o w er o u tp u t[k W /d m 3 ]
S p ec ific fu elc o nsu m p tio n[g /M J ]

Mixture homogeneity
O vera llfu elc o nversio neffic ienc y [%]

T h e a ir/fu elm ix tu re m u stb e h o m o g eneo u s, in

A ir/fu elra tio
o rd er to b u rnfu elra p id ly a nd c o m p letely .

Im a g e so u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6

Internal Combustion Engines 5 2

Fuel metering in SI engines
Carburetor

1 . A ir filter

2 . C a rb u reto r

3 . T h ro ttle va lve

4 . Inta k e m a nifo ld

5 . F u elta nk

6. F u elfilter

7 .C a m

8. D ia p h ra g m p u m p

Im a g e so u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1

Internal Combustion Engines 5 3

Fuel metering in SI engines
Elementary carburetor

F u nd a m enta lc o m p o nents:

Venturi (convergent-divergent nozzle)

Inits th ro a tth e d ep ressio no rig ina ted b y th e
inleta ir flo w d ra w s fu el fro m its ta nk .
A ir
F u el P ressu re
eq u a lizing
Fuel discharge tube
p a ssa g e C o nnec ts th e fu elta nk to th e Ventu ri th ro a t.
F lo a t
F u el d isc h a rg e T h e fu elflo w is m etered b y a c a lib ra ted o rific e.
c h a m b er no zzle

Ventu ri Float chamber

th ro a t
T h e fu el levelis m a inta ined a ta c o nsta nt
h eig h tina flo a tc h a m b er: a p ressu re
eq u a lizing p a ssa g e m a k es th e p ressu re insid e
T h ro ttle th e flo a tc h a m b er eq u a lto a ir p ressu re a tth e
p la te
C a lib ra ted Ventu ri inlet. T h u s, h y d ro sta tic p ressu re o nth e
o rific e
c a lib ra ted o rific e d ep end s o nly o nth e flo w ra te
o fa ir.

Throttle valve
Itc o ntro ls a ir flo w ra te, a nd a s a c o nseq u enc e
p o w er o u tp u t, a c ting o nvo lu m etric effic ienc y .
Im a g e so u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6

Internal Combustion Engines 5 4

Fuel metering in SI engines
Carburetor vs. injection systems
Limits of carburetors Advantages of fuel injection

Itis d iffic u ltto c o ntro l p rec isely th e req u ired better control on air/fuel ratio, b o th interm s o f
air/fuel ratio ind ifferento p era ting c o nd itio ns p rec isio na nd rep ea ta b ility , ina llo p era ting
c o nd itio ns; more uniform distribution among
Pressure loss ina sp ira tio n
cylinders; c o nseq u ently , p o sitive influ enc e o n:
Itis d iffic u ltto c o ntro l its o p era tio nintransient sp ec ific fu el c o nsu m p tio n
conditions, d u e to th e inertia o fth e fu el m a ss p erfo rm a nc e
p o llu ta ntem issio ns
S ig nific a ntvariation of specific fuel
consumption w ith lo a d , p a rtic u la rly p ro no u nc ed better transient operation, b ec a u se o flo w er flu id
inc a se o ffreq u enttra nsiento p era ting c o nd itio ns vo lu m es inth e sy stem (lo w er flu id inertia )

It is necessary to heat the intake manifold in higher volumetric efficiency, th a nk s to lo w er

particular operating conditions, w ith th e p ressu re lo sses a nd no inta k e m a nifo ld h ea ting
c o nseq u entd ec rea se invo lu m etric effic ienc y , in
itm a k es p o ssib le to increase compression ratio,
o rd er to a vo id th a tfu el c o nd enses o neng ine w a lls
b ec a u se th e fu el/a ir m ix tu re h a s less tim e
Limited control on pollutant emissions inth e a va ila b le fo r a u to ig nitio n, o r a lterna tively to u se a
w h o le o p era ting ra ng e fu el w ith lo w er o c ta ne ra ting

Internal Combustion Engines 5 5

Fuel metering in SI engines
Classification of injection systems

Position of fuel injectors

Indirect injection (IDI): itta k es p la c e inth e inta k e m a nifo ld

Direct injection (DI): fu elis d irec tly injec ted insid e th e c y lind er

Control of injectors

Mechanical injection: a neng ine-d rivenp u m p p ressu rizes th e fu el a nd m eters th e injec ted vo lu m e
b y m ea ns o fa na u to m a tic m ec h a nic a linjec to r

Electronic injection: a nelec tro m a g netic fu elinjec to r is u sed ; m etering a nd c o ntro lo finjec tio na re
b esto w ed u p o nth e E C U

Distribution among cylinders (o nly fo r ind irec tinjec tio n)

Single-point systems: o nly o ne o r tw o fu elinjec to rs m eter th e fu elinto th e a ir flo w d irec tly a b o ve

th e th ro ttle b o d y

Multipoint port injection: a fu elinjec to r is u sed fo r ea c h c y lind er; fu el is injec ted into th e inta k e
p o rto fea c h c y lind er

Internal Combustion Engines 5 6

Fuel metering in SI engines
Injection systems

Direct Injection (DI, left) B o sc h Electromagnetic Injector

a nd Indirect Injection (IDI, rig h t) (elec tro nic injec tio nsy stem )

1 . Injec to r
1 . F ilter
2 . E lec tric w ire
2 . Inta k e m a nifo ld 3 . W ind ing
4 . W ind ing a rm a tu re
3 . Inta k e va lve 5 . N eed le va lve
6. N eed le tip
7 . F u elp ip e
8. T ig h tening ring
9 . S ea lring
1 0 .S ea lring
Im a g e so u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1

Internal Combustion Engines 5 7

Fuel metering in SI engines
MultiPoint Fuel Injection (MPFI)

1 . F u elta nk 1 1 .T h ro ttle sw itc h

2 . F u elp u m p 1 2 .A ir flo w senso r
3 . F u elfilter 1 3 .A ir tem p era tu re senso r
4 . P ressu re reg u la to r 1 4 .L a m b d a senso r
5 . E lec tro nic C o ntro lU nit(E C U ) 1 5 .C o o la nttem p era tu re senso r
6. Ig nitio nc o il 1 6.A u x ilia ry a ir d evic e
7 . H T d istrib u to r 1 7 .C ra nk sh a fta ng le senso r
8. S p a rk p lu g 1 8.B a ttery
9 . Injec to r 1 9 .Ig nitio na nd sta rting sw itc h
1 0 .T h ro ttle va lve 2 0 .H VA C sw itc h
Im a g e so u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1

Internal Combustion Engines 5 8

Fuel metering in SI engines
Direct injection system (Bosch)
S o leno id (H D E V5 ) a nd p iezo (H D E V 4 .1 ) injec to rs

M etering a c c u ra c y 2 m g /inj

u p to 3 injec tio ns p er c y c le (u p to 5 inj/c y c le fo r

stra tified -c h a rg e c o m b u stio n)

H D E V5 H D E V4 .1

S o u rc e: A . H einsteinet a l., H ig h -pressu re D irec t In jec t io n S y st em sfo r G a so lin e E n g in es, M T ZW o rld w id e, M a rc h 2 0 1 3

Internal Combustion Engines 5 9

Fuel metering in SI engines
Direct vs. Indirect injection systems

Problems arising with direct injection systems:

Higher mechanical and thermal stress

T h e injec to rs m u stw ith sta nd p ressu re a nd tem p era tu re levels th a ta re rea c h ed insid e th e c y lind er;
fu rth erm o re, th ey a re su b jec tto d irta nd so o tp a rtic les o rig ina ting fro m th e c o m b u stio np ro c ess.

Installation complexity
D irec tinjec tio nreq u ires th a tth e injec to r b e m o u nted d irec tly o nto p o fth e c y lind er, w h ere sp a rk p lu g
a nd inta k e a nd ex h a u stva lves a re p la c ed to o .

Higher injection pressure

D irec tinjec tio nsy stem s need a tlea st3 5 4 0 b a r ino rd er to a c h ieve th e c o rrec tfu elva p o riza tio na nd
m ix ing w ith th e a ir insid e th e c y lind er (m o d erninjec tio nsy stem s rea c h p ressu res u p to 2 0 0 b a r).
Inth e c a se o find irec tinjec tio nsy stem s, a ninjec tio np ressu re o f4 5 b a r is g o o d eno u g h .

More difficult mixture homogenization

Ino rd er to a c h ieve a m ix tu re h o m o g eniza tio nc o m p a ra b le to ind irec tinjec tio nsy stem s, th e a ir inta k e
sy stem need s to b e m o re so p h istic a ted , so a s to inc rea se tu rb u lenc e (th ro u g h sw ish , sq u ish a nd
t u m b le m o tio ns): a h ig h d eg ree o f t u rb u len c e speed sev a po ra t io n o f fu el, en h a n c esa ir-fu elm ixin g
a n d in c rea sesc o m b u st io n speed a n d effic ien c y .

Internal Combustion Engines 60

Fuel metering in SI engines
Direct vs. Indirect injection systems

Advantages of direct injection systems:

Evaporative cooling
Inind irec tinjec tio ns sy stem s, fu elva p o riza tio nta k es p la c e inth e inta k e m a nifo ld a nd itsu b tra c ts
h ea tfro m th e m a nifo ld w a lls a nd fro m th e inta k e va lve; ind irec tinjec tio nsy stem s, o nth e c o ntra ry ,
fu elva p o riza tio nta k es p la c e insid e th e c y lind er, so th a titc o o ls th e ind u c ed a ir, w ith a d o u b le
b enefit:

h ig h er d ensity -> h ig h er vo lu m etric effic ienc y : to rq u e o u tp u tinc rea ses b y a p p ro x im a tely 5 6%;

lo w er tem p era tu re -> lo w er risk o fd eto na tio n(k no c k ing ) -> c o m p ressio nra tio c a nb e inc rea sed
(b y a p p ro x . 2 0 %) -> sig nific a ntim p ro vem ents ineffic ienc y a nd fu elc o nsu m p tio na re p o ssib le.

Cold start and transients

D irec tinjec tio nrem o ves th e p ro b lem o ffu elc o nd ensa tio n o n th e inta k e m a nifo ld s w a lls o r o n th e
inta k e va lve, w h ic h is p a rtic u la rly im p o rta ntd u ring tra nsientb eh a vio rs a nd a tc o ld sta rt: b o th fu el
c o nsu m p tio na nd C O a nd H C p o llu ta ntem issio ns a re red u c ed .

Longer valve overlap period possible

F u elinjec tio nis c a rried o u tw h enb o th va lves a re c lo sed , so th e ind u c ed a ir d o es no tc o nta ina ny
fu el, a nd th u s inth e o verla p p erio d th ere is no risk o ffu elflo w ing b a c k to th e inta k e m a nifo ld (w ith
th e p o ssib le risk o fb a c k fire) o r o ffu el lo ss w ith ex h a u stg a ses.

Internal Combustion Engines 61

Fuel metering in SI engines
Direct vs. Indirect injection systems

Indirect Direct
injection injection

[c m 3 ] 3498 3498

10,7 12,2

[b a r] 45 200

[k W ] 200 215

T [rp m ] 60 0 0 64 0 0

[b a r] 1 1 ,4 1 1 ,5

[k W /l] 5 7 ,2 61 ,5

[N m ] 35 0 3 65

[b a r] 1 2 ,6 1 3 ,1

[N m /l] 1 0 0 ,0 1 0 4 ,3
n[rp m ]
[g /k W h ] 240 235

(p a rtlo a d ) [g /k W h ] 360 290

S o u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1

Internal Combustion Engines 62

Fuel injection in CI engines
General remarks

C I eng ines u se low-volatility fuels: th e fu elm u st

th erefo re b e injec ted into th e ind u c ed a ir inth e fo rm
o fdroplet spray, and the drops should be as
small as possible.

T h e a ir/fu elra tio m u stb e c lo se to th e sto ic h io m etric

va lu e o nly lo c a lly , i.e. c lo se to th e injec to r; overall,
the fuel/air mixture can be lean, w h ic h a llo w s to
c o ntro lp o w er o u tp u tju stth ro u g h th e m a ss o ffu el
injec ted , w ith o u tth e need o fc o ntro lling a lso th e
m a ss o fa ir ind u c ed .
Power
O nth e o th er h a nd , th e fu el/a ir eq u iva lenc e ra tio
c a nno tex c eed th resh o ld levels g ivenb y th e
fo llo w ing rea so ns:
B ra k e m ea neffec tive p ressu re (b m ep ) [M P a ]

p o llu ta ntem issio n rp s

m ec h a nic a lstresses
Ro ta tio na lsp eed n rp m
th erm a lstresses

Im a g e so u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6

Internal Combustion Engines 63

Fuel injection in CI engines
Indirect injection (prechamber) and direct injection

Indirect injection (prechamber) Direct injection

1 . Injec to r Red u c tio no fh ea tlo sses (no h ea tex c h a ng e

w ith th e p rec h a m b er w a lls) -> inc rea se infu el
2 . P rec h a m b er
effic ienc y
3 . G lo w p lu g (u sed a s a c o ld -sta rting a id )
O nth e o th er h a nd , injec tio np ressu re m u st
b e sig nific a ntly h ig h er

Im a g e so u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1

Internal Combustion Engines 64

Fuel injection in CI engines
Common Rail Fuel Injection System

Internal Combustion Engines 65

Fuel injection in CI engines
Common Rail: injector
Open injector Closed injector
F u ellea k b a c k E lec tric a l
(retu rn) c o nnec tio n

H ig h p ressu re H ig h p ressu re
fu elinlet fu elinlet

S o leno id S o leno id
a c tu a to r a c tu a to r

T w o -w a y va lve T w o -w a y va lve
Injec to r va lve Injec to r va lve
o p en c lo sed

S o leno id energ ized S o leno id no tenerg ized

F u elp ressu re is relieved a b o ve F u elp ressu re is th e sa m e a b o ve
th e va lve c o ntro lp lu ng er a nd b elo w th e va lve c o ntro lp lu ng er
B a la nc e o ffo rc es: F a > F c + F e B a la nc e o ffo rc es: F a < F c + F e
N o zzle o p en N o zzle c lo sed

Internal Combustion Engines 66

Fuel injection in CI engines
Common Rail: injector characteristics

S o u rc e: D . S c h p p e et a l., S erv o -D riv en Piezo C o m m o n Ra ilD ieselIn jec t io n S y st em , M T ZW o rld w id e, M a rc h 2 0 1 2

Internal Combustion Engines 67

Fuel injection in CI engines
Common Rail: multiple injections

Internal Combustion Engines 68

Fuel injection in CI engines
Common Rail: application examples

C u rso r 1 1 E u ro VI eng ine series, u sed fo r c o m m erc ia l tru c k p ro p u lsio n (F P T Ind u stria l)

Internal Combustion Engines 69

Fuel injection in CI engines
Common Rail: application examples

Vec to r V2 0 eng ine series, u sed inp o w er g enera to rs (F P T Ind u stria l)

Internal Combustion Engines 7 0

Operating characteristics and performance maps
Power, torque and fuel specific consumption curves
P erfo rm a nc e m a p s a re u su a lly d ra w nw ith referenc e
to fu ll-lo a d o p era tio n(fu ll-lo a d p erfo rm a nc e m a p s)
a nd rep resentp o w er, to rq u e a nd fu elc o nsu m p tio nvs.
ro ta tio na lsp eed .

T o rq u e d ep end s o n a nd , so its m a x im u m lies

w h ere vo lu m etric effic ienc y is h ig h est, a nd fa lls P o w er
F u el sp ec ific c o nsu m p tio n
ra p id ly b ec a u se o fth e d ec rea se inm ec h a nic a l T o rq u e
effic ienc y .

B ey o nd a p a rtic u la r va lu e o fro ta tio na lsp eed , th e

sp eed inc rea se c a nno tc o m p ensa te th e d ec rea se in
m ec h a nic a la nd vo lu m etric effic ienc y : th erefo re th a t
o p era ting p o int( ) c o rresp o nd s to th e m a x im u m
p o w er o u tp u to fth e eng ine.
T h e o p era ting ra ng e o fth e eng ine is u su a lly lim ited to
a m a x im u m sp eed o nly slig h tly h ig h er th a n
, b ec a u se th ere is no p o intinu sing th e
d ec rea sing p a rto fth e p o w er c u rve.

F u elsp ec ific c o nsu m p tio nd ep end s o nly o nth e

o vera llfu elc o nversio neffic ienc y .

Im a g e so u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1

Internal Combustion Engines 7 1

Operating characteristics and performance maps
Power, torque and brake mean effective pressure curves of a SI engine

T h is c h a rtsh o w s th e p erfo rm a nc e m a p o fa
na tu ra lly a sp ira ted 4 S S I eng ine
(d isp la c em ent2 5 2 5 c m 3 ).

T h e b ra k e m ea neffec tive p ressu re c u rve h a s

th e sa m e sh a p e o fth e to rq u e c u rve, b ec a u se:

C u rves d o no tsta rtfro m zero p o w er o u tp u t

b u tfro m a m inim u m sp eed , b elo w w h ic h
ex c essive vib ra tio ns a nd irreg u la r o p era ting
c o nd itio ns w o u ld a rise.

T h e o p era ting ra ng e g o es fro m th e m inim u m

sp eed u p to a m a x im u m sp eed slig h tly h ig h er
th a nth e m a x im u m p o w er o p era ting p o int.

Im a g e so u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1

Internal Combustion Engines 7 2

Operating characteristics and performance maps
Power and torque of a turbocharged SI engine

S o u rc e: T h e N ew B M W In lin e S ix-c y lin d er G a so lin e E n g in e, M T Zw o rld w id e, O c to b er 2 0 1 5

Internal Combustion Engines 7 3

Operating characteristics and performance maps
Performance map of a CI engine

E ng ine c h a ra c teristic s:

T u rb o c h a rg ed

D irec tinjec tio n

T

D isp la c em ent

T h e to rq u e rises very fa sta tlo w sp eed s,

th enitis m a inta ined c o nsta nto ver a w id e
ra ng e o fsp eed , a nd fina lly d ec rea ses a th ig h
sp eed s. T h is b eh a vio r d ep end s o n:

th e tu rb o c h a rg er c h a ra c teristic s;

th e lim its o nth e fu el/a ir eq u iva lenc e ra tio .

n [rpm]

Im a g e so u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1

Internal Combustion Engines 7 4

Operating characteristics and performance maps
Influence of displacement and number of intake valves

T h e c h a rto nto p sh o w s th e p erfo rm a nc e m a p o ftw o

sim ila r S I 4 S na tu ra lly a sp ira ted eng ines o fd ifferent
d isp la c em ent.
D isp la c em entd o es no ta ffec tb m ep
(th ere is o nly a m a rg ina linflu enc e o nth e vo lu m etric
effic ienc y rela ted to va lve a rea ).
T h erefo re, to rq u e a nd p o w er o u tp u tinc rea se linea rly
w ith th e inc rea se ind isp la c em ent, o nth e w h o le
o p era ting ra ng e.

T h e b o tto m c h a rtsh o w s th e p erfo rm a nc e m a p o ftw o

C I 4 S eng ines, sa m e d isp la c em ent( c m 3 ),
d ifferentnu m b er o fva lves.
T h e vo lu m etric effic ienc y inc rea ses sig nific a ntly inth e
4 -va lve eng ine: th is resu lts ina h ig h er to rq u e o u tp u t.
T h e inc rea se inp o w er o u tp u tis evenm o re
p ro no u nc ed b ec a u se th e 4 -va lve eng ine h a s a w id er
sp eed ra ng e (th e va lves a re sm a ller a nd lig h ter, so c a n
w ith sta nd h ig h er velo c ities).

Im a g e so u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1

Internal Combustion Engines 7 5

Operating characteristics and performance maps
SI automotive engine performances

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Y ea r 2001 2006 2002 2002 2005 2006 2007
[c m 3 ] 1998 15 98 17 96 17 96 1390 17 98 297 9

S u p erc h a rg ing T u rb o T u rb o M ec h . M ec h . M ec h . + T u rb o T u rb o 2 T u rb o in//

Injec tio n Ind irec t Ind irec t Ind irec t D irec t D irec t D irec t D irec t
8,8 8,8 8,7 1 0 ,5 1 0 ,0 9 ,4 1 0 ,2
[b a r] 120 120 15 0 200

[k W ] 140 132 141 125 125 118 225

[k W /l] 7 0 82 ,6 7 8,5 69 ,6 89 ,9 65 ,6 7 5 ,5
[rp m ] 5 400 5 5 00 5 80 0 5 300 60 0 0 5 000 5 80 0

[N m ] 25 0 230 2 60 25 0 240 25 0 400

[N m /l] 1 2 5 ,1 144 1 4 4 ,8 1 3 9 ,1 1 7 2 ,7 139 1 3 4 ,3
(m a x ) [b a r] 1 5 ,7 1 8,1 1 8,2 1 7 ,5 2 1 ,7 1 7 ,4 1 6,8
(m in) [g /k W h ] 239 < 25 0 < 235

D esig nc h a ra c teristic s a nd p erfo rm a nc e o fso m e S I 4 S su p erc h a rg ed eng ines fo r a u to m o tive a p p lic a tio ns, b u iltb y E u ro p ea n c o m p a nies fro m 2 0 0 1 to 2 0 0 7

S o u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1

Internal Combustion Engines 7 6

Operating characteristics and performance maps
CI automotive engine performances

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Y ea r 1999 2001 2002 2003 2004 2004 2004 2004 2005 2005 2005 2005 2006
[c m 3 ] 3900 1995 2148 3936 2 4 60 2 9 67 2497 1991 1493 2993 2 9 87 4134 3996

2 2 2 2
T u rb o c h a rg ing T u rb o T u rb o T u rb o T u rb o T u rb o T u rb o T u rb o T u rb o T u rb o T u rb o , T u rb o T u rb o T u rb o
in // in // series in //
CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR
Injec tio n CR
I g en. II g en. II g en. II g en. II g en. II g en. II g en. II g en. III g en. III g en. III g en.
18 17 18 1 7 ,3 18 1 7 ,1 17 18 18 1 6,5 18 1 6,5 17
[b a r] 135 0 1 60 0 1 60 0 1 60 0 1 60 0 1 60 0 1 60 0 1 60 0 1 60 0 1 60 0 1 60 0

u p to
n. o finjec tio ns 1 p ilo t 2 p ilo t 2 p ilo t > 1 2 p ilo t 2 p ilo t 2+ 1+ 2 5
5

[k W ] 17 5 110 110 202 128 17 1 130 103 7 0 200 1 65 240 231

[k W /l] 4 4 ,9 5 5 ,1 5 1 ,2 5 1 ,3 5 2 ,0 5 7 ,6 5 2 ,1 5 1 ,7 4 6,9 66,8 5 5 ,2 5 8,1 5 7 ,8
( ) [rp m ] 4000 4000 4200 37 5 0 35 00 4000 4200 4000 4400 3 80 0 37 5 0 3 60 0
[N m ] 5 60 330 340 65 0 400 45 0 400 300 210 5 60 5 10 65 0 7 30
[N m /l] 1 4 3 ,6 1 65 ,4 1 5 8,3 1 65 ,1 1 62 ,6 1 5 1 ,7 1 60 ,2 1 5 0 ,7 1 4 0 ,7 1 87 ,1 1 7 0 ,7 1 5 7 ,2 1 82 ,7
17 5 0- 1 80 0 - 1400- 1 60 0 - 1 80 0 - 1 60 0 - 1 60 0 -
( ) [rp m ] 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2200
25 00 25 00 325 0 3000 2 80 0 2 80 0 35 00
[b a r] 1 8,0 2 0 ,8 1 9 ,9 2 0 ,8 2 0 ,4 1 9 ,1 2 0 ,1 1 8,9 1 7 ,7 2 3 ,5 2 1 ,5 1 9 ,8 2 3 ,0
[g /k W h ] 207 202 205 198 202 202 206 208 202

D esig nc h a ra c teristic s a nd p erfo rm a nc e o fso m e C I 4 S tu rb o c h a rg ed eng ines fo r a u to m o tive a p p lic a tio ns, b u iltb y E u ro p ea n c o m p a nies fro m 1 9 9 9 to 2 0 0 6

S o u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1

Internal Combustion Engines 7 7

Operating characteristics and performance maps
Performance of 4S, 4-cylinder automotive engines

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
F u el G a so line G a so line G a so line G a so line G a so line LP G D iesel D iesel D iesel D iesel
[c m 3 ] 1 3 68 1 3 68 1 3 68 1 3 68 17 42 1 3 68 15 98 195 6 195 6 195 6

T u rb o , T u rb o , T u rb o ,
T u rb o , T u rb o , T u rb o , T u rb o , T u rb o , T u rb o , T u rb o , inter- inter- inter-
T u rb o c h a rg ing inter- inter- inter- inter- inter- inter- inter- c o o ler, c o o ler, c o o ler,
c o o ler c o o ler c o o ler c o o ler c o o ler c o o ler c o o ler va r. va r. va r.
g eo m . g eo m . g eo m .

A ir inlet M u ltia ir* M u ltia ir*

Injec tio n M P FI M P FI M P FI M P FI DI M P FI M u ltijet2 M u ltijet2 M u ltijet2 M u ltijet2
9 ,8 9 ,8 9 ,8 9 ,8 9 ,2 5 9 ,8 1 6,5 1 6,5 1 6,5 1 6,5
[b a r] 1 60 0 1 60 0 1 60 0 1 60 0

[k W ] 7 7 88 125 125 17 3 88 7 7 103 125 125

[k W /l] 5 6,3 64 ,3 9 1 ,4 9 1 ,4 9 9 ,3 64 ,3 4 8,2 5 2 ,7 63 ,9 63 ,9
( ) [rp m ] 5 000 5 000 5 5 00 5 5 00 5 5 00 5 000 4000 37 5 0 4000 4000
[N m ] 206 206 25 0 25 0 340 206 320 35 0 35 0 35 0
[N m /l] 1 5 0 ,6 1 5 0 ,6 1 82 ,7 1 82 ,7 1 9 5 ,2 1 5 0 ,6 2 0 0 ,3 1 7 8,9 1 7 8,9 1 7 8,9
( ) [rp m ] 17 5 0 17 5 0 25 00 25 00 1900 17 5 0 17 5 0 15 00 17 5 0 17 5 0
[b a r] 1 8,9 1 8,9 2 3 ,0 2 3 ,0 2 4 ,5 1 8,9 2 5 ,2 2 2 ,5 2 2 ,5 2 2 ,5

* D irec tc o ntro l sy stem o fva lve o p ening , w ith no th ro ttle va lve.

D esig nc h a ra c teristic s a nd p erfo rm a nc e o fth e A lfa Ro m eo G iu lietta eng ines.

S o u rc e: h ttp ://w w w .a lfa ro m eo .it/it/D o c u m ents/sc h ed e-tec nic h e/G iu lietta S c h ed a T ec nic a -C o nsu m iP resta zio niE m issio ni.p d f(la stretrieved D ec em b er 2 0 1 3 ).

Internal Combustion Engines 7 8

Operating characteristics and performance maps
Fuel economy characteristics

Naturally aspirated SI engine, direct injection, Turbocharged CI engine, direct injection,

displacement displacement

Full-load performance map: see Direct vs. Indirect injection systems Full-load performance map: see Performance map of a SI engine

bmep bmep

Rotati
onalspeed [rpm]
Rotati
onalspeed [rpm]

Im a g e so u rc e: R. d ella Vo lp e, M a c c h in e, L ig u o ri E d ito re, N a p o li, 2 0 1 1

Internal Combustion Engines 7 9

Load matching
Typical applications

1. Load requiring constant rotational speed

(a s inth e c a se o fa nelec tric g enera to r, w ith th e ro ta tio na lsp eed link ed to th e g rid freq u enc y ):
a s a c o nseq u enc e, to rq u e o u tp u td ep end s o nth e ex terna llo a d .
Inth is c a se, ino rd er to c o nta ina s m u c h a s p o ssib le a ny sp eed flu c tu a tio n, p o w er o u tp u tis d ivid ed
a m o ng m a ny c y lind ers a nd a fly w h eelw ith a la rg e m o m ento finertia is u sed .
F u rth erm o re, itis p o ssib le to o p tim ize th e p erfo rm a nc e, interm s o ffu elsp ec ific c o nsu m p tio n, fo r
th e req u ired o p era ting c o nd itio ns, ta k ing into a c c o u ntp o ssib le lo a d va ria tio ns.

2. Load requiring torque output increasing as the square of the rotational speed ):
th e eng ine is th u s m a tc h ed to a flu id m a c h ine su c h a s c o m p resso rs, p u m p s, a ero na u tic a lo r
m a rine p ro p ellers, etc .
Inth is c a se th e eng ine sp eed a td esig no p era ting c o nd itio ns sh o u ld b e a s c lo se a s p o ssib le to th e
o p tim a lo ne fo r th e ex terna llo a d , ino rd er to red u c e th e size o fth e g ea rb o x , o r ifp o ssib le a vo id
a lto g eth er its u se. F o r la rg e m a rine 2 S C I eng ines, eng ine sp eed h a s evenb eenred u c ed d o w nto
1 2 s-1 , so a s to c o u p le d irec tly th e eng ine to th e p ro p eller.

3. Load requiring a wide range of operating conditions, both in terms of speed and torque.
Itis fo r ex a m p le th e c a se o fg ro u nd p ro p u lsio n.

Internal Combustion Engines 80

Load matching
Power generation: example of state-of-art engine performance

S o u rc e: M A N D iesel & T u rb o P o w er P la ntP ro g ra m m e

Internal Combustion Engines 81

Load matching
Power generation: example of state-of-art engine performance and dimensions
18V48/60TS engine

Operation mode
Performance data Unit 1 2 3 4

Power per cylinder kW 1050 1100 1150 1200

Tot . engine power kW 18,900 19,800 20,700 21,600
Tot . el. genset power kW 18,428 19,305 20,183 21,060
Spec. fuel oil consumption
ac c. to ISO 3046, w ithout p umps, g/kWh 171 172 174 177
mec h. Power out put , +5% toleranc e

Heat Rate
ac c. to ISO 3046, w ithout p umps, kJ/kWh 7,305 7,350 7,430 7,560
mec h. Power out put , +5% toleranc e

NO emissions (d ry at 15% O2) mg/Nm 1850 1740 1580 1480

Mean effective pressure bar 23.2/22.6 24.3/23.7 25.4/24.7 26.5/25.8
Spec. lube oil consumption g/kWh 0,60 0,60 0,60 0,60

Dimensions (mm) 9625 5410 24510 9023 4694

Dry mass (t) 407 407 407 407 407

S o u rc e: M A N D iesel & T u rb o P o w er P la ntP ro g ra m m e

Internal Combustion Engines 82

Load matching
Power generation: example of state-of-art engine performance and dimensions
With generator (genset) Without generator

S o u rc e: M A N D iesel & T u rb o P o w er P la ntP ro g ra m m e

Internal Combustion Engines 83

Load matching
Power generation: plant layout

Representation of the IPP3 plant in Jordan. Source: Wrtsil

Internal Combustion Engines 84

Load matching
Power generation

S o u rc e: ex tra c tfro m T h e la rg est rec ip-b a sed po w er pla n t sw o rld w id e, M o d ern P o w er S y stem s, F eb ru a ry 2 0 1 5 , p p . 1 2 -1 5 .

Internal Combustion Engines 85

Load matching
Diesel Combined Cycle (DCC)

S o u rc e: M A N D iesel & T u rb o P o w er P la ntP ro g ra m m e

Internal Combustion Engines 86

Load matching
Combined Heat and Power generation (CHP)

---

-
---

S o u rc e: M A N D iesel & T u rb o P o w er P la ntP ro g ra m m e

Internal Combustion Engines 87

Load matching
CHP systems: example of state-of-art engine performance

G E P o w er & W a ter, J 9 2 0 F leX tra J enb a c h er

Internal Combustion Engines 88

Load matching
CHP systems: example of state-of-art engine performance

G E P o w er & W a ter, J enb a c h er T y p e 6 G a s E ng ines

Internal Combustion Engines 89

Load matching
Ground propulsion: ideal performance characteristics

Ino rd er to m a k e th e b estu se o fth e p o w er a va ila b le o nth e

w h o le o p era ting ra ng e, th e ideal performance map req u ires:
c o nsta ntp o w er o u tp u t
to rq u e d ec rea sing (w ith a h y p erb o lic la w ) w ith th e
ro ta tio na lsp eed

A tlo w sp eed s, b efo re rea c h ing m a x im u m p o w er o u tp u t, th e

p erfo rm a nc e m a p sh o u ld h a ve th e fo llo w ing c h a ra c teristic s:
c o nsta ntto rq u e (lim ited b y tire-g ro u nd a d h esio nc o nd itio ns)
p o w er linea rly inc rea sing w ith ro ta tio na lsp eed

Ino rd er to a p p ro x im a te th e id ea lc h a ra c teristic a s m u c h a s
p o ssib le, a gear shift (a nd a c lu tc h ) is need ed ino rd er to
c h a ng e th e sp eed ra tio b etw eeneng ine sh a fta nd w h eels:
th e p lo to nth e rig h tsh o w s th e u se o fa d isc o ntinu o u s fo u r-
sp eed g ea rb o x

F o rc e tra nsm itted to th e w h eels is p ro p o rtio na lto to rq u e

Im a g e so u rc e: M . E h sa ni, Y . G a o , S .E . G a y , A . E m a d i, M o d ern E lec t ric , H y b rid E lec t ric , a n d F u elC ellV eh ic les, C RC P ress L L C , N ew Y o rk , 2 0 0 5

Internal Combustion Engines 90

Load matching
Ground propulsion: vehicle resistance

Veh ic le resista nc e is c a u sed fu nd a m enta lly b y

4 p h eno m ena :

1. tire rolling resistance ( )

2. grading resistance ( )

3. aerodynamic drag ( )

4. acceleration ( )

T a k ing into a c c o u ntconstant cruising speed

conditions ( ), ro lling a nd g ra d ing
resista nc e d o no td ep end o nveh ic le sp eed
(a tlea stifth e influ enc e o f o n is neg lec ted ),
w h ile a ero d y na m ic d ra g inc rea ses w ith th e
sq u a re o fth e veh ic le sp eed :

E ng ine p o w er o u tp u tth u s d ep end s o nveh ic le

sp eed a c c o rd ing to th e fo llo w ing eq u a tio n:

Im a g e so u rc e: M . E h sa ni, Y . G a o , S .E . G a y , A . E m a d i, M o d ern E lec t ric , H y b rid E lec t ric , a n d F u elC ellV eh ic les, C RC P ress L L C , N ew Y o rk , 2 0 0 5

Internal Combustion Engines 91

Load matching
Ground propulsion: vehicle resistance
Aerodynamic resistance (drag) Rolling resistance

S o u rc e: M . E h sa ni, Y . G a o , S .E . G a y , A . E m a d i, M o d ern E lec t ric , H y b rid E lec t ric , a n d F u elC ellV eh ic les, C RC P ress L L C , N ew Y o rk , 2 0 0 5

Internal Combustion Engines 92

Load matching
Ground propulsion: specific consumption at constant speed

T o p c h a rtsh o w s th a tw ith a g ivenp o w er

o u tp u t(c o rresp o nd ing to a g ivenveh ic le
sp eed ), th e fu elc o nsu m p tio nis u su a lly
lo w er a tlo w eng ine sp eed th a na th ig h
sp eed .

T h e b o tto m c h a rtsh o w s th e o p era ting

p o ints o fa neng ine a tc o nsta ntveh ic le
sp eed , w ith th e h ig h estg ea r a nd th e sec o nd
h ig h estg ea r.
T h e eng ine h a s a m u c h lo w er o p era ting
effic ienc y inlo w g ea r th a ninh ig h g ea r.
T h erefo re, th e fu el ec o no m y o fa veh ic le
c a nb e im p ro ved w ith m o re g ea r
tra nsm issio no r c o ntinu o u s va ria b le
tra nsm issio n.

Im a g e so u rc e: M . E h sa ni, Y . G a o , S .E . G a y , A . E m a d i, M o d ern E lec t ric , H y b rid E lec t ric , a n d F u elC ellV eh ic les, C RC P ress L L C , N ew Y o rk , 2 0 0 5

Internal Combustion Engines 93

Pollutant formation and control
SI engines: formation mechanisms

N O fo rm s inh ig h -tem p era tu re C O p resenta th ig h T A s b u rned g a ses c o o l,

O il la y ers a b so rb H C b u rned g a s o r w ith fu el-ric h m ix tu res firstN O c h em istry , th en C O c h em istry D ep o sits d eso rb H C
freezes

O u tflo w o fH C
fro m c revic es;
D ep o sits so m e H C O il la y ers
a b so rb H C b u rns d eso rb H C

P isto n
U nb u rned m ix tu re E ntra inm ento f sc ra p es H C
fo rc ed into H C fro m w a ll into o ffw a lls
c revic es b u lk g a s

C O M P RE S S IO N C O M B U S T IO N EXHAUST
E X P A N S IO N

Im a g e so u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6

Internal Combustion Engines 94

Pollutant formation and control
SI engines: influence of air/fuel ratio

Carbon monoxide (CO) inc rea ses ra p id ly

a s th e ex c ess a ir d ec rea ses (ric h m ix tu res);
itis very lo w fo r lea nm ix tu res. A ir eq u iva lenc e ra tio

Unburned hydrocarbons (HC) to o a re h ig h Ric h L ea n

m ix tu re m ix tu re
fo r ric h m ix tu res, a nd d ec rea se a s th e
a ir/fu elra tio inc rea ses evenb ey o nd th e
sto ic h io m etric ra tio , u p to a th resh o ld level N itro g en
o x id es
b ey o nd w h ic h a fra c tio no fth e H C a re no t
o x id ized d u ring th e fina lp a rto fth e w o rk ing
c y c le d u e to th e d ec rea se intem p era tu re.
F u el
T h e fo rm a tio no fnitrogen oxides (NOx) c o nsu m p tio n

is fa c ilita ted b y h ig h tem p era tu res a nd h ig h

F u elc o nsu m p tio n[g /M J ]

C a rb o nm o no x id e C O [%]

N itro g eno x id es [p p m a s N O ]
o x y g enc o ntent: m a x im u m em issio ns a re U nb u rned
h y d ro c a rb o ns
U nb u rned h y d ro c a rb o ns [p p m a s C 1 ]

fo u nd fo r slig h tly lea nm ix tu res ( ).

C a rb o n m o no x id e

A ir/fu elra tio

Im a g e so u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6

Internal Combustion Engines 95

Pollutant formation and control
SI engines: typical emissions with no control system

Operating mode -> Idle Acceleration Constant speed Deceleration

CO 2 [%] 9 ,5 1 0 ,5 1 2 ,5 9 ,5

C O [%] 2 ,0 2 ,0 0 ,4 2 ,0

H C [p p m a s C 1 ] 4000 25 00 2000 20000

NO x [p p m a s N O ] 100 15 00 1000 100

Va lu es g ivena s vo lu m e fra c tio ns o na d ry b a sis.

A ll m a inp o llu ta nts a re em itted insig nific a ntq u a ntities ina ll o p era ting m o d es.
T h erefo re, a p o llu ta ntc o ntro lsy stem th a tc a no p era te a tth e sa m e tim e o nC O , H C , N O x is need ed .

S o u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6

Internal Combustion Engines 96

Pollutant formation and control
SI engines: pollutant emission control

Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)

Ita llo w s to c o ntro lN O x fo rm a tio nb y
d ilu ting th e m ix tu re w ith inertg a ses,
A ir inta k e Rec irc u la tio n
th u s a c h ieving th e sa m e resu ltg iven va lve sw itc h
b y a ninc rea se ina ir/fu elra tio
w ith o u tth e c o rresp o nd ing inc rea se C o ntro lu nit
ino x y g ena va ila b le.

Three-way catalytic converter EG R

Itp erfo rm s th e o x id iza tio no fC O , H C a nd

th e red u c tio no fN O x a tth e sa m e tim e, Rec irc u la tio n
va lve
th a nk s to c a ta ly sts (no b le m eta ls su c h a s
p la tinu m fo r o x id iza tio no r rh o d iu m fo r
O x y g en
red u c tio n) c a p a b le to p ro m o te c h em ic a l senso r
F u el
rea c tio ns evena trela tively lo w pum p
tem p era tu re.
F resh m ix tu re
E x h a u stg a s
T h ree-w a y
E x h a u st
c a ta ly tic c o nverter

Im a g e so u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6

Internal Combustion Engines 97

Pollutant formation and control
SI engines: pollutant emission control

1 . a ir inta k e; 2 . elec tro nic c o ntro l u nit; 3 . o x y g en senso r; 4 . th ree-w a y c a ta ly tic c o nverter; 5 . silenc er;
6.p o llu ta ntinlet; 7 . h o ney c o m b c era m ic m o no lith ; 8. rea c to r c a sing ; 9 . ex h a u stg a s o u tlet; 1 0 . sc h em a tic o fth e c a ta ly sis p ro c ess

Im a g e so u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6

Internal Combustion Engines 98

Pollutant formation and control
SI engines: three-way catalytic converter effectiveness

C o nversio neffic ienc y fo r a llth ree m a in

p o llu ta nts d ep end s h ea vily o nth e O p era ting
ra ng e
eq u iva lenc e ra tio .

T h e effec to fa ir/fu elra tio o neffic ienc y in

N O x red u c tio na nd inC O a nd H C Ric h m ix tu re L ea n m ix tu re

o x id iza tio nis o p p o site.

C o nversio neffic ienc y [%]

T h erefo re, it is necessary to control the
air/fuel ratio within a very small range
A ir/fu elra tio
of the stoichiometric ratio.

Ino rd er to c o ntro lth e a ir/fu elra tio a n

A ir A ir P la tinu m
oxygen sensor inth e ex h a u stg a s flo w is elec tro d es
C era m ic
req u ired (lambda sensor).
E x h.
gas
C a th o d e A no d e
Zirc o nia

E x h a u st
gas

Im a g e so u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6

Internal Combustion Engines 99

Pollutant formation and control
CI engines: formation mechanisms
Injec tio n ta il
Zone A: p a rtia lo x id a tio np ro d u c ts (esp ec ia lly H C )
Injec to r
h o le
Zone B: c o m p lete o x id a tio np ro d u c ts

Zone C: a tp a rt-lo a d , c o m p lete o x id a tio np ro d u c ts

a nd N O x ; a tfu lllo a d , p a rtia lo x id a tio np ro d u c ts a nd
p a rtic u la tes

Zone D: p a rtia lo x id a tio np ro d u c ts a nd p a rtic u la tes

Im a g e so u rc e:
G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6 (to p )
J .B . H ey w o o d , Interna l C o m b u stio n E ng ine F u nd a m enta ls, M c G ra w -H ill, N ew Y o rk , 1 9 88 (b o tto m )

Internal Combustion Engines 100

Pollutant formation and control
CI engines: typical emissions with no control system

Operating mode -> Idle Acceleration Constant speed Deceleration

CO 2 [%] 1 ,0 * 1 1 ,0 7 ,0 --

C O [%] 0 ,4 0 ,2 0 ,0 4 --

H C [p p m a s C 1 ] 1000 60 0 400 1000

NO x [p p m a s N O ] 100 25 00 1000 100

Va lu es g ivena s vo lu m e fra c tio ns o na d ry b a sis.

C O a nd H C em issio ns inC I eng ines a re p a rtic u la rly lo w (c o m p a ra b le to th o se o fa la rg e S I eng ine

eq u ip p ed w ith a th ree-w a y c a ta ly tic c o nverter), th a nk s to th e h ig h a ir/fu elra tio .

O nth e o th er h a nd , p a rtic u la te em issio ns a re very h ig h , so th a tsp ec ific p a rtic u la te tra p s a re need ed ,

a nd a lso N O x em issio ns a re o nth e sa m e levelo fS I eng ines; N O x em issio ns c a nb e c o ntro lled inC I
eng ines b y m ea ns o fsp ec ific c a ta ly tic c o nverters (S C R, S elec tive C a ta ly tic Red u c tio n).

S o u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6

Internal Combustion Engines 101

Pollutant formation and control
CI engines: particulate filter

A p a rtic u la te filter is u su a lly b a sed o n ceramic

honeycomb monolith traps: a c era m ic m o no lith is E x h a u stg a s
inlet E x h a u stg a s
d ivid ed into a h ig h nu m b er o fp a ra llel c h a nnels (c ells), o u tlet

a lterna tely b lo c k ed a nd sep a ra ted b y a th inp o ro u s

w a ll ( ), w ith p o res h a ving a vera g e size o f
. E x h a u stg a s is th erefo re fo rc ed to flo w th ro u g h
th e p o ro u s w a lls, w h ic h c a rry o u tth e filtering fu nc tio n.

C h a ra c teristic s o fth is filter: B u rner

high efficiency (> 9 0 %) 1 st step :

low pressure loss E x h a u st so o t
gas d ep o sits
(fro m 2 k P a w h enc lea nu p to 2 0 k P a w h end irty )
high mechanical and thermal resistance
2 nd step :
reg enera tio n
Itis nec essa ry to regenerate periodically th e filter: it sta rts

c lea ns th e filter b y m ea ns o fa n a d h o c , lo c a l
c o m b u stio np ro c ess, w h ic h c a nb e a c tiva ted b y
3 rd step :
d ifferentm ea ns, su c h a s a na u x ilia ry b u rner, o r a la te fla m e
p ro p a g a tio n
injec tio no ffu el(p o st-injec tio ninm u ltijet sy stem s).

C lea n filter
Im a g e so u rc e: G . F erra ri, M o t o ri a c o m b u st io n e in t ern a , IlC a p itello , T o rino , 1 9 9 6

Internal Combustion Engines 102