Introduction to Nanofabrication

Erli Chen

Center for Imaging and Mesoscale Structure

Harvard University

Applied Physics 298r 1 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Typical Nanofabrication Steps
-H

Radiation (Exposure)

Mask (Alignment)

Photoresist (spin-Coating)
Thin Film (Deposition)

Substrate

Applied Physics 298r 2 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Developer
(Development)

Applied Physics 298r 3 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Etch (wet or Dry)

(Pattern Transfer)

Applied Physics 298r 4 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Stripper
(Remove Resist)

Applied Physics 298r 5 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Nanofabrication and Its Trend

300
Typical Technologies
250 Resolution (DRAM)

Dimension (nm)
Involved in Resolution (MPU)
200
Nanofabrication Alignment
CD Control
Thin Film Deposition 150

Patterning 100

Lithography 50
Film Modification 0
Etching 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015

Year

Why smaller? faster, cheaper, more functionality, and new phenomenon

Applied Physics 298r 6 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Outline

I. Lithography
Optical Lithography
E-beam Lithography
II. Thin Film Deposition
Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
III. Etching
Wet Etching
Dry Etching

Applied Physics 298r 7 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Optical Lithography

I. Radiation System
(Aligner)

II. Mask

III. Photoresist

Applied Physics 298r 8 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Three Types of Aligners

Contact Printing Proximity Printing Projection Printing

Light Source

Optical
System

~ 5X
Mask
Gap Reduction
Resist
Optical
Substrate System

Applied Physics 298r 9 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

Characteristics of a Microlithography System
Resolution
The resolution of an optical system is its capability to distinguish closely
spaced objects. For a microlithography system, resolution defines the
minimum linewidth or space that the system can print.

Registration Capability
A measure of degree to which the pattern being printed can be fit (aligned)
to previously printed patterns
A microlithography exposure system is also called aligner

Dimensional Control
Ability to produce the same feature size with the same tolerance and
position accuracy across an entire wafer and wafer-to-wafer

Throughput
The time to complete a print

Applied Physics 298r 10 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Resolution Diffraction of Optical System
Fraunhofer Diffraction
(far field - project system)
What is the smallest distance, Airy Disk
R, an optical system can
resolve? Point

Source
Rayleigh suggested that a
reasonable criterion was that R d
the central maximum of each
point sources lie at the first
minimum of the Airy disk Image
Rayleigh Criterion Entrance Plane
Aperture

R = 0.61 Where: NA = n sin( ) Numerical Aperture
NA -- Systems capability to
collect diffracted light

Applied Physics 298r 11 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Resolution Limit of Project Aligner

2b = K1
NA

b b k1 0.3 0.9
depends on the lithography
system

Resolution Improvement
Method
Decrease
Increase NA
Reduce K1

Applied Physics 298r 12 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Reduce Wavelength

500 nm
Hg g-Line
(435 nm) 420 nm
350 nm
Hg i-Line
300 nm
(365 nm)
250 nm
180 nm
KrF Laser + PSM

CD Node
(248 nm) 150 nm
130 nm
ArF 110 nm
+ PSM
Microlithography (193 nm) 90 nm

Technology 70 nm
F2 Laser 65 nm
Trend (157 nm)
55 nm

75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10

Applied Physics 298r 13 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Depth of Focus (DOF) Requirement

DOF - The range over which there are clear optical images

1
DOF = K 2
NA2 NA2

DOF decreases much faster than that of resolution when NA increase!

Why need to meet DOF Requirement?

Substrate is not flat (~ 10 um across a wafer)
There are previously fabricated patterns on the wafer (~ um)

Example
K2 = 0.5, = 435 nm (G-line), NA = 0.6, DOF ~ 0.6 um!

Applied Physics 298r 14 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 DOF and Practical Resolution

0.6 3

0.5 2.5
Resolutin (um)

DOF = 1.0
0.4 2

DOF (um)
0.3 DOF = 0.5 1.5
0.2 DOF = 0 1
Resolution
0.1 DOF 0.5

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

NA

Applied Physics 298r 15 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Off-Axis Illumination

High-order diffracted light is lost Some high-order diffracted light is

captured

Applied Physics 298r 16 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

Resolution of Contact and Proximity Printing
Fresnel Diffraction (near filed)

Contact Printing: 2b = k 0.5d

2s
Proximity Printing: 2b = k ( s + 0.5d ) = k 0.5d 1 +
d

Example
= exposure wavelength
d = resist thickness = 435 nm (g-line)
2b = line-space pitch resolution d = 0.5 m
s = mask-resist spacing s = 10 m
k~3 b (contact) ~ 0.5 m
b (Proximity) ~ 2.6 m

Applied Physics 298r 17 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Comparison of Three Systems

System Pros Cons

High resolution Mask contamination and
Contact Low cost damage
High throughput Defects impact
Proximity Low mask contamination Poor resolution
High resolution
Projection Low mask contamination Expensive
High throughput

Applied Physics 298r 18 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Mask Components
Substrate Requirement
High transmission at exposure wavelength
Small thermal expansion coefficient
High degree of flatness
Substrate Low non-linear effect

Common material: Quartz, fused-silica or

borosilicate glasses

Opaque Material Requirement

Opaque Material
No transmission at exposure wavelength
Good adhesion to the substrate
High degree of durability

Choice of material: Chrome, emulsion and ion

oxide

Applied Physics 298r 19 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Mask Polarity

Dark-Field (negative) Grating Clear-Field (Positive)

Dark-Field Mask:
Less adjacent/background exposure
Less defect impact

Applied Physics 298r 20 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Optical Proximity Correction (OPC)

Without OPC

With OPC

Applied Physics 298r 21 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Phase-Shift Mask (PSM)

No phase shift /2 phase shift

Amplitude

Constructive Destructive
interference interference
Intensity

Reduced MTF Reduce Linewidth

Improved MTF

Applied Physics 298r 22 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Example of PSM

Applied Physics 298r 23 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Components of Photoresist

Conventional optical photoresist has three components:

1) Matrix material
2) Sensitizer
3) Solvent

Sensitizer
Also called inhibitor
Photoactive compound (PAC)
Insoluble without radiation - preventing resist to be dissolved
Take photochemical reaction upon exposing to light, transferring
from dissolution inhibitor to dissolution enhancer

Applied Physics 298r 24 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Matrix and Solvent

Matrix Material
Also called resin Solvent
Serves a binder Keep photoresist in
Inert to radiation liquid state
Dissolves fast in developer Allows spin coating of
(~ 150 A/s) the resist
Provides resistant to etchers Solvent content
Provides adhesion to the determines resists
substrate viscosity and hence the
Contributes to the mechanical its thickness
properties of the resist

Applied Physics 298r 25 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Function of PAC

Dissolve Rate
Material Function of PAC
in Developer

Matrix 150 A/s NA

Matrix + Sensitizer
10 20 A/s Dissolution Inhibitor
without Radiation
Matrix + Sensitizer
1000 2000 A/s Dissolution Enhancer
with Radiation

Differential solubility before and after exposure:

100 : 1

Applied Physics 298r 26 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Positive and Negative Photoresist

Positive Resist
The solubility of exposed
regions is much higher than the
unexposed region in a solvent
(called developer)
Produces a positive image of
Mask
the mask
Resist

Negative Resist
The solubility of exposed
regions is much lower than the
unexposed region in developer
Produces a negative image of
the mask

Applied Physics 298r 27 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

Comparison of Positive and Negative Resists

Property Positive Photoresist Negative Photoresist

Resolution High Low (~> 1um)

Developer Temperature sensitive (-) Temperature non-sensitive (+)

Mask Type Dark-Field Mask: lower-defect Clear-Field Mask: higher-defect

Rinse In Water (+) In solvent (n-Butylacetate) (-)

Cost More Expensive Cheaper

Exposure
3-4 times faster (+)
Speed

Adhesion Better

Backing In air (+) In Nitrogen (-)

Profile Undercut (+) Overcut (-)

Lift-off In Acetone In solvent (Methyl Ethyl Ketone ) (-)

Applied Physics 298r 28 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Resist Response Curve

Positive Resist Negative Resist

Mormalized Resist Thickness

Mormalized Resist Thickness

1.2 1.2

1 1

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 Log Df 0.4

Log D0
0.2 0.2
Log D0 Log Df
0 0

Exposure Dose (log) Exposure Dose (log)

D0 Initial dissolution dose Df 100% dissolution dose

Ideally, 1) Df ~ D0, 2) Small Df

Applied Physics 298r 29 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Response Curve vs. Resist Profile

The slop of the response curve determines:

Resolution (minimum linewidth)
Resist wall angle
Linewidth control

Applied Physics 298r 30 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Contrast
Contrast ()
= the slop of the response curve
ability of resist to distinguish
between light and dark
regions

1
=
D
log f
D0

Resist UV DUV
n 2~3 1~2
p 5 ~ 10 3~6

Applied Physics 298r 31 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Surface Reflection Standing Wave

Applied Physics 298r 32 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Surface Topographic Effect

Mask
Cr Cr

Resist

Oxide Metal

Imagine control is a problem for surface with significant

topographic non-uniformity

Applied Physics 298r 33 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Surface Effect Elimination

Standing Wave
Substrate anti-reflection coating (ARC)
Add unbleachable dyes to resist
Post baking after exposure (before development)
Multi-wavelength

Topographic Non-uniformity
Substrate palanarization, e.g. CMP
Planarized photolithography process

Applied Physics 298r 34 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Tri-Layer Resist Process

Mask
Cr

Resist
Hard Mask (SiO2)

ARC Planarization

Oxide Metal

Applied Physics 298r 35 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Tri-Layer Resist Process

Reactive Etching

Resist
Hard Mask (SiO2)

ARC Planarization

Oxide Metal

Applied Physics 298r 36 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Tri-Layer Resist Process

Reactive Etching

Resist
Hard Mask (SiO2)

ARC
ARC Planarization

Oxide Metal

Applied Physics 298r 37 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Adhesion Improvement and HMDS

Problems Associated with Poor Typical Solutions

Resist Adhesion Substrate dehydration bake
Resist peel off from the
Use adhesion primer, e.g. HMDS
substrate
Severe undercut during wet etch
HMDS (Hexamethyldisilazane)
Loss of resolution

Application of HMDS
Particular helpful for SiO2 surface
Only monolayer is necessary
Two Typical Process
Spin coating: 3000 6000 rpm for 20 -30 s
Vapor priming: in vapor chamber for ~ 10 min

Applied Physics 298r 38 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

Typical Lithography Process Steps (S1800)

Applied Physics 298r 39 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Advanced Lithography Technology

E-Beam Lithography

X-Ray Lithography

Focused Ion Beam Lithography

Alternative Lithography
Soft-lithography
Imprinting lithography

Applied Physics 298r 40 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 500 nm
Hg g-Line
420 nm (435 nm)
350 nm Lithography
300 nm
Hg i-Line
(365 nm)
Technology
250 nm Node
180 nm
KrF Laser + PSM
150 nm (248 nm)

130 nm
110 nm ArF
+ PSM
90 nm (193 nm)
70 nm
65 nm F2 Laser
(157 nm)
45 nm
E-Beam (5 nm) X-Ray (0.01 - 1 nm) Ion-Beam (0.1 nm)

75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10

Applied Physics 298r 41 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Electron-Beam Lithography (EBL)

General Characteristics
Diffraction is not a limitation on resolution
Resolution depends on beam size, can reach ~ 5 nm
Two applications:
Direct Writing
Projection (step and repeat)
Issues:
Throughput of direct writing is very low research tool or low pattern
density manufacturing
Projection stepper is in development stage (primarily by Nikon). Mask
making is the biggest challenge for projection method
Back-scattering and second electron result in proximity effect reduce
resolution with dense patterns
Operate in high vacuum (10-6 10-10 torr) slow and expensive

Applied Physics 298r 42 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Schematic of E-Beam System

Electron Emitter

1st Condense Lens (Electrostatic or magnetic)

Blanking Electrode

2nd Condense Lens

Beam Limiting Aperture

Deflector

Final Lens

Substrate

Applied Physics 298r 43 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Spherical Aberration
e-

Electron Lens

Beam blur 3

Applied Physics 298r 44 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Coulomb Interaction

Boersch Effect Loeffler Effect

e-
e- e-
-
e

e-
e- e-

e-

Electrons repel each other in the Electrons repel/collide each other in the
beam direction radial direction
Causes energy spread among Causes trajectory change and energy
electrons spread among electrons
Result in chromatic aberration Result in chromatic as well as spherical
aberration

Applied Physics 298r 45 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Beam Size (d)

d = d g2 + d s2 + d c2 + d d2

dv
d g2 (Virtual Source) = (dv - Source size, M demagnification)
M

1 (Cs spherical aberration, beam convergence angle

d s2 ( Spherical Aberration ) = Cs 3
2 Cs f (focal length) )

E (Cc chromatic aberration, E electron energy spread,

d c2 (Chromatic Aberration ) = Cc
Vb Vb electron acceleration voltage)

=
1 .2
( nm )
d d2 ( Diffraction Limit ) = 0.6 (electron wavelength)
Vb

For High Resolution:

What about ?
M, Vb, E, f

Applied Physics 298r 46 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Resolution vs. Convergence Angle

100
Vb = 30 KV

Beam Diameter (nm)

E = 1.5 eV
Cs = 60 nm
Cc = 40 nm Dg
dv = 20 nm Ds
M =5
10 Dc
Dd
D

1
0.1 1 10

(milli-radians)

DOF = d /

Applied Physics 298r 47 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Electron Source

Thermionic Emission
Working Brightness (B) Energy Filament Gun
Gun Material
Principle (A/cm2/Sr) Width (eV) Temperature Vacuum (torr)

W ~ 105 2-3 ~ 3000K 10-5 - 10-6

Electron
Emission at
High Temp. LaB6 ~ 106 2-3 2000 3000K 10-7 - 10-8

Field Emission
Working Brightness (B) Energy Filament Gun
Gun Material
Principle (A/cm2Sr) Width (eV) Temperature Vacuum (torr)

Electron
Tunneling in W 109 1010 0.2 0.5 Room < 10-9
High field

Applied Physics 298r 48 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

Electron Scattering in Resist and Substrate

e-
Forward Secondary electrons
Scattering (small angle)

Resist

Back Scattering
Substrate
(large angle)

The scattered electrons also expose the resist!

Applied Physics 298r 49 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Scattering Energy Distribution

Double Gaussian Distribution

1000 Blur written pattern

100
Exposure (a.u.)

10
Forward Scattering Expose adjacent area
1
0.1
0.01
Back Scattering
0.001
0.0001
0.01 0.1 1 10

Range (um)

Applied Physics 298r 50 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Proximity Effect

Df

MTF is greatly reduced at high pattern density

Applied Physics 298r 51 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Proximity Effect Correction

Use thin resist

Use thin substrate
Adjust acceleration voltage
Split pattern into several writings using different
doses
Adjust pattern size and shapes (remember diffraction
correction in mask engineering?)
Adjust dose level to compensate scattering

Applied Physics 298r 52 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

Proximity Correction Ghost Exposure

Without Ghost 1 Multiple Defocused Beam

Applied Physics 298r 53 E. Chen (4-12-2004)

 Raith-150 EBL System at CIMS

Specification
Direct Writing and SEM system

Thermal assisted field emission (LaB6)

Acceleration voltage range: 200 30KV

Probe Current Range: 5 pA -20 nA

Field Size: 0.5 1000 m

Beam Size: 2 nm @ 30 KeV

Lithography Resolution : < 20 nm

Field Stitching Capability: < 60nm

Maximum wafer size: 6

Writing speed: 10MHz

Load locked

Applied Physics 298r 54 E. Chen (4-12-2004)