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 Introduction

The layered model that dominated data communications and networking literature before
1990 was the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. Everyone believed that the OSI
model would become the ultimate standard for data communications, but this did not
happen. The TCP/IP protocol suite became the dominant commercial architecture because it
was used and tested extensively in the internet; the OSI model was never fully
implemented.

Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body

dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO standard that covers
all the aspects of network communications is the Open Systems Interconnection model. It
was first introduced in the late 1970s.

An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate
regardless of their underlying architecture. The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to
facilitate communication between different systems without requiring changes to the logic
of the underlying hardware and software.

The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a network
architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.

The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows
communication between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven separate but
related layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving information across a
network.
 SEVEN LAYERS OF OSI MODEL

APPLICATION
PRESENTATIO
N
SESSION
TRANSPORT
NETWORK
DATALINK
PHYSICAL

LAYERED ARCHITECTURE
THE OSI model is composed of seven ordered layers; physical (layer1), data link (layer2),
network (layer3), transport (layer4), session (layer5), presentation (layer6), application
(layer7).

In developing the model, the designers distilled the process of transmitting data to its most
fundamental elements. They identified which networking functions had related uses and
collected those functions into discrete groups that became the layers. Each layer defines a
family of functions distinct from those of the other layers. By defining and localizing
functionality in this fashion, the designers created an architecture that is both
comprehensive and flexible. Most importantly, the OSI model allows complete
interoperability between otherwise incompatible systems.

Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services of the layer just below it. Layer 3,
for example, uses the services provided by layer 2 and provides services for layer 4.
Between machines, layer x on one machine communicates with layer x on another machine.
This communication is governed by an agreed-upon series of rules and conventions called
protocols. The processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer are called
peer-to-peer processes. Communication between machines is therefore a peer-to-peer
process using the protocols appropriate to a given layer.
 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
1. Physical Layer: The physical layer coordinates the functions required to
carry a bit stream over a physical medium. It deals with mechanical and electrical
specifications of the interface and transmission medium. It also defines the
procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to perform for
transmission to occur.
a) Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium: The physical layer
defines the characteristics of the interface between the devices and the
transmission medium. It also defines the type of transmission medium.
b) Representation of bits: The physical layer data consists of a stream of
bits (sequence of 0s and 1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted,
bits must be encoded into signals- electrical or optical. The physical layer
defines the type of encoding (how 0s and 1s are changed to signals).
c) Data rate: The transmission rate – the number of bits sent each second-
is also defined by the physical layer. In other words, the physical defines
the duration of bits, which is how long it lasts.
d) Synchronization of bits: The sender and receiver not only must use the
same bit rate but also must be synchronized at the bit level. In other
words, the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
e) Line configuration: The physical layer is concerned with the connection
of devices with the media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices
are connected through a dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a
link is shared among several devices.
f) Physical topology: The physical topology defines how devices are
connected to make a network. Devices can be connected by using a
mesh topology (every device is connected to every other device),star
topology, ring topology etc.
g) Transmission mode: The physical layer also defines the directions of
transmission between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

2. Data link layer: The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw
transmission facility, to a reliable link. It makes physical layer appear error-free to the
upper layer (network layer).

a) Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from
the network layer into manageable data units called frames.
 b) Physical addressing: If frames are to be distributed to different
systems on the network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame
to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame is
intended for a system outside the sender’s network, the receiver
address is the address of the device that connects the network to the
next one.

c) Flow control: If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver
is less than the rate at which data are produced at the sender, the data
link layer imposes a flow of control mechanism to avoid overwhelming
the receiver.

d) Error control: The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by
adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames.
It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is
normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.

e) Access control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
link, data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device
has control over the link at any given time.

3. Network layer: The network layer is responsible for source to destination

delivery of packet, possibly across multiple networks (links). Whereas the data link
layer oversees the delivery of the packet between two systems on the same networks
(links), the network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its
final destination.
If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a network
layer. However, if the two systems are attached to different networks with
connecting devices between networks (links), there is often a need for the network
layer to accomplish source-to-destination delivery.

a) Logical addressing: The physical addressing implemented by the

data link handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet passes
the network boundary, we need addressing system to help
distinguish the source and destination systems. The network layer
adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer that,
among other things, includes the logical addresses of the sender and
receiver.
 b) Routing: When independent networks or links are connected to
create internetworks (network of networks) or a large network, the
connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or switch the
packets to their final destination. One of the functions of the
network layer is to provide this mechanism.

4. Transport layer: The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process

delivery of the entire message. A process is an application program running on a host.
Whereas the network layer oversees source-to-destination delivery of individual
packets, it does not recognize any relationship between those packets. It treats each
one independently, as though each piece belonged to a separate message, whether
or not it does. The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the whole
message arrives intact in order, overseeing both error control and flow control at the
source-to-destination level.
a) Service-point addressing: Computing often run several programs
at the same time. For this reason, source-to-destination delivery
means delivery not only from one computer to the next but also
from a specific process (running program) on one computer to a
specific process (running program) on the other. The transport
layer header must therefore include a type of address called
service-point address (or port address). The network layer gets
each packet to the correct computer; the transport layer gets the
entire message to the correct process on that computer.
b) Segmentation and reassembly: A message is divided into
transmittable segments, with each segment containing a
sequence number. These numbers enable the transmission port
layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the
destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in
transmission.
c) Connection control: The transport layer can be either
connectionless or connection-oriented. A connectionless
transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet
and delivers it to the transport layer treats each segment as an
independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the
destination machine. A connection-oriented transport layer
makes as connection with the transport layer at the destination
machine first before delivering the packets. After all the data are
transferred, the connection is terminated.
 d) Flow control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is
responsible for flow control. However, flow control at this layer is
performed end to end rather than across a single link.
e) Error control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is
responsible for error control. However, error control at this layer
is performed rather than across a single link. The sending
transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the
receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss or
duplication). Error correction is usually achieved through
retransmission.

5. Session layer: The services provided by the first three layer (physical, data
link and network) are not sufficient for some processes. The session layer is the
network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction
among communicating systems.
a) Dialog control: The session layer allows two systems to enter
into a dialog. It allows the communication between two
processes to take place in either half-duplex (one way at a
time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.
b) Synchronization: The session layer allows a process to add
checkpoints, or synchronization points, to a stream of data.
For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is
advisable to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages to
ensure that each 100 page unit is received and acknowledged
independently. In this case if a crash happens during the
transmission of page 523, the only pages that need to be
resent after system recovery are 501 to 523 pages. Pages
previous to 501 need not be resent.

6. Presentation Layer: The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax

and semantics of the information exchanged between two systems.
a) Translation: The processes (running programs) in two
systems are usually exchanging information in the form of
character strings, numbers and so on. The information
must be changed to bit streams before being transmitted.
Because different computers use different encoding
systems, the presentation layer is responsible for
interoperability between these different encoding
 methods. The presentation layer at the sender changes the
information from its sender-dependent format into a
common format. The presentation layer at the receiving
machine changes the common format into its receiver-
dependent format.
b) Encryption: To carry sensitive information, a system must
be able to ensure privacy. Encryption means that the
sender transforms the original information to another form
and sends the resulting message out over the network.
Decryption reverses the original process to transform the
message back to its original form.
c) Compression: Data compression reduces the number of
bits contained in the information. Data compression
becomes particularly important in the transmission of
multimedia such as text, audio, and video.

7. Application layer: The application layer enables the user, whether

human or software, to access the network. It provides user interfaces and support for
services such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared databases
management, and other types of distributed information services.
a) Network virtual terminal: A network virtual terminal is a
software version of a physical terminal, and it allows a user
to log on to a remote host. To do so, the application
creates a software emulation of a terminal at the remote
host. The user’s computer talks to the software terminal
which, in turn, talks to the host, and vice versa. The remote
host believes it is communicating with one of its own
terminals and allows the user to log on.
b) File transfer, access, and management: This application
allows a user to access files in a remote host (to make
changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote
computer for use in the local computer, and to manage or
control files in a remote computer locally.
c) Mail services: This application provides the basis for e-mail
forwarding and storage.
d) Directory services: This application provides disturbed
databases sources and access for global information about
various objects and services.