OPEN ACCESS Journal of Applied Sciences

ISSN 1812-5654
DOI: 10.3923/jas.2017.212.237

Review Article
Shallow-marine Sandstone Reservoirs, Depositional
Environments, Stratigraphic Characteristics and Facies Model:
A Review
Numair Ahmed Siddiqui, Abdul Hadi A. Rahman, Chow Weng Sum, Wan Ismail Wan Yusoff and
Mohammad Suhaili bin Ismail

Department of Geoscience, Faculty of Geoscience and Petroleum Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Perak, Malaysia

Abstract
A significant percentage of the world s hydrocarbon reserves are found in shallow-marine sandstone deposits. Understanding the internal
characteristics, distribution, geometry and lateral extent of these sandstones in the subsurface is therefore, an essential part of successful
exploration and production strategy. The aim of this study was to document a review on the understanding of shallow-marine sandstone
reservoirs, depositional environments, stratigraphic characteristics and facies modeling which is quit challenging because of generic
hierarchy of different scale and sets of heterogeneities. This review was based on seven different types of clastic coastal depositional
environments: Deltas, tide-dominated estuaries, wave-dominated estuaries, barrier-islands and lagoons, strand plains and tidal flats. This
study documented a broad examination of these depositional environments and their corresponding stratigraphic and facies models
which lead to a better understanding of their impact on reservoir heterogeneities within these settings. The review supports the
hypotheses of previous researchers that wave, tide and river power exercise the primary control over the gross geomorphology and facies
distribution patterns in clastic coastal depositional environments which can be applicable to any region on earth where clastic coastal
depositional environments may be identified from stratigraphic characteristics.

Key words: Shallow-marine deposits, depositional environment, stratigraphy, facies model

Received: November 21, 2016 Accepted: March 10, 2017 Published: April 15, 2017

Citation: Numair Ahmed Siddiqui, Abdul Hadi A. Rahman, Chow Weng Sum, Wan Ismail Wan Yusoff and Mohammad Suhaili bin Ismail, 2017.
Shallow-marine sandstone reservoirs, depositional environments, stratigraphic characteristics and facies model: A review. J. Applied Sci., 17: 212-237.

Corresponding Author: Abdul Hadi A. Rahman, Department of Geoscience, Faculty of Geoscience and Petroleum Engineering,
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Perak, Malaysia Tel: +60149975114

Copyright: 2017 Numair Ahmed Siddiqui et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Competing Interest: The authors have declared that no competing interest exists.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its supporting information files.
 J. Applied Sci., 17 (5): 212-237, 2017

INTRODUCTION Siliciclastic shallow-marine sediments and rocks are

product of the depositional environments located between
Siliciclastic shallow-marine deposits form reservoir in land and sea and their response to a variety of forcing
many of the world s major hydrocarbon provinces mechanisms26. The geomorphic evolution of such depositional
(e.g., Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nigeria, North Sea, environments (including deltas, estuaries, lagoons, strand
Venezuela, etc.). These rocks hold the vast majority of the plains and tidal flats) is controlled by the relative importance
remaining hydrocarbon reservoirs which is quit challenging of several main factors, which includes; physical process
because of generic hierarchy of different scale and sets of regime, the internal dynamics of coastal and shelf depositional
heterogeneities. Identification and prediction of system, relative sea-level, sediment flux, tectonic setting and
heterogeneities in these reservoirs is therefore a vital to climate. The main physical processes operating in these
efficiently and economically produce these reservoirs1-3. settings are river-derived flows, waves, shoreline and
Numerous studies by different groups have investigated tidal-currents. The flow energy in such environments are
the facies characteristics and their impact on reservoir generally higher19,27-30. This resulted in a complex pattern of
heterogeneity4-10. These studies were based on outcrops and transportation and deposition of coarse sediments
field data and also on constructed reservoir simulation models, (silt, sand and occasionally conglomerates). The gross
using detailed geological outcrop and oilfield data11-15. Among geomorphology of clastic coastal depositional environments
the objectives are to upscale and capture the effects of small is affected by the relative importance of long shore currents,
scale heterogeneities on flow performance16-25. The outcomes waves and tides in controlling the amount, nature, distribution
of this study gives a surface-based modeling approach that and transportation of sediment along the coast3,10,31,32 (Fig. 1).
has been used to construct a reservoir-scale, 3-D model of the The significant alongshore sediment transport that
facies architecture, used to represent both key stratigraphic produces coast parallel sedimentary features is by large swell
horizons and facies boundaries in the model. waves generate, such as spits, barriers, sand bars and barrier

Marsh Mud Sand

Upper delta Vegetated
plain land area
Lower delta
plain Active
Delta front river
Prodelta

Strand
plain

Lagoon
Barriers
Tide-dominated
estuary
Tidal flat Wave-dominated
estuary
Line coast with marine
sediment supply Delta
Increasing tidal Increasing wave
power power
River-dominated Wave-dominated
Tide-dominated (Retreating) (Prograding) (Retreating/prograding)

Fig. 1: Significant of coast parallel sedimentary features by large swell waves generate, such as spits, barriers, sand bars and
barrier islands
Tidal currents generally produce coast normal sedimentary features, including: Elongate tidal sand banks, wide-mouthed estuaries, funnel-shaped (in plain
view) deltaic distributary channels and broad intertidal flats

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River delta

Wave delta Tide delta

Delta

Wave-dominated Tide-dominated
estuary estuary

Lagoon

Strand plain Tidal f lat

Fig. 2: Classification of six different types of depositional environment in ternary diagram30

islands. In contrast, large tidal ranges (>4 m) and strong tidal facies models are an integral part of understanding the
currents generally produce coast normal sedimentary features, stratigraphic evolution of a depositional system.
including: Elongate tidal sand banks, wide-mouthed estuaries, The aim of this study is to supports the hypotheses of
funnel-shaped (in plain view) deltaic distributary channels and previous researchers and reviews the documented
broad intertidal flats (Fig. 1). These depositional settings are information on shallow-marine siliciclastic depositional
dominantly composed of clastic sediments and has long environments, the facies and stratigraphic characteristics of
been studies all over the world18,22,28,29,33-39, mainly which the sandstones and facies model and their impact on reservoir
includes, the Nile river delta, the Mississippian delta, the heterogeneity for detail analysis and demonstration on
Ganges/Brahmaputra delta and the Niger delta. These present conditions.
shallow-marine sandstone environments can be characterized
by their distinct facies which are reliable indicator of any KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF SHALLOW-MARINE
(river, wave or tide-dominated environment) depositional DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS AND SANDSTONE
process (Fig. 2). Having the concept of sedimentary facies and RESERVOIR HETEROGENEITY
stratigraphy, facies analyses of high quality exposures in
several coastal plains, all over the world provide an The shallow-marine and coastal realm is defined as
opportunity to examine the stratigraphic nature of these The depositional system that exist between the landward
shallow-marine sandstone deposits. Based on distinct influence of the marine processes and the seaward
assemblages of physical and biogenic sedimentary structures, influence of continental, mainly fluvial (river) processes40,41 .
the vertical sequence of facies, each depositional environment Shallow-marine environments are generally considered and
can be recognized. Some present day examples have recently classified according to physical process regime16. The main
been described by many researchers18,27,29. But the individual physical processes operating in shallow-marine setting are
facies are of little interpretative value. However, when use in waves and storms, tidal currents and river-derived flows20.
combination as facies models, facies successions highlight Shallow-marine sandstones can be characterized by their
lateral and vertical variations between different sedimentary distinct features which are reliable indicators of
environments. A facies model represents a general summary shallow-marine environment. First, the physical processes
of a given depositional system which represent a are generally distinctive: For example, extensive sheets and
generalization of the physical attributes for a certain type of ridges of cross bedded sand deposited by strong currents,
depositional environment, where the local variations from hummocky and swaley cross-stratification are distinctive
numerous modern and ancient examples have been Distilled sedimentary structures that are believed to be unique to
away to leave only the common features. Since, accurate storm-deposited sands. Secondly, the organisms, either as

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body fossils, specifically benthic organisms that are only deltas, wave-dominated estuaries, strand plains and lagoons)
abundant in shelf environments or as trace fossils and tide-dominated coasts (characterized by tide-dominated
(distinct shallow-marine trace fossil assemblage). Third are the deltas, tide-dominated estuaries and prograding tidal flats
lithology and texture, mainly sand and mud with some gravel (Fig. 1). All shallow-marine depositional systems are affected
and moderately to well-sorted. to a greater or lesser degree by all of these six depositional
Therefore, shallow-marine depositional system is based processes classified within a ternary diagram scheme (Fig. 2).
upon the long-term movement of the shoreline and the key Any point within the triangle is defined by the relative
depositional processes. This shoreline movement is controlled importance of depositional environment in controlling the
by the balance between the amount of sediment supplied to resultant facies (and ultimately, reservoir) architecture for
the depositional system and the amount of accommodation building model.
space created40,42. The depositional environment and facies
succession of shallow-marine sandstone may preserve DELTAS
indicators of change in sea-level during transgression and
regression and are often easily identified, because of the Deltas are formed from the deposition of the sediment
unique conditions required to deposit the different facies carried by the river as the flow leaves the mouth of the
successions (parasequences) (Fig. 1). For instance, during river22,45,49,50. Over-long period of time this deposition builds
transgression the coarse-grained clastics like sand are usually the characteristics geographic pattern in the form of the
deposited in near-shore, high-energy environments, triangular shape of the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet ()).
fine-grained sediments however, such as silt and carbonate As the sediment-laden, river enters the standing body of
muds are deposited farther offshore, in deep, low-energy water, the flow decelerates, which diminishes the ability of the
waters43. Thus, a transgression reveals itself in the sedimentary flow to transport sediment. As a result, sediments drop-out of
column when there is a change from near-shore facies the flow and deposits. Over time, this single river channel will
(such as sandstone) to offshore ones (such as marl) from the build a deltaic lobe (such as, the birds-foot of the Mississippi
oldest to the youngest rocks. A regression will feature the delta, the Nile delta shown in Fig. 3), pushing its mouth further
opposite pattern with offshore facies changing to near-shore into the standing water. As the river enters the standing water
ones43. Regressions are less well-represented in the strata, of sea the morphologies of delta changes, the original deltaic
as their upper layers are often marked by an erosional shape range from elongate finger building out into the sea
unconformity. Many studies concentrate on progradational (such as the Mississippi delta), to highly prominent sand bars
(regression) systems because they are volumetrically most and ridges parallel to river direction (tidal delta) or to highly
important as reservoirs44,45, examples include the Niger delta46, reworked distributary channels and mouth-bars of river by
the Palaeo-Baram delta of Borneo and Brunei18,47 and many waves, which form a beach ridge barriers complex that
others. approximately parallel to the shoreline. In this regard, there
The shallow-marine shorelines are subdivided further are three key processes have been identified in delta system,
based upon the dominant depositional process. Six broad i.e., fluvial, wave and tide-dominated delta system40,51,52 (Fig. 2).
types of clastic coastal depositional environment are
recognized (Table 1), which divided into two main groups: Depositional environment and process: The formation of
(1) Those that receive a large sediment supply and are actively delta system consist of three main forms; the delta plain
prograding seawards (e.g., deltas, strand plains and tidal flats) (where river process dominate), the delta front (where river
and (2) Those that receive a small sediment supply and which and basinal processes are both important) and the prodelta
exhibit geomorphic features associated with the Holocene sea (where basinal processes dominated)53 (Fig. 4) from subaerial
level rise and have yet to completely fill their Paleo valleys48. delta setting to subaqueous delta. This form, from delta plain
Under conditions of stable sea level, the existence of these to prodelta may be influence by tide or wave-dominated
types of clastic coastal depositional environments depends on processes which change the morphology of depositional
the relative quantities of terrestrial and/or marine sediment environment with subaerial to subaqueous delta. Within this
supplied in relation to the size of the receiving basin. Because forms the basic depositional environment in a deltaic system
of the close link between the geomorphology of clastic coastal is the mouth-bars41,54, as, if the sediment is not significantly
depositional environments and the relative influence of waves reworked by the wave and tidal-dominated processes. The
and tides at the coast, it is possible to distinguish between mouth-bars, which as aggrades, it eventually becomes
wave-dominated coasts (characterized by wave-dominated emergent and diverges the river into two distributary channels

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 Table 1: Summary of different depositional environments, stratigraphic characteristics and facies model with modern, ancient and oil field examples
Shallow-marine
environments Distinct environments and facies Representative stratigraphy Model Examples
Deltas Distributary channels (coarse-to fine-grained), Modern: Nile and Mississippi delta19,44,35
mouth-bars, distal mouth-bars Ancient: Battfjellet and Pennsylvanian Perrin delta35
(mudstone and siltstone) Oil-fields: Nun field Nigeria and Gudao oil field China81

Source: UGA Stratigraphic lab

Wave-dominated Wave ripples and hummocky cross-stratification, Modern: Nile delta and Brazos delta28
deltas soft sediment deformation, climbing current Ancient: Niger and Baram delta18,58
ripples, brackish fauna and staked Oil-fields Nigeria delta and Budare field,
coarsening and fining-upward facies Eastern Venezuela58

Source: Walker and James53 Source: Nichols74

Tide-dominated Strata displays coarsening-up of a delta with tidal Modern: Ganges-Brahmaputra and
deltas channels of delta plain and tidal flat of delta top Changjiang tidal delta73
facies, structure includes, cross bedding, tidal Ancient: Changjang tidal delta and
bedding, reactive surface and flaser, wavy and Fly rive tidal delta58,73

216
lenticular bedding, herringbone cross-stratification, Oil-fields Troll West field, Norwegian North sea
mud drapes and channel erosional base and Lagunillas field Western Venezuela 73
Source: UGA Stratigraphic lab Source: Nichols74
Tide-dominated Flood plain (burrows and mudstone), tidal flat Modern: Fitzroy and Amazon river66
estuaries (trough cross, flaser and lenticular bedding) Ancient: Changjang estuary and Gironde estuary73
and tidal channels and point bar with erosive base Oil-fields: Sacha field Ecuador and Aspelintoppen
J. Applied Sci., 17 (5): 212-237, 2017

Formation Central Basin of Spitsbergen65

Source: UGA Stratigraphic lab

Wave-dominated Upper shoreface (trough cross sandstone), Modern: Danube and Baram estuary18,77
estuaries lower shoreface (proximal storm bed with Ancient: Hueco formation South-Central New Mexico
mudstone interbedded) and offshore and Floras lakes South-West Oregon19
(burrowed mudstone with storm bed) Oil-fields: Little Bow field, Canada and Finnmark field,
North Norway37

Source: UGA Stratigraphic lab

 Table 1: Continue
Shallow-marine
environments Distinct environments and facies Representative stratigraphy Model Examples
Barrier island Barrier islands are mainly sand and gravel Modern: Albemarle and Pamlico Ferron beach
and lagoons (subhorizontal (planar) stratification and wave lagoon in North Carolina83
reworking structure) and lagoon consist of both Ancient: Ferron Sandstone Utah and
mud and sand (interbedded and inter-fingering Venice lagoon Italy13
sandstone, shale, siltstone and coal) Oil-fields: Sabkha field and Tigre lagoon oil field, Louisiana78

Strand plains Beach ridges (sand and gravel within fine or Modern: Western Louisiana and strand plain, Bahia
coarsening coastal plain or upward-fining Province, Brazil (Source: Wikipedia)
channel sandstones and cheniers plains Ancient: San Juan basin outcrop, Frio formation Texas
of fine-grained sediment at Austin87

217
Oil-fields: Fario formation field Texas and seventy six West
field, South Texas86,87

Tidal flats Burrowed trough cross-laminated sand stone Modern: Abu Dhabi Persian Gulf and Oban on Stewart
with falser to lenticular bedding and having island, New Zealand (Source: Wikipedia)
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fining upward trend Ancient: Palmares formations, North-Eastern Brazil and

Sabkhas outcrop Utah27
Oil-fields: Sam-Bis oil field Nigeria94

Source: UGA Stratigraphic lab

 J. Applied Sci., 17 (5): 212-237, 2017

(a) (b)

Fig. 3(a-b): Google and satellite images of (a) Mississippi delta and (b) Nile delta, an example of river dominated deltas, shows the
distribution of single channel into distributary lobes

Fig. 4: Three main forms of delta; the delta plain (where river process dominate), the delta front (where river and basinal processes
are both important) and the prodelta (where basinal processes dominated) 53

on either side of the bar. Two small mouth-bars are then described by Olariu and Bhattacharya35, Van Heerden55 and
deposited in the mouths of these channels and the channel DuMars56. Recent studies28,35,54,57 showed that both modern
continues to split until become too small to carry sediments and ancient delta-front have a complicated morphology,
(Fig. 5). After this, the system becomes chocked and avulsion consisting of multiple terminal distributary channels,
or lobe switching occurs35, the good example is Mississippi subaqueous levee deposits and mouth-bars. Few studies have
delta system. been dedicated to delta-front deposits, despite the key
The formation of shallow-marine deltaic basins is typically importance of delta sub-environment to understanding delta
exhibit a lobe shape with multi-scale coeval terminal growth and facies architecture35. Hence, distributary channels
distributary channels35. The relationship of terminal are described from delta plain and from when the main
distributary channels and coeval mouth-bars has been channel reaches an area with low variability of lateral gradient

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Channel Subaqueous Emergent

Subaqueous levee thalweg split mouth-bar mouth-bar

New terminal
Terminal distributary distributary
channel channel

Phase I
New channel split Phase II Sub-mouth bars

Channel infill
(abandonment)

Phase III

Fig. 5: Conceptional formation and evolution of a terminal distributary channel mouth-bar system 54
Three main phases of evolution have been distinguished, (i) Formation of new terminal distributary channels and mouth-bars, (ii) Migration of mouth-bars
and extension of terminal distributary channels and (iii) Abandonment of terminal distributary channels. Dotted lines represent subaqueous features

into shallow-water environment. Because the delta plain carried off down the longshore drift direction and mouth-bars
gradient are small and sedimentary rates are higher, the of distributary channels are unstable and easily reworked by
direction of distributary channels can be change easily by waves, which form a beach-ridges barriers complex that is
aggradation of different facies architecture or differential approximately parallel to shoreline. The modern example is
subsidence and compaction, such that the gradient will be the Nile delta in Egypt19, the Sao Francisco in Brazil, Baram in
steeper in other direction and might capture part of the flow, Borneo and Ebro in Spain.
creating a new distributary channels. Whereas, if the delta is influenced by the tidal energy, the
As a consequence of this successive splitting, the geomorphology of the delta changes to tide-dominated delta,
distributary channels become smaller in the downstream with features a landward tapering funnel-shaped valley
35
direction. Olariu and Bhattacharya indicated that with each (Fig. 1) and river is connected to the sea via distributary
bifurcation or avulsion of channel width and depth changes as channels58,59.
Bk+1 = 0.7Bk and hk+1 = 0.8hk, respectively. Where, B is channel
width, h is channel depth and k is channel order. For a large Stratigraphy: The deltas are characterized by multiple
delta system (Volga delta, Lena delta), distributaries can laterally discontinuous sand bodies arranged in complex
rejoin, forming a delta pattern similar to braided or spatial patterns. This complexity reflects the hierarchical
35
anastomosed rivers . This results in smoothing of the platform staking of lobate depositional bodies that form by
(or map-view) shape of the delta as the channels move across deceleration of effluent water at the mouth of deltaic
its surface and deposit sediment. Because, the sediment is laid distributary channels debouching into a standing body of
down in this fashion, the shape of these deltas approximates water60. Such depositional bodies have been documented at
a fan. In case of wave delta system where waves redistribute four distinct orders of a stratigraphic hierarchy in deltas:
the sand supplied to the beach by the rivers, the delta shape (1) Distributary mouth-bars, which correspond to the
changes, known as wave-dominated delta. The sediment is individual mouth-bar in river delta and associated delta front

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Delta channel
Mouth-bar

Delta plain
Prodelta
Deep sea
Delta front
Interdistributary bay

Abundant delta lobes

Current delta lobe

Fig. 6: Arrangement stratigraphic elements in delta distribution and its control of variety of autogenic and allogenic processes
resulting in complex stratigraphic architecture 74

and prodelta deposits fed via terminal distributary channels49, Facies characteristics: A common feature of deltas is channel
(2) Mouth-bars assemblages, which comprise multiple instability due to very low gradient of the delta plain, resulting
coalesced mouth-bar deposits that is fed via the same shallow in frequent avulsion of the major and minor channels called
downstream-bifurcating distributary channel network with distributary channels, leaving the formal channel, its levees
parallel mouth-bars (in wave-influence processes) to shoreline and overbank deposits abandoned. The deposition of deltas
or perpendicular mouth-bar (in tidal-influence processes) to have well-developed delta top facies, consisting of channel
shoreline, (3) Delta lobes, each of which have bed feed via and overbank sediments. The characteristics of these facies,
single major trunk distributary channel35 and corresponds to the overbank areas of a delta top and plain may be sites of
a delta front clinoform set59 and (4) Delta complex, which prolific growth of vegetation, leading to the formation of peat
comprise multiple delta lobe that formed via switching and eventually coal. The channels build out to form the toes
because a nodal avulsion of major trunk distributary and of the bird s foot , with upward thickening and coarsening
which correspond to laterally offset and compensationally delta front deposits have terminal-distributary channels facies
stacked clinoform sets61. interbedded with mouth-bar deposits (Fig. 7). In general,
It has been studied that, the deposits of an abandoned mouth-bar has different sedimentary structures compared to
lobe will gradually compact as water deposited with the terminal distributary channels35. The mouth-bar having the
fine-grained sediment escapes from the pore spaces and the interbedded upward-coarsening or thickening succession of
bulk density increases. This compaction occurs without any burrowed, ripple cross-laminated, graded bedding, planar
additional load and results in the abandoned lobe subsiding parallel, massive and trough cross-stratification sandstones
below sea level. The beds that mark the end of sedimentation contain disseminated organic matter and thin organic-rich
on a delta lobe are known as the abandonment facies41. In the mudstone (Fig. 7). Whereas, terminal distributary channels,
upper part of the delta plain there will be peats or paleosols, usually having poorly sorted, medium to coarse-grained,
which represents a low elastic supply to this part of the plain, unidirectional trough cross-stratification sandstone containing
after this, that active lobe progradation have been moved occasional mud clasts, flute casts and plant fragments. The
elsewhere on the delta. These fringes of the delta lobe will be preserved organic matter is commonly high in delta fronts53.
areas of slow, fine-grained deposition of shallow water. In river-dominated deltas, prodelta mudstones and
Abandonment facies may show intense bioturbation because siltstones are typically massive to well-stratify and may show
of the slow sedimentation rate. The arrangement of these graded bedding. The graded bedding may results from
stratigraphic elements was controlled by a variety of (1) The setting of material carried out in suspension as a
autogenic and allogenic processes resulting in a buoyant plume or (2) From density underflow generated at
fundamentally complex stratigraphic architecture 49 (Fig. 6). the river mouth during time of high discharge50. The amount

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Lithology Structures
Facies Environment
20 Parallel lamination
Coal Delta plain Mudstone Bioturbation
Cross bedded trough
Poorly sorted, medium to coarse- Proximal delta front Sandstone
Herring-bone cross bedded
grained, unidirectional trough cross- (Terminal distributary Flaser bedded
stratified sandstone containing channels) Silty sand
occasional mud clasts, flute caste and Hummockey cross-stratified
plant fragment Wave-ripple lamination
10 Coal
Interbedded, upward-coarsening, Proximal delta front Erosive
thickening-upward succession of (Mouth-bars) Mud clasts
planar-parallel, massive and trough
cross-stratified sandstone containing
disseminated organic matter and thin
organic-rich mudstones.
15
Intensely burrowed, very-fine-grained Distal delta front
sandstone and silty sandstone with (Distal mouth-bars)
relict hummocky cross-stratification,
organic rich beds are few centimeters
thick are common

10

Dark to black mudstone containing Prodelta

occasional thin silty sandstone

0m

M S vf f m c
Sand

Fig. 7: Facie characteristics and stratigraphic distribution of delta depositional environment shows the different sets of
parasequences and sedimentary structures from prodelta to delta plains

of bioturbation in variable, depending on rate of sediment variability is due in part to the major role that fluvial system
supplied, wave-formed structure are common. Soft-sediment dominantly plays in defining estuary. A tidal estuary is a
deformation features resulting from high sedimentation rates, partially enclosed body of water formed where freshwater
are common in prodelta, or any be on a very large scale and from river and streams flows into the ocean, mixing with the
involve large proportions of the delta front sediments, as in sea water under the influence of micro to mega tidal
the Mississippi62. currents64-67. The tidal estuary are typically flanked by
low-laying vegetated flood plains, tidal flats and swamps area
TIDE-DOMINATED ESTUARIES because of appreciable tidal ranges and low incident wave
power, results in coast parallel tidal bars with drainage
An estuary is a partly enclosed coastal body of water with channels (Fig. 8). Because of the dominance of tidal processes,
one or more rivers or streams flowing into it and with a free the geomorphology of tide-dominated estuary features a
connection to the open sea63-66. The physical and biological landward tapering funnel-shaped valley and the river is
processes in nearly all estuaries are influenced by tides. The connected to the sea via distributary channels, channels may
degree of influence is governed by estuarine morphology, be separated by a large expanses of low gradient vegetated
tidal range, water and sediment discharge, wind and shelf swamps59 (Fig. 8).
processes. Tide-dominated estuaries are those in which tidal Most of the tidal estuaries today are located in tectonically
currents play the dominated role in the opposition of river active, low latitude region, including South Asia, East Asia and
sediment supply63. There is appreciable upstream transport of Oceania (Fig. 9). Many processes relevant to the development
bedload sediment as a result of deformation of tide during of tidal estuary system are common to these areas. First is
propagation. amplification, in high tidal range, area is supported by broad,
relatively shallow continental shelves and seas that are well
Depositional environment and processes: Among connected to open ocean, e.g., Amazon estuary in Brazil,
tidally-influenced sedimentary environments, tidal estuaries river Nith Estuary in South West Scotland and Exe Estuary in
are perhaps the most variable and difficult to characterize. This England are good examples. A second factor is common to

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Marine Tide

River

Tidal process

Ebb tide

Flood tide Swamp

Tidal sand bars

Vegetation area
Tidal cracks Tidal channel

Incised valley

Fig. 8: Geomorphology of tide-dominated estuary features a landward tapering funnel-shaped valley

It shows a typically flanked by low-laying vegetated flood plains, tidal flats and swamps areas because of appreciable tidal ranges and low incident wave power,
results in coast parallel tidal bars with drainage channels during flood and ebb tides

Fig. 9: Map of world s major river deltas system

With those forming tide-dominated deltas indicated in black circles are mostly located in tectonically active, low latitude region

most tidal estuaries and in many delta systems in general is Stratigraphy: The tidal estuaries are initially formed at the
68
that, they drain high-standing, tectonically active mountain . beginning of transgression and migrate landward as
Such active orogeny yield the abundant sediment required for transgression proceeds. As far as is known, relatively little
estuary/delta to form in high-energy coastal basins. In morphological changes occurs during this process, as long
particular the Himalayan-Tibetan uplift and Indonesia as the external process variables remain constant and the
Archipelago Sustain among the world s highest sediment facies zones simply translate landward63. Morphological
yield68. changes which cause deviations from the end-member

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(a)
Interfluves phases48,69,70. The phase one (Fig. 10a) the fluvial discharge
allow the deposition of channel sequence with formation of
incised-valley. As the tidal-influence dominated over the river
discharge, the tidal estuarine flank deposits over the channel
sand with bay line transgressed towards the landward side
(Fig. 10b). Finally, the tidal estuarine model builds with tidal
Fluvial inlet, bars and tidal ravinement surface (Fig. 10c). This is done,
deposits
because of in tide-dominated estuaries, tidal current readily
Sequence boundary
Incised valley
(Channel horizon) redistribute the sediment supplied by both river and marine
sources48. As a result, there is rapid in filling of the deeper and
(b)
wider parts and development of the classic funnel-shaped
Fluvial Estuarine flank deposits geometry and facies distribution. Once this situation exists,
deposits
further sediment input should cause the stratigraphic zones to
prograde seaward, with the relative distribution of facies
remaining essentially constant. The stages in the growth of the
Bay line tidal sand bars have been discussed by Harris71, who showed
that the bars become broader as the estuary fills.
Small point
bars
Transgressive bay Facies characteristics: The tide-dominated estuary facies are
flooding surface poorly known from the stratigraphic record and are
notoriously complex, owing to the wide spectrum of facies
(c) encountered and their spatial/temporal variability72. As the
Flood tide total-tidal energy is not as pronounced as in wave-dominated
estuaries, because tidal energy penetrates further headword
than wave energy. Thus, the facies distribution is not as
obvious and sands occur in the tidal channels that run along
the length of the estuary63. The muddy sediments accumulate
Transgressive
estuary primarily in tidal flats swampy and marshes, deposited along
the side of the estuary. Hence, tidal estuary fill deposits
Tidal ravinement Tidal inlet
surface showing an upward fining succession with three basic
deposition facies; subtidal flat, intertidal flat and supratidal flat
(Fig. 11).
Fig. 10(a-c): Cyclical stratigraphic model of tidal estuary The estuary sequence is a complex of intertidal and
(a) Formation of incised valley with fluvial shallow subtidal, mostly channel form intra-coastal facies
discharge which allows the deposition of channel dominated to some extent by tidal processes, exhibiting
sequence, (b) Tidal estuarine flank deposits over conspicuous variation in sedimentary texture, composition
the channel sand with bay line transgressed and provenance and in physical biological sedimentary
towards the landward side and (c) Building of structures40,48. The depositional environment comprising this
tidal inlet, bars and tidal ravinement surface complex of facies may encompass any number (or all) of the
following: Tidal deltas, inlets, shoals, back-barrier, beaches,
model begin to occur, however, once the rate of sediment washover fans, swamps, point bars, tidal flat, marshes and
supply exceeds the rate of relative sea-level rise and the channels. Thus, deposition of estuaries can be recognized as
estuary starts to fill. distinct entities but consisting of numerous component facies.
With the advance of sequence stratigraphy in the late Good example of vertical facies variability within a single
1980s, several geologically models results that an system is shown in Fig. 11, which showed the characteristics
incised-valley system with a basal sequence boundary is filled bed forms include tidal bars, tidal flat, channel, swamps and
with transgressive deposits42. Here the cyclical stratigraphic flood plains, with characteristics sedimentary structures of
model shows, estuaries valley fill is typically overlain directly cross bedding, flaser to lenticular bedding, swamp burrowed
by open marine shelf deposits with an intervening transitional and bedding structures.

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Lithology Structures
Facies Environment
Parallel lamination
Swamp Mudstone Bioturbation
Coal
Cross-bedded trough
Sandstone
Herring-bone cross-bedded
Supratidal flat
Burrowed and rooted Flaser bedded
mudstone Silty sand
Hummockey cross-stratified
Flood plain Wave-ripple lamination
Coal
Erosive
Burrowed mudstone Mud clasts
and trough cross-laminated
sandstone with flaser to Intertidal flat
lenticular bedding

Tidal flat

Tidal point bar

Sigmoidal cross bedding
sandstone and erosive base
channel Subtidal flat

Tidal channel

Flooding
surface

Fig. 11: Tidal estuary fill deposits showing an upward fining succession with three basic deposition facies and different
sedimentary structures of subtidal flat, intertidal flat and supratidal flat 42

Changjiang estuary is one of the good example of tidal drift direction and mouth-bars of distributary channels are
estuary, located in Southern Jangsu province of Northern unstable and easily reworked by waves, which forms a beach
Zhejiang province of China. Estuary deposits show an upward ridge barriers complex that is approximately parallel to the
fining succession were classified into five facies73: Tidal river, shoreline19 (Fig. 12).
channel, muddy intertidal to subtidal facies, transgressive lag
and tidal front. They consisted mainly of tide-influenced Depositional environment and processes: In
sediments such as very thinly interbedded to thinly laminated wave-dominated estuaries, the main conduits of sediment
sand and mud (sand-mud couples), indicating that the estuary input to the estuarine environment are the marine inlet
is a tide-dominated type. Moreover, most of the sediment for channel and the bay head delta channel(s). Sediment brought
the estuarine fill would be supplied by the Paleo-Changjiang into an estuary by the routes is subject to different transport
river, resulting in a significant difference in the morphological processes based upon their particle size in relation to the
component with an idealized tide-dominated estuary current velocity. Generally, coarse sediment is transported as
illustrated by Dalrymple et al.63, whose model cannot be bedload, whereas, finer sediment is carried in suspension.
applied to a large-river estuary, the Paleo-Changjiang73. Bedload is generally deposited on the marine tidal delta or
fluvial delta complexes during either the ebb and flood flows
WAVE-DOMINATED ESTUARY of the tidal cycle (Fig. 12) or during periods of river flow,
respectively63. Exceptions may occur during flooding events,
In typical wave-dominated estuary, tidal influence is small when bed load sediment may be transported beyond the limit
and the mouth of the system experiences relatively high wave of the bay head deltas. Sediment in suspension is transported
energy. The waves redistribute the sand supplied to the beach further than bedload and usually accumulates in the
by the rivers. The sediment is carried off down the long shore low-energy central basin of wave-dominated estuaries.

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Mangroves

Intertidal
flats
Littoral Vegetation
area Salt marsh Fluvial
wave drif
delta
Beach
barrier
Central basin
lagoonal type

Flood tide
Ebb tide delta Tidal
delta limit

Fluvial discharge
(Bay head)
Flood plain

Inlet tidal flats

Fig. 12: Typical wave-dominated estuary and other geomorphic features

In this delta tidal influence is small and the mouth of the system experiences relatively high wave energy, which forms a beach ridge barriers complex that
is approximately parallel to the shoreline. The bed loads is generally deposited on the marine tidal delta or fluvial delta complexes during either the ebb
and flood flows of the tidal cycle

Suspended sediment usually undergoes repeated cycles of wave-dominated estuary is composed of following system
erosion, transport and deposited by ebb and flow tidal tracts from bottom to top (Fig. 13): (1) Low-stand System Tract
currents74, before reaching this location (deposition occurring (LST), composed of fluvial sand and gravels, overlaying the
during the slack water period between ebb and flow tides). Sequence Boundary (SB) formed during sea-level low stand
In wave-dominated estuaries, coarser sediments have a by subaerial exposure and wave-erosion, (2) Transgressive
tendency to become concentrated at the shore and fine System Tract (TST) separated from the LST by the
sediments are shifted offshore75. The sediment which is transgressive surface and formed by estuarine sands and
concentrated at the shoreline of any estuary may be reworked muds, where some or all of the barrier-bar complex is likely to
(e.g., by winnowing) or re-suspended by wave action if it is be eroded during shoreface retreat and (3) High-stand System
present wind where prevalent, may introduced coastal sands Tract (HST) constituted by a seaward prograding wedge
into their shoreline deposits. Roy et al.76 considered the marine composed of estuarine point bars, tidal bars and tidal flats
tidal delta zone of wave-dominated estuaries to consist of down lapping onto a Maximum Flooding Surface (MFS) that
high and low energy sub-environment with the former overlies the estuary mouth sands and control basin muds.
including deep tidal channels and shoaling bay beds and the Whereas, the bay-head depositional facies system are likely to
latter including shallow subtidal and intertidal sand be common at the base of transgressive successions and can
flats/shoals occurring along channel margins and the occur at the head of the progradational estuary, where they
muddy slope-zone in the delta front (Fig. 12). The with exhibit an upward-coarsening succession.
variability (spatial and temporal) of different flow types, leads
to a complex distribution of estuarine sediments and Facies characteristics: Wave-dominated estuary deposits
therefore, sedimentary environments. Hence, a great range of display well-developed mouth-bars and beaches sediments,
such environments exist within estuaries due to variation to occurring as elongated coarse sediment bodies approximately
be found in these milieus19. perpendicular to the orientation of the delta river channel.
The estuary front facies is usually characterized by a relatively
Stratigraphy: A typical wave-dominated estuary composed continuous coarsening upward facies succession, as in
as like tidal estuary. By Allen and Posamentier69 a wave-dominated delta system. The proportion of

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Fluvial gravel Estuarine

and sands sand and
(LST) muds

Tidal inlet Marine

sands sands

Fig. 13: Wave-dominated estuary and its composition of system tracts, High-strand System Tracts (HST) with mostly of sand and
mudstone, Transgressive System Tracts (TST), with mudstone and Low-strand System Tract (LST) with mostly of sandstone

wave-produced structures (such as wave ripples) tends to be distributary77. Successive bifurcations of the terminal
greater, whereas, indicators of high sedimentation rates and distributary channels via middle ground bar formation at the
fresh water influence (e.g., soft sediment deformation, mouth, resulting in the development of a classical lobate
climbing current ripples, brackish fauna and syneresis cracks) river-dominated delta28. Minor wave reworking, periodically
tends to be fewer. The inter-distributary and inter-lobe areas results in small barrier bars and splits at the mouths of
tends to be less sandy and commonly contain a series of secondary distributaries. The main sedimentary facies of the
relatively thin succession, staked coarsening and Danube estuary are channel, lagoonal complex located in the
fining-upward facies28. Southern most part of the delta and some secondary channels.
An estuary developed in an area with a small tidal ranges Some marsh deposits mostly of organic origin are formed in
and strong wave energy has typically three division; the depression areas with marsh vegetation 28.
bay-head, the central basin (lagoon) and beach barrier. The
bay-head facies deposited at the zone where fluvial processes BARRIERS ISLANDS AND LAGOONS
are dominate or river flow enters the central lagoon. It form
coarsening-up, progradational succession with channel and The barrier islands is the coastal landform and a type of
overbank facies building out over sands deposited at the barrier system that is relatively narrow strip of sand, parallel to
channel mouth, which in turn overlies fine-grained deposits of the mainland coast. Whereas, main coasts forms a lagoon in a
central lagoon63 (Fig. 14). In central lagoon, where wave shallow body of water separated from large body of water by
energy is mainly concentrated at the barrier bar is the region barrier islands. They usually occur in chains, consisting of
of fine-grained deposition with organic rich marsh vegetation anything from a few islands to more than a dozen, excepting
or mangroves. When central lagoon becomes filled with the tidal inlets that separate the islands. A barrier chain may
sediment, it becomes a region of salt-water marshed crossed extend uninterrupted for over a 100 km, the longest and
by channels. In many estuaries, the central lagoon that widest being Padre island in Mexico Gulf78.
receives influence of sand may be area where wave-ripples
form washover of barrier island during high wave energy28. Depositional environment and processes
The outer part of wave-dominated estuary deposits the Barriers: Along some coastlines a barrier of sediment
beach barrier which has the same characteristics as those separates the open sea from a lagoon that lies between the
found along clastic coasts, but it is elongated body which is barrier and the coastal plain (Fig. 15). They may be partially
parallel to shoreline and encloses fine-grained deposits of attached to land, that completely encloses a lagoon or can be
central lagoon. The good example of wave-dominated isolated as a barrier island in front of a lagoon. The conditions
estuary is Danube estuary, formed by an alternate channel required for a barrier to form are as followed by Boggs79: First,
extension process50. The delta shows remarkable an abundant supply of sand or gravel-sized sediment is
morphological variability as a result of variation in both required and this must be sufficient to match or exceed any
riverine discharges among distributaries as well as wave losses of sediment by erosion. The supply of the sediment is
energy along coast. During delta evolution, both river and commonly by wave-driven long shore drift from the mouth of
wave-influenced lobes have been associated with different a river at some other point along the coast and there may also

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Facies Environment Lithology Structures

Parallel lamination
Mudstone Bioturbation
Trough cross
bedding, cross Cross bedded trough
Beach Sandstone Herring-bone cross bedded
lamination
Flaser bedded
Silty sand
Hummockey cross-stratified
Coal Wave-ripple lamination
Erosive
Interbedded sand and Mud clasts
clay with ripple cross
stratification Estuary mouth

Burrowed mudstone
and sandstone with
flaser to lenticular
bedding Central logoon

Sigmodial cross
bedding sandstone
and erosive base
channel Bay head

Fig. 14: Stratigraphic succession of wave-dominated estuary with progradational succession having channel and overbank
facies building out over sands deposited at the channel mouth, which in turn overlies fine-grained deposits of central
lagoon42

Flood tide
Coastal plain
Barriers
Ebb tide

Sea
Lagoon

Wave front

Longshore drift

Fig. 15: Distribution of depositional setting of barrier and lagoon system

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be some reworking of material from the sea bed further deeper water sediment over landward deposits in lagoon
offshore78. Second, the tidal range must be small. In (transgression) or migration of shoreline oceanward to form
macro-tidal setting the exchange of water between a lagoon barrier (regression).
and the sea during each tidal cycle would prevent the
formation of a barrier, because a restricted inlet would not be Facies characteristics: The facies of barrier islands are mainly
able to let the water pass through at a high enough rates79. sand and gravel, whereas the lagoonal (back barrier) deposits
Therefore, barrier island systems are best developed in consist of both mud and sand. The transition between lagoon
micro-tidal and some extent to meso-tidal settings. The third deposits and barrier deposits occurs in the over lapping
process to form barrier is generally under condition of relative sub-environments of the back barrier tidal flats, marsh,
sea-level rise condition75,80,81. If there is a well developed beach washover fans and flood tidal deltas81,84. The barrier deposits
ridge, the coastal plain behind it may be lower than the top of dominate sedimentary structures of subhorizontal (planar)
the ridge, hence with a small sea-level rise, the coastal plain
stratification and wave reworking with mostly sand and gravel
can become partially flooded to form a lagoon and beach
(Fig. 15). Whereas, lagoon sequence consist of interbedded
ridge will remain subaerial, forming a barrier.
and inter-fingering sandstone, shale, siltstone and coal
facies characteristics with number of overlapping
Lagoons: Lagoons are coastal bodies of water that have very
sub-environment74,85 (Fig. 15). Sediment accumulation rate
limited connection to open ocean. Sea water reaches a lagoon
and relative sea-level rise in lagoons. Sand facies includes
directly through a channel to the sea or via seepage through
washover sheet deposits and channel fill deposits of flood
barrier, fresh water is supplied by rainfall or by surface run-off
tidal delta origin. Fine-grained facies include those of the
from the adjacent coastal plain41. Lagoons generally
subaqueous lagoon and tidal flats, which are situated adjacent
developed along coasts where there is a wave-formed barrier
to the barrier or on landward side of the lagoon (Fig. 16).
and are largely protected from power of open ocean wave.
Organic deposits of coal and peat record marsh and swamp
Tidal effects are generally small because the barrier lagoon
environments and usually are very thin, having formed on
morphology is only well developed along coasts with a small
sand and mud flats succession of the lagoonal margin84,86.
tidal range. The fine-grained clastic sediment is supplied to
Whereas, subaqueous shale and siltstone facies in lagoon
lagoons as suspended material in seawater entering past the
deposits are often characterized by brackish water. The good
barrier and in overland flow from the adjacent coastal plain82.
example of worldwide lagoon and barrier is the Fire island in
Organic material may be abundant from vegetation which
New York, Texas barrier island.
grows on the shores of the lagoon. Some coarse-grained may
deposited in lagoon when storm wash the sediment over the
barrier, which form thin layer of sand reworked by waves. STRAND PLAINS
Lagoonal process can be identified by fossil assemblage by
marine influence and associated facies, i.e., lagoonal deposit A strand plain is a broad belt of sand along a shoreline
occur above or below barrier sediments82,83. with surface exhibiting well defined parallel or semi-parallel
sand ridges separated by shallow swales. A strand plain differs
Stratigraphy: Barriers are developed in the part of the from a barrier in that, it lacks either lagoons or tidal marsh that
wave-dominated system where wave action reworks marine separate a barrier from the shoreline to which the strand plain
sediment. The stratigraphic facies characteristics of the barrier is directly attached. Also the tidal channels and inlets, which
are the same as those found along clastic coast84. An inlet cut through barrier islands are absent84 (Fig. 16). Strand plains
allows the exchange of water between the sea and the central typically are created by the redistribution of waves and
lagoon and if there is any tidal current, a flood tidal delta of longshore currents sediment on either side of a river mouth.
marine-derived sediment may progrades into central lagoon, Thus, they are part of one type of wave-dominated delta80.
which form under the barrier succession. As river flow rapidly
decreases and the wave energy is mainly concentrated at the Depositional environment and processes: The strand plains
barrier bars, the lagoons are formed75. The lagoon is therefore are marine-process-dominated depositional features welded
form a fine-grained deposition succession, often rich in into coastal mainland s (Fig. 16). According to Harris and
organic material. The relative thickness of each is depending Heap58, strand plains form where wave-induced sediment
on the balance between fluvial and marine supply of sediment transport (littoral drift) results in the formation of a series of
during transgression and regression. The concept of coast-parallel depositional features. These strand plains are
regression and transgression refer to the overlapping of classed into two broad groups, beach ridges and cheniers

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Coastal
marsh Lagoon
Tidal crack

Barrier
Flood tide

Coastal plain Ebb tide

Strand
plains
Wave action and tidal current

Fig. 16: Morphological features of a coastline influenced by wave processes and tidal currents, results in strand plains and barrier

Coastal plain
Lagoon
Chenier ridges

Barrier
islands

Washover deposits

Beach ridges
Strong wave action

Strand plain

Fig. 17: Two subdivision group of strand plains due to strong wave action i.e., beach ridges and cheniers
Beach ridges complex is a strike-elongate, narrow shally bodies that compose the ridges separating mud flats on chenier plains

(Fig. 17). Beach ridge and chenier plains are dominantly beach-ridges, forming Cheniers that rest on shoreface clays.
progradational features, shaped by the relations among Alternatively, storm-washover processes may build cheniers
sediment texture and rate of supply, coastal physiography on marsh deposits87.
(including slope), wave and tidal energy87.
An abundant supply of mud is required for the Stratigraphy and facies characteristics: The two broad
development of chenier plains. Beach ridges complex is a groups of strand plains (Beach ridges and chenier plains) are
strike-elongate, narrow shally bodies that compose the ridge dominantly progradational feature87. Beach ridges are
separating mud flats on chenier plains53,87 (Fig. 17). Two semi-continuous, generally mound of shelly sand and gravel,
processes account for their origin. During periods of low deposited above the high tide line88. A sandy beach is always
sediment supply, wave winnows the intertidal mud flats and present in front of the beach ridge, as marine-derived
concentrate the coarser clastic and shelly detritus into sediment accumulates along the coast, the sequence

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Supratidal
marsh
Supratidal Mean high
tide level

Intertidal

Mean low tide

level
Mud

Subtidal
Tidal channel

Mixed mud and sand

Sand

Fig. 18: Morphological features of tidal flats sediments from supratidal marsh (land) to subtidal (basin)

progrades seawards leaving the coarse-grained ridges cases92. Due to this constrain, cheniers have not been
Stranded within the fine-grained coastal plain89. Depression differentiated from beach ridges, in strain plain in the present
and between beach ridges may be connected and form a salt studies.
flat or shallow lagoon, joined to the sea by tidal inlets that The good recent examples of strain plains are Bahia
punctuate the seaward ridges. The facies of beach ridges province, caravelas strain plain in Brazil, West coast of Namibia,
plains are: (1) A sandy beach ridge complex, which is the most Afrikaan in Southern Africa, Eastern Texas and South-East and
widespread of the strand plain facies, (2) Crosscutting fluvial South-West coasts of Australia.
deltaic complexes, which consists of upward-fining channel
sandstones. Dominate channel erode through the Tidal flats: Tidal flats level muddy surface bordering an
beach ridges and abandonment of the lesser channels estuary, alternately submerged and exposed to the air by
commonly results in a mud plug88 and (3) A sandy shoreface, changing tidal level27,93. The tidal water enters and leave a tidal
lies seaward of and parallel to the beach plain which consists flat through fairly straight major channels, with minor
of finest of the coarse clastic and is transitional in position and channels meander and migrate considerably over periods of
in grain size between coarser beach, dune sands and lower several years29,94,95. This environment (tidal flats) is one of the
shoreface to shelf mud. most varying environments than in any other shallow-marine
The cheniers plains are comprised of coarse-grained environment. This is due to alternating submergence and
sediment deposited as a narrow liner ridge above the level of exposer, the varying influence of fresh river water and
high tide but separated from the shoreline by a marsh area saline marine waters cause physical conditions
comprised of fine-grained sediment90,91 (Fig. 18). As cheniers (principally, temperature, salinity and acidity) to changes
form by reworking and erosion, the cyclical erosion and widely. The tidal flats are typically vegetated salt marsh area
progradation of tidal flats (e.g., from succession storm events cut by tidal cracks that act as the conduits for water flow
associated with varying rates of sediment supply) produces a during the tidal cycle66,96.
series of parallel cheniers. Thus, grain size is a major factor
differentiating cheniers from beach ridges. However, Depositional environment and processes: The tidal flats are
beach ridges with wide swales infilled by fine-grained modified by aeolian processes, when subaerially exposed at
sediment have been mistaken for cheniers and hence low tide and by wave and current processes when submerged
knowledge of the subsurface stratigraphy of the coastal at high tide94. Flood water is derived from the lagoon and
sequence may be required for definitive classification in many driven onto the flats by strong and persistent winds during the

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Facies Environment

Swamp
Coal

Burrowed and rooted Supratidal flat

mudstone

Lithology Structures
Burrowed mudstone
Parallel lamination
and trough cross
laminated sandstone Mudstone Bioturbation
Meters to tens of meters

with flaser to lenticular Cross bedded trough

bedding Sandstone
Intertidal flat Herring-bone cross bedded
Flaser bedded
Silty sand
Hummockey cross-stratified

Coal Wave-ripple lamination

Erosive
Mud clasts

Sigmoidal cross bedded

sandstone

Subtidal flat

Flooding Supratidal flat

surface

Fig. 19: Stratigraphic succession of tidal flat and its environment from supratidal flat to intertidal flat
Commonly encountered structures in the sands of the subtidal and lower intertidal zone includes mud-drapes forest, reactivation surface and local
herring-bone cross bedding42

passage of cold fronts and tropical cyclones85,93. Low surface wave action and contain more wave-generated structure than
gradients of the flats prevent rapid drainage and promote tidal flat96,97. In tropical climates, sea grasses and mangroves
seawater evaporation. The depositional products of these commonly colonize large part of the tidal flats98. The muddy
processes are interbedded and interlaminated sand, mud, part of the tidal flats are dissected by a network of small-to
marine shells and algal mats and evaporate95. The tidal flats medium-sized meandering tidal channels that increase in
have been divided into three basic environments i.e., subtidal, width and depth as the coalesce seaward (Fig. 20).
intertidal and supratidal (Fig. 19). The subtidal zone is below
low tide and seldom exposed subaerially, the intertidal zone Stratigraphy and facies characteristics: The tidal flats
lies between normal low and high tides and is exposed once sediments are common along prograding coasts,
or twice daily, whereas, supratidal zone is above high tide and characterized by mean tidal ranges >.4 m. They usually
sediment deposited are exposed to subaerial conditions comprised of fine-grained marine sediment that has been
(most of the time with flooding) only during spring or storm transported towards the coast by strong currents associated
tides. The supratidal is the highest part of the tidal flats may with the larger tides. During the falling tide, drainage of
become vegetated to produced salt marshes, where the seawater from the intertidal flats causes the development of
stratification is largely destroyed by rootlets. Salt water and tidal creeks96,99. Large tidal creeks often contain tidal sand
freshwater peats can accumulate here. Desiccation cracks banks and dunes. The mixed flats, in which mud layers
are most abundant in the upper intertidal and supratidal become more abundant as the distance from the channel
zones27,96. increases, lie shoreward of the sand flats. Mud flats consisting
Tidal flats along exposed, open coasts exhibit the of laminated muds with relatively little sand lay still further
landward fining trend may be coarser-grained because of landward (Fig. 18).

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(a) (b)

(c)

Fig. 20(a-c): An example of landsat images of Sebkha El Melah, Tunisia, (a) 1987, (b) 2001 and (c) 2011, with cyclic episodes of tidal
flat deposits that are periodically inundated with evaporation process, leaving behind salt
1987: Landsat image of Sebkha El Melah, Tunisia was flooded, 2001: Landsat image of same area mostly dry, with salt deposition. Note rectangular
industrial evaporite pans, for sea-salt production, upper right (circle) and 2011: Landsat image of same area highly flooded, industrial of evaporite pans,
flooded, industrial of evaporite pans, for sea-salt production increases, upper right (circle)

The tidal builds a progradational succession. The of as tidal flats that are periodically inundated with water
progradation of tidal flat generates an upward-fining evaporated and leaving behind salt (Fig. 20).
succession67,72,93. The succession typically begins with an
erosional base that is scoured by tidal channels during a local CONCLUSION
transgression. Above this there is a gradual upward decrease
in the grain size and thickness of sand beds and an increase in This review has confirmed that key controls on
proportion of mud (Fig. 19). Commonly encountered morphology of shallow-marine clastic coastal depositional
structures in the sands of the subtidal and lower intertidal environments can easily be prophesied from the influence of
zone includes mud-drapes forest, reactivation surface and wave, tide and river processes. The conceptual ternary
local herringbone cross bedding. The intertidal mud flats diagram classifying the distribution of environments are
contain abundant flaser and lenticular bedding and erosional operated by wave, tide and river power, resulting solely in
based tidal sediments. Rooted horizons and coals occur in the 7 depositional processes which are main controls in facies
salt marsh. The bioturbation may ranges from very low to style and architecture for erecting models. These processes are
extensive. The good examples are known from the Wash, UK99 controlled by shoreline movements with sediment supply and
and from San Sebastian Bay, Argentina96. They are usually accommodation space created.
comprised of fine-grained marine sediment that has been Our review designates that deltas generally initiate along
transported towards the coast by strong currents coasts having conditions of lower wave and tide influx, than
associated with the large tide58. Sabkhas are another good coastlines where estuaries are predominant. This make
example that, although rare today is important to the probable results that higher wave and tide power results in
geologic past of certain regions. Sabkhas can be thought estuaries, losing a greater percentage of sediment to the

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adjacent shelf and coastal areas. Thus inhibiting delta 7. Meyer, R. and F.F. Krause, 2006. Permeability anisotropy and
development with variation in the stratigraphic architecture heterogeneity of a sandstone reservoir analogue: An
of estuaries and creeks that drain intertidal flats and is estuarine to shoreface depositional system in the Virgelle
naturally turbid and generally well amalgamated with unique Member, Milk River Formation, Writing-on-Stone Provincial
sedimentary structures (e.g., herringbone cross bedded Park, Southern Alberta. Bull. Can. Pet. Geol., 54: 301-318.
8. Morad, S., K. Al-Ramadan, J.M. Ketzer and L.F. De Ros, 2010.
sandstone). In contrast, water contained in wave-dominated
The impact of diagenesis on the heterogeneity of sandstone
deltaic, wave-dominated estuaries and lagoons are naturally
reservoirs: A review of the role of depositional facies and
clear (low turbidity) and exhibits mainly clean stratified thick
sequence stratigraphy. AAPG Bull., 94: 1267-1309.
stratigraphic patterns in sedimentation with unique structures
9. Siddiqui, N.A., A.H.A. Rahman, C.W. Sum, M.J. Mathew and
(e.g., hummocky cross-stratified sandstone). The same
D. Menier, 2016. Onshore sandstone facies characteristics and
approach (using a database of coastal environments in this reservoir quality of Nyalau Formation, Sarawak, East Malaysia:
review) could be applied to any region on earth where clastic An analogue to subsurface reservoir quality evaluation.
coastal depositional environments may be identified from Arabian J. Sci. Eng., 41: 267-280.
stratigraphic characteristics. 10. Nyberg, B. and J.A. Howell, 2016. Global distribution of
modern shallow marine shorelines. Implications for
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS exploration and reservoir analogue studies. Mar. Pet. Geol.,
71: 83-104.
The technically contents and ideas presented in this study 11. Aigner, T., U. Asprion, J. Hornung, W.D. Junghans and
are solely the author s interpretations. The authors gratefully R. Kostrewa, 1996. Integrated outcrop analogue studies for
triassic alluvial reservoirs: Examples from Southern Germany.
thank the reviewers for their critical and constructive reviews
J. Pet. Geol., 19: 393-406.
which helped in improving this study.
12. Bellian, J.A., C. Kerans and D.C. Jennette, 2005. Digital outcrop
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