Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 7, No.

3, 287-296, October 2009 / Copyright 2009 Japan Concrete Institute 287

Invited paper

Seismic Damage of and Seismic Rehabilitation Techniques for Railway

Reinforced Concrete Structures
Tadayoshi Ishibashi1 and Daisuke Tsukishima2

Received 6 June 2009, revised 20 August 2009

Abstract
The Miyagi Prefecture Earthquake in 1978 was the first earthquake to cause serious damage to railway concrete structures
in Japan. This was followed by the South Hyogo Prefecture Earthquake in 1995, which caused shear failure of columns of
RC viaducts carrying the Shinkansen (Bullet Train) and old railroad lines predating the 1983 seismic design standard. As
the result of various concrete structures sustaining extensive damage never experienced before, the seismic design stan-
dard was greatly revised, and the seismic rehabilitation of existing structures was started on a full scale.
Basic concept of seismic rehabilitation is to prevent shear failure of columns that led to the collapse of RC viaducts and
bridges catastrophically occurred in whole structural frame during the past large earthquakes. To enhance the seismic
capacity of the whole structural frame, increase in ductility of each column through seismic rehabilitation capable of
absorbing seismic energy is needed.
As the space under many railway viaducts is used by stations and shops, negotiations regarding the relocation of busi-
nesses, the removal of large obstacles such as heavy machinery, and the development of valid seismic rehabilitation
methods to reinforce a large number of massive columns were called for. At present, we are trying to enhance seismic
capacity as much as possible for new structures in order to prevent serious damage and enable early restoration.

1. Introduction 2. Seismic damage of railway RC structure

The Miyagi Prefecture Earthquake in 1978 was the first The Miyagi Prefecture Earthquake in 1978 caused shoe
earthquake to cause serious damage to railway concrete damage at many railway facilities such as RC viaducts
structures in Japan. As a result, the seismic design stan- and RC piers (Fig. 1). In response, restrainer cables have
dard was revised in 1983. However, as the revision of the been installed in bridge movement joints and brackets
seismic design standard was not retroactively applied to have been attached to abutments on all railway lines in
existing structures, these structures did not undergo Japan. However, before the South Hyogo Prefecture
seismic rehabilitation. Afterwards, the South Hyogo Earthquake in 1995, no seismic rehabilitation for RC
Prefecture Earthquake occurred in 1995 and columns of structures had been conducted except for measures pro-
RC viaducts carrying Shinkansen and old railroad lines viding against the Tokai Earthquake. In the 1980s, an RC
constructed with pre-1983 seismic design standards viaduct for the Shinkansen in the Shizuoka area was
suffered shear failure. As the result of various concrete reinforced with steel plate jacketing and a connecting
structures sustaining extensive damage never experi- adjacent viaduct with prestressing cable.
enced before, the seismic design standard was greatly Due to the South Hyogo Prefecture Earthquake in
revised, and the seismic rehabilitation of existing struc- 1995, many columns of RC viaducts suffered shear fail-
tures was started on a full scale. The subsequent occur- ure (Fig. 2). As a result, the beams and bridges that hold
rence of several severe earthquakes further underlined up railway tracks suffered serious damage. The failure
the urgency and importance of the seismic rehabilitation mode of these damaged structures became shear failure
of existing railway structures to secure the safety of before yielding of the longitudinal reinforcement of
railway transportation (Table 1). This paper describes column members. Fortunately, as the earthquake oc-
the damage to railway RC structures caused by earth- curred in the early morning, accidents involving trains
quakes in Japan and various seismic rehabilitation falling from RC viaducts and bridges did not occur.
methods developed in the process of advancing seismic Following this earthquake, the Ministry of Land, Infra-
rehabilitation. structure and Transport instructed rail operators to con-
duct seismic rehabilitation to prevent shear failure of
columns. Thus seismic rehabilitation of existing RC
railway structures that were constructed based on the old
1 design standard officially started. At first, the target area
Head, Structural Engineering Center, East Japan of seismic rehabilitation was limited to overcrowded
Railway Company, Tokyo, Japan lines in the Sendai, Kanto, Tokai, Kinki, and Sanyo areas
2
Structural Engineering Center, East Japan Railway and around active faults in view of the active fault size
Company, Tokyo, Japan and the influence of a damaging earthquake on human
E-mail:[email protected]
288 T. Ishibashi and D. Tsukishima / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 7, No. 3, 287-296, 2009

Table 1 Main occurrences of domestic seismic damage (since South Hyogo Prefecture Earthquake in 1995).
Year 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Comment

South Hyogo Prefecture Sanriku Minami Noto Hanto
Earthquake in 1995 (M7.3) Earthquake in 2003 (M7.1) Earthquake in 2007 (M6.9)

Main
occurence Western Tottori Prefecture Niigata Chuetsu Iwate-Miyagi Nairiku
s of Earthquake in 2000 (M7.3) Earthquake in 2004 (M6.8) Earthquake in 2008 (M7.2)
domestic
seismic Geiyo Earthquake North Miyagi Niigataken Chuetsu-Oki
damage
in 2001 (M6.7) Earthquake in 2003 (M6.2) Earthquake in 2007 (M6.8)

Tokachioki West Fukuoka North Coast Iwate
Earthquake in 2003 (M8.0)
Earthquakein 2005 (M7.0) Earthquake in 2008 (M6.8)

life and living, and the regional economy (Fig. 3). Then, shear failure of column members caused by large earth-
following the occurrence of a series of serious earth- quakes resulting in the collapse of RC viaducts and
quakes that damaged concrete structures after the South bridges, which are catastrophes that have occurred in
Hyogo Prefecture earthquake of 1995, seismic rehabili- past earthquakes. To enhance the seismic capacity of the
tation of existing structures was conducted nationwide. whole structural frame, the aim is to increase the ductility
For example, soon after the South Hyogo Prefecture capacity of column members through seismic rehabilita-
earthquake in 1995 occurred, East Japan Railway Co. tion in order to allow better absorption of earthquake
began conducting seismic rehabilitation of RC railway energy, but enhancing the flexural strength of the column
structures on a preferential basis in areas that have members is not properly done. The reason for this is that
overcrowded lines in the Sendai and South Kanto areas if the flexural strength of the column members damaged
and active faults with a high probability of earthquakes. by an earthquake is enhanced, future earthquake damage
Then, in 2003, the Sanriku Minami Earthquake oc- may occur in beam members and foundation members.
curred in an area where seismic rehabilitation was not Since repair and strengthening of beams and foundation
planned. Since this earthquake damaged RC viaducts of members is more difficult than for column members, it is
the Tohoku Shinkansen, it was decided to reinforce all considered important to restrict damage after seismic
Shinkansen lines regardless of the area. As the rehabili- rehabilitation to column members.
tation plan was underway, the Niigata Chuetsu Earth-
quake of 2004 (Fig. 4) and the Niigata Chuetsu-oki 3.2 Main seismic rehabilitation methods for RC
Earthquake of 2007 occurred. The Niigata Chuetsu viaducts
Earthquake caused damage at the cut-off section of the In almost all RC railway viaducts, the space under the
river pier. As a result, seismic rehabilitation needed to be viaduct is used by stations, shops, and other buildings.
accelerated. However, the space under many railway Therefore seismic rehabilitation must deal with various
viaducts is used for stations, shops, and other buildings. obstructions such as partition walls and equipment. In
Thus seismic rehabilitation poses a number of challenges, this case, the construction site is a confined space, which
including the relocation of shops and the removal of means restrictions on the use of large construction
heavy machinery and other obstacles, which have to be equipment such as cranes. Often, construction schedule
overcome in order to allow the reinforcement of a large restrictions also apply, so that a suitable method designed
number of columns. taking into account the various conditions at each site
must be adopted. The main seismic rehabilitation meth-
3. Seismic rehabilitation technique ods are outlined below.

3.1 Basic concept

The basic concept of seismic rehabilitation is to prevent

Fig. 1 Damages to bearings during the Miyagi Prefecture Earthquake in Fig. 2 Shear failure at viaduct piers during the
1978. South Hyogo Prefecture Earthquake in 1995.
 T. Ishibashi and D. Tsukishima / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 7, No. 3, 287-296, 2009 289

List of epicenters of various earthquakes

Miyagi Prefecture Earthquake South Hyogo Prefecture Earthquake Sanriku Minami Earthquake
Niigata Chuetsu Earthquake Niigataken Chuetsu-Oki Earthquake

Fig. 3. Epicenter of various earthquakes and target areas of seismic rehabilitation. Thicker lines are Shinkansen railways
and thinner lines are local ones. Small open circles represent main station in the area.

Fig.4 Damages to piers during the Niigata Chuetsu Earthquake in 2004.

290 T. Ishibashi and D. Tsukishima / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 7, No. 3, 287-296, 2009

(1) Steel plate jacketing method (Ishibashi et al.

2004, Fig. 5)
This method is the most common seismic rehabilitation
technique used for railway RC viaduct columns. Jack-
eting with steel plate 6 to 14mm thick enhances the shear
strength and ductility capacity of RC viaduct columns.
After jacketing, the gap between the steel plate and ex-
isting column is grouted with non-shrink mortar, etc..
Although the joint method with site welding is common
for steel plate joints, indented joints are used to ensure
construction quality.
A method using assembled steel plate panels has also
been developed (Fig. 6). This method consists in as-
sembling precast panels with projections by using per-
forated connect plates around an existing column. Then,
after securing these members by rivets, the gap between Fig. 5 Steel plate jacketing.
the steel plates and the existing column is grouted with
non-shrink mortar. Besides enabling manual assembly,
this method also has the merits of low noise and vibration
levels, which makes it suitable for work under viaducts
where there are shops or other buildings. In addition, as
this method employs factory-made products, consistent
quality is ensured and design aspects can be concen-
trated.

(2) Other jacketing methods (American Con-

crete Institute 2008, Fig. 7)
In the case of rehabilitation work in a confined con-
struction site such as a space under a viaduct that has
shops or other buildings and is near other buildings, use
of the steel plate jacketing method, which requires the
use of large construction equipment such as cranes, is
Fig. 6 Assembled steel plate panels.
difficult. Therefore, various other jacketing methods
including ones that apply fiber-reinforced plastics (car-
bon fiber, aramid fiber, etc.) sheets, other ones that spray
glass fiber and epoxy resin directly to the member faces
with a spray gun or combine sprayed mortar with rein-
forcing bars, and still other methods that use precast
concrete panels, have been developed.

(3) Rib-bar and rib-plate method (Ishibashi et al.

2004.)
The rib-bar method was developed to enhance shear
strength and ductility capacity by reinforcing bars an-
chored with supporting members arranged at each corner
of RC viaduct columns (Fig. 8, Fig. 9). This method
eliminates the need to remove partition walls and enables
manual assembly in confined construction sites such as
areas under viaducts that have shops or other buildings
and facilities.
Another method, the rib-plate method, which rein-
Fig. 7 Method using FRP sheets.
forces RC viaduct columns with steel plate bands with
indented joints, was also developed for the same purpose
as the rib-bar method (Fig. 10, Fig. 11). The indented
joints make this method easy to use, and as the bands are (4) Thin plates attachment method (Association
easy to fabricate, this method can be easily applied to of Railway Advanced Construction Technology
columns with various cross-section shapes. 2008, Fig. 12)
This method was developed to enhance the shear strength
and ductility capacity of RC viaduct columns by attach-
 T. Ishibashi and D. Tsukishima / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 7, No. 3, 287-296, 2009 291

ing thin plates about 0.8 mm thick by adhesion bond. The post-earthquake operations.
purpose of this method is the same as that of the rib-bar
and rib-plate methods. This method has the advantage (6) Single-face method (Ishibashi et al. 2004, Fig.
that following column reinforcement, the increase in 14, Fig. 15)
member section thickness is only 20 to 30 mm, compared This method, which uses a steel plate and reinforcing
to 40 to 50 mm for the jacketing steel plate method. This bars, is applied to only one face of the RC column for the
minimizes space reduction for shops and other buildings same purpose as the previously described methods. This
under viaducts. method is suitable when only one face of RC viaduct
columns is exposed due to adjacent shops, storage sheds,
(5) Method using concrete segment and steel etc., under a RC viaduct. This method eliminates the
strand wire (Okamoto et al. 2006) need to remove shops and suspend business during re-
This method, which consists in attaching four habilitation work.
washboard-shaped precast concrete segments to the
member faces and banding them with galvanized spiral (7) Method using steel damper and braces
strand wire was developed for the same purpose as the (Shimada et al. 2005, Fig. 16)
previously described methods (Fig. 13). Advantages of This method uses steel dampers and braces to reinforce
this method include the use of factory-made reinforcing mainly building frames. The role of the steel braces is to
products enabling stability and easy control in quality, control deformation of the RC viaduct columns, while
and visual inspections of existing column corners leading the role of the damper placed at the center is to absorb
to rapid and easy emergency checkup at daily or energy. In cases when it is impossible to apply a jacketing

Supporting member

Reinforcing bar
Fig. 8 Conceptual diagram of rib-bar method. Fig. 9 End of rib-bar retrofit.

Indented joint

Steel plate band

Fig.10 Conceptual figure of rib-plate method. Fig. 11 End of rib-plate retrofit.

292 T. Ishibashi and D. Tsukishima / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 7, No. 3, 287-296, 2009

method owing to the presence of walls, etc., a pair of failure and absorb the energy generated by earthquakes
steel dampers and their respective braces can be placed through ductility capacity. Further, the concept that pre-
inside the RC viaduct in the track direction and the di- vents the flexural strength of RC piers from increasing
rection perpendicular to the track, respectively, for and suppresses the influence on other structural members
seismic rehabilitation. is the same as for RC viaducts. The main seismic reha-
bilitation methods are outlined below.
3.3 Main seismic rehabilitation methods for RC
piers (1) Reinforced concrete jacketing method (Fig.
RC piers can also be reinforced using a number of 17)
methods for seismic rehabilitation. RC piers have a Reinforced concrete jacketing for RC piers increases
cut-off in their main longitudinal reinforcements. This shear and flexural strength around the cut-off area and
cut-off area is a weak point of RC pier when an earth- enhances the shear strength of RC pier as the whole and
quake occurs. The cross section of RC piers is larger than the ductility capacity of the pier base. This method can be
that of RC viaduct columns. Wall type piers and piers used to reinforce the area around the cut-off, the base of
with an elliptic cross section have different cross sections the pier, and other areas in need of seismic rehabilitation
in the track direction and the direction perpendicular to depending on the seismic capacity of the existing RC pier.
the track, making it impossible to adopt the same seismic As a result, it is possible to end seismic rehabilitation
rehabilitation methods as for RC viaducts. after reinforcing only the area around the cut-off. The
Therefore, concrete or steel jacketing is used to in- jacketing thickness is on the order of 200 mm. Further-
crease the flexural and shear strength of the cut-off area more, for the seismic rehabilitation of RC piers situated
to protect this area from damage. So the seismic reha- in valleys in mountain areas and near houses or along a
bilitation concept is based on enhancing the shear road, a construction method using elevating scaffolds for
strength and ductility capacity of piers to avoid shear workability and safety has been developed. (Association

Thin
plates

Fig. 12 Conceptual diagram of thin plates attachment Fig. 13 Using Concrete segment and Steel strand wire
method. method.

Existing column

Steel plate

Wall

Reinforcing bar

Fig. 14 Conceptual figure of single-face method. Fig. 15 End of retrofit.

 T. Ishibashi and D. Tsukishima / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 7, No. 3, 287-296, 2009 293

Fig. 16 Method using steel damper and braces. Fig. 17 Method using RC jacketing.

of Railway Advanced Construction Technology. 2008,

Fig 18, 19)

(2) Steel plate jacketing method (American

Concrete Institute 2008; Tamai et al. 1999.)
Steel plate jacketing for RC piers increases the shear and
flexural strength around the area of the cut-off and en-
hances the shear strength of RC pier as the whole as well
as the ductility capacity of the pier base. The thickness
including the steel plate is 40 to 50 mm. Since the in-
crease of the cross section after seismic rehabilitation by
steel plate jacketing is smaller than RC jacketing, this
method can be applied to constrained site conditions.
And similarly to RC jacketing, it is possible to end
seismic rehabilitation after reinforcing only the area Fig. 18 Example of RC pier in valley.
around the cut-off, and depending on the type of pier, the
base of RC pier can be confined for enhancing ductility
after seismic rehabilitation.

(3) FRP sheet jacketing method (American

Concrete Institute 2008)
A fiber reinforced plastics (carbon fiber, aramid fiber,
etc.) sheets jacketing method has been developed and is
used for RC piers. A method that uses fiber reinforced
sheets pre-impregnated with ultraviolet curable resin for
jacketing has also been developed. As FRP sheets are
lightweight, they are easily carried to the construction
site. As the resin becomes hard with ultraviolet, the
sheets do not have to be impregnated with a curative
agent, contributing to shorter construction time.

(4) Method using concrete filled tube (Associa-

tion of Railway Advanced Construction Tech-
nology 2008, Fig. 20, 21)
After removing any sediment inside steel tubes inserted
into the ground, concrete is cast into the tubes. The con-
crete filled tubes then serve as strut members supporting
an cantilever concrete block attached to the RC pier. As a
result, this structure mainly enhances the ductility ca-
pacity of the pier base.
Compared to the jacketing method with reinforced
Fig. 19 Elevating scaffold.
294 T. Ishibashi and D. Tsukishima / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 7, No. 3, 287-296, 2009

concrete and steel plate after sediment excavation, this is that the response displacement calculated by elasto-
method reduces construction cost since large sediment plasticity response analysis is below the ductility capac-
excavation and temporary works are not needed for this ity of the structure. However, as the evolution of the
method. seismic design standard shows, the demanded seismic
capacity has grown with each new occurrence of earth-
(5) Method using steel sheet pile (Association quake damage. Given this fact, there is a good possibility
of Railway Advanced Construction Technology that the seismic design standard will again change in the
2008, Fig. 22) future. Therefore, if construction costs remain un-
After removing any sediment inside a steel sheet pile changed, enhancing the seismic capacity as much as
inserted into the ground around an RC pier, mortar possible is desirable. Enhancing the strength of a struc-
casting is conducted into the space between the RC pier ture requires reinforcement of all the members including
and the steel sheet pile to enhance the shear strength and the foundation. However, the cost of construction would
ductility capacity of the RC pier. Since steel sheet plates increases excessively as a result. On the other hand,
are used as reinforced members for RC piers, temporary enhancing the ductility capacity of the structure can be
works need not be constructed in rivers, which signifi- done by reinforcing only the plastic hinge part, for a
cantly cuts down construction cost. minimal increase in construction cost. Therefore, the
reinforcement arrangement for enhancing the ductility
4. Considerations for the design of new capacity should be designed in the plastic hinge zone.
structures To this end, regardless of the level of ductility capac-
ity required for the design, spiral reinforcement is ar-
Next, we refer to matters that should be considered for ranged inside the longitudinal reinforcements in the 1D
new structures based on consideration of seismic damage area of the column of a new RC viaduct (D is the height
and restoration. Figure 23 shows an example of the of the cross section of the column) (Fig. 24, 25). Figures
elasticity acceleration response spectrum applied to the 26 and 27 show the situation of the cyclic loading ex-
current seismic design standard. The basis of the design periment and the relationship between the load and dis-

Existing pier

Concrete block

CFT (strut member)

Fig. 21 Conceptual diagram of concrete. filled tube
Fig. 20 Method using concrete filled tube. method.

Existing pier
Response acceleration spectrum (gal)

RC or steel plate
jacketing

Water level

Ground level
Period (s)
Steel sheet pile Fig. 23 Example of elasticity acceleration response
spectrum (Gn shows ground classification (ground dif-
Fig. 22 Conceptual diagram of steel sheet pile method.
ference)).
 T. Ishibashi and D. Tsukishima / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 7, No. 3, 287-296, 2009 295

D
1D section

inside spiral reinforcement

Fig. 24 Example of arrangement of spiral reinforcement

inside longitudinal reinforcements. Fig 25 Example of RC viaduct fitted with inside spiral
reinforcement.

placement of a column with spiral reinforcement inside

the longitudinal reinforcements. The placement of inside
spiral reinforcement enhances the ductility capacity
greatly compared to when sufficient hoop reinforcements
are provided (Kanno et al. 2009). The fact that the in-
ternal concrete in the plastic hinge zone breaks up out-
ward through being freed from binding force by buckling
of the longitudinal reinforcements and associate break of
tie hoops causes rapid impairment of the flexural capac-
ity of the column and settling down of the column (Sato
and Ko 2008). Thus providing spiral reinforcement in-
side the longitudinal reinforcements shackles the internal
concrete inside the longitudinal reinforcements, pre-
venting the collapse of the internal concrete and en-
hancing the ductility capacity greatly.
Since it involves the construction of new structures, it
is important for seismic design to enhance the seismic Fig. 26 Situation of cyclic loading experiment (after load-
capacity as much as possible. It does not suffice for the ing up to 20y).
response displacement calculated by response analysis to
be lower than the acceptable value; since the plasticity
rotation capacity in the plastic hinge zone can be greatly 2
boosted without an increase in cost, this bears consid- 1.5
eration during actual design. Although restoration is
1
extremely onerous after a structure collapses, the amount
Strength ratio P/Pyeild

of displacement has little influence on the difficulty of 0.5

restoration as long as the structure has not collapsed. 0
Thus it is important to enhance the ductility capacity of -30 -20 -10 10 20 30
columns as much as possible in order to prevent the -0.5

collapse of a structure. Such consideration prevents se- -1

rious damage and enables early restoration in addition to -1.5
significantly boosting safety, even in the event of an
earthquake that is larger than predicted. -2

plasticity rate /yeild

5. Conclusion The colum
Column
Column
The
withwith
with
colum
hoophoop
a spiral
with
reinforcement
reinforcements
spiralreinforcement
outside
outside
reinforcementinside
thelongitudinal
of the
ofthe
inside
axial reinforcements
the axial
longitudinal
reinforcements
reinforcements
reinforcements

Seismic design and rehabilitation techniques evolve

along with earthquake occurrences. In other words, the Fig. 27 Example of relationship between strength ratio
experience of a number of earthquakes drives the de- and plasticity rate during cyclic loading.
velopment of various new technologies and techniques
296 T. Ishibashi and D. Tsukishima / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 7, No. 3, 287-296, 2009

for seismic design and seismic retrofitting and the sys- html (in Japanese)
tematic seismic rehabilitation of existing structures. The Kanno, T., Ishibashi, T., Kino, J. and Kobayashi, K.
authors hope that the various technologies and tech- (2009). Deformation capacity under earthquake on
niques introduced here will prove helpful for everyone. reinforced concrete column reinforced by inside spiral
reinforcement. Concrete Research and Technology,
References 20(2), 1-12. (in Japanese)
Association of Railway Advanced Construction Okamoto, M., Naganawa, T., Komatsu, A. and Aikyo, H.
Technology. (2008). List of construction methods (2006). A development on seismic retrofitting system
approved for public relations. for RC column using divided steel plates. Concrete
http://www.rail-act.org/ (in Japanese) Journal, 48(8), 30-38. (in Japanese).
American Concrete Institute (2007). Seismic Sato, Y. and Ko, H. (2008). Modeling of reinforcement
rehabilitation of concrete structures. IPS-2, 554P. buckling in RC columns confined with FRP. Journal
Hujihashi, H. and Inakuma, H. (2001). The seismic of Advanced Concrete Technology, 6(1), 195-204.
rehabilitation of reinforced concrete piers. Journal of Shimada, Y., Umeda, H. and Yoshida, K. (2005).
Japan Railway Civil Engineering Association, 39(11), Construction through the seismic rehabilitation of RC
907-909. (in Japanese) rigid-frame viaduct using steel damper and braces
Ishibashi, T., Tsuyoshi, T. and Kobayashi, K. (2004). method. Journal of Japan Railway Civil Engineering
Seismic retrofitting methods newly developed for Association, 43(7), 509-511.(in Japanese)
railway concrete structures. Journal of Advanced Tamai, S., Sato, T., Miyagi, T. and Okamoto, M. (1999).
Concrete Technology, 2(1), 65-76. Experimental studies on steel jacketing of wall type
Japan Society of Civil Engineers (2006). Special pier with terminated reinforcement. Proceedings of
committee report of countermeasures to massive the Japan Concrete Institute, 21(3), 1315-1320. (in
earthquake hazards. Japanese)
http://www.jsce.or.jp/committee/kyodai-jishin/index.s