1.

Basic SQL
2. SQL - Home
3. SQL - Overview
4. SQL - RDBMS Concepts
5. SQL - Databases
6. SQL - Syntax
7. SQL - Data Types
8. SQL - Operators
9. SQL - Expressions
10. SQL - Create Database
11. SQL - Drop Database
12. SQL - Select Database
13. SQL - Create Table
14. SQL - Drop Table
15. SQL - Insert Query
16. SQL - Select Query
17. SQL - Where Clause
18. SQL - AND & OR Clauses
19. SQL - Update Query
20. SQL - Delete Query
21. SQL - Like Clause
22. SQL - Top Clause
23. SQL - Order By
24. SQL - Group By
25. SQL - Distinct Keyword
26. SQL - Sorting Results

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 ADVANCED SQL
1. SQL - Constraints
2. SQL - Using Joins
3. SQL - Unions Clause
4. SQL - NULL Values
5. SQL - Alias Syntax
6. SQL - Indexes
7. SQL - Alter Command
8. SQL - Truncate Table
9. SQL - Using Views
10. SQL - Having Clause
11. SQL - Transactions
12. SQL - Wildcards
13. SQL - Date Functions
14. SQL - Temporary Tables
15. SQL - Clone Tables
16. SQL - Sub Queries
17. SQL - Using Sequences
18. SQL - Handling Duplicates
19. SQL - Injection
 SQL - SYNTAX
All the sql statements start with any of the keywords like select, insert, update, delete,
alter, drop, create, use, show and all the statements end with a semicolon (;).

Important point to be noted is that sql is case insensitive which means select and select
have same meaning in sql statements but mysql make difference in table names. So if you are
working with mysql then you need to give table names as they exist in the database.

SQL SELECT STATEMENT:

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name;

SQL DISTINCT CLAUSE:

SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name;

SQL WHERE CLAUSE:

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION;

SQL AND/OR CLAUSE:

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION-1 {AND|OR} CONDITION-2;

SQL IN CLAUSE:

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (val-1, val-2,...val-N);

SQL BETWEEN CLAUSE:

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN val-1 AND val-2;

SQL LIKE CLAUSE:

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE { PATTERN };
SQL ORDER BY CLAUSE:

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
ORDER BY column_name {ASC|DESC};

SQL GROUP BY CLAUSE:

SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
GROUP BY column_name;

SQL COUNT CLAUSE:

SELECT COUNT(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION;

SQL CREATE TABLE STATEMENT:

CREATE TABLE table_name(

column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
.....
columnN datatype,
PRIMARY KEY( one or more columns )
);

SQL DROP TABLE STATEMENT:

DROP TABLE table_name;

SQL CREATE INDEX STATEMENT :

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name

ON table_name ( column1, column2,...columnN);

SQL DROP INDEX STATEMENT :

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP INDEX index_name;

SQL DESC STATEMENT :

DESC table_name;

SQL TRUNCATE TABLE STATEMENT:

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

SQL ALTER TABLE STATEMENT:

ALTER TABLE table_name {ADD|DROP|MODIFY} column_name {data_ype};

SQL ALTER TABLE STATEMENT (RENAME) :

ALTER TABLE table_name RENAME TO new_table_name;

SQL INSERT INTO STATEMENT:

INSERT INTO table_name( column1, column2....columnN)

VALUES ( value1, value2....valueN);

SQL UPDATE STATEMENT:

UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2....columnN=valueN
[ WHERE CONDITION ];

SQL DELETE STATEMENT:

DELETE FROM table_name

WHERE {CONDITION};

SQL CREATE DATABASE STATEMENT:

CREATE DATABASE database_name;

SQL DROP DATABASE STATEMENT:

DROP DATABASE database_name;

SQL USE Statement:

USE DATABASE database_name;

SQL COMMIT STATEMENT:

COMMIT;

SQL ROLLBACK STATEMENT:

ROLLBACK;
 SQL - DATA TYPES

SQL data type is an attribute that specifies type of data of any object. Each column,
variable and expression has related data type in SQL.

You would use these data types while creating your tables. You would choose a
particular data type for a table column based on your requirement.

SQL Server offers six categories of data types for your use:

EXACT NUMERIC DATA TYPES:

DATA TYPE FROM TO

Bigint -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 9,223,372,036,854,775,807
Int -2,147,483,648 2,147,483,647
Smallint -32,768 32,767
Tinyint 0 255
Bit 0 1
Decimal -10^38 +1 10^38 .1
Numeric -10^38 +1 10^38 .1
Money -922,337,203,685,477.5808 +922,337,203,685,477.5807
smallmoney -214,748.3648 +214,748.3647

APPROXIMATE NUMERIC DATA TYPES:

DATA TYPE FROM TO

Float -1.79E + 308 1.79E + 308
Real -3.40E + 38 3.40E + 38

DATE AND TIME DATA TYPES:

DATA TYPE FROM TO

Datetime Jan 1, 1753 Dec 31, 9999
smalldatetime Jan 1, 1900 Jun 6, 2079
Date Stores a date like June 30, 1991
Time Stores a time of day like 12:30 P.M.

Note: Here datetime has 3.33 milliseconds accuracy where as smalldatetime has 1 minute
accuracy.

CHARACTER STRINGS DATA TYPES:

DATA TYPE FROM TO

Char char Maximum length of 8,000
characters.( Fixed length non-
Unicode characters)
Varchar varchar Maximum of 8,000
characters.(Variable-length non-
Unicode data).
varchar(max) varchar(max) Maximum length of
231characters, Variable-length
non-Unicode data (SQL Server
2005 only).
Text text Variable-length non-Unicode
data with a maximum length of
2,147,483,647 characters.

UNICODE CHARACTER STRINGS DATA TYPES:

DATA TYPE Description

Nchar Maximum length of 4,000 characters.( Fixed length Unicode)
Nvarchar Maximum length of 4,000 characters.(Variable length Unicode)
nvarchar(max) Maximum length of 231characters (SQL Server 2005 only).
( Variable length Unicode)
Ntext Maximum length of 1,073,741,823 characters. ( Variable length
Unicode )

BINARY DATA TYPES:

DATA TYPE Description

Binary Maximum length of 8,000 bytes(Fixed-length binary data )
Varbinary Maximum length of 8,000 bytes.(Variable length binary data)
varbinary(max) Maximum length of 231 bytes (SQL Server 2005 only).
( Variable length Binary data)
Image Maximum length of 2,147,483,647 bytes. ( Variable length
Binary Data)

MISC DATA TYPES:

DATA TYPE Description

sql_variant Stores values of various SQL Server-supported data types, except
text, ntext, and timestamp.
Timestamp Stores a database-wide unique number that gets updated every time
a row gets updated
uniqueidentifier Stores a globally unique identifier (GUID)
Xml Stores XML data. You can store xml instances in a column or a
variable (SQL Server 2005 only).
Cursor Reference to a cursor object
 SQL - CREATE DATABASE
The SQL CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create new SQL database.

SYNTAX:

Basic syntax of CREATE DATABASE statement is as follows:

CREATE DATABASE DatabaseName;

Always database name should be unique within the RDBMS.

EXAMPLE:

If you want to create new database <testDB>, then CREATE DATABASE statement would be
as follows:

SQL> CREATE DATABASE testDB;

Make sure you has admin previledge before creating any database. Once a database is created,
you can check it in the list of databases as follows:

SQL> SHOW DATABASES;

+--------------------+
| Database |
+--------------------+
| information_schema |
| AMROOD |
| TUTORIALSPOINT |
| mysql |
| orig |
| test |
| testDB |
+--------------------+
7 rows in set (0.00 sec)
 DROP DATABASE
The SQL DROP DATABASE statement is used to drop any existing database in SQL schema.

SYNTAX:

Basic syntax of DROP DATABASE statement is as follows:

DROP DATABASE DatabaseName;

Always database name should be unique within the RDBMS.

EXAMPLE:

If you want to delete an existing database <testDB>, then DROP DATABASE statement would
be as follows:

SQL> DROP DATABASE testDB;

NOTE: Be careful before using this operation because by deleting an existing database would
result in loss of complete information stored in the database.

Make sure you has admin previledge before dropping any database. Once a database is dropped,
you can check it in the list of databases as follows:

SQL> SHOW DATABASES;

+--------------------+
| Database |
+--------------------+
| information_schema |
| AMROOD |
| TUTORIALSPOINT |
| mysql |
| orig |
| test |
+--------------------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)
 CREATE TABLE
Creating a basic table involves naming the table and defining its columns and each column's data
type.

The SQL CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new table.

SYNTAX:

Basic syntax of CREATE TABLE statement is as follows:

CREATE TABLE table_name(

column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
.....
columnN datatype,
s PRIMARY KEY( one or more columns )
);

CREATE TABLE is the keyword telling the database system what you want to do.in this
case, you want to create a new table. The unique name or identifier for the table follows the
CREATE TABLE statement.

Then in brackets comes the list defining each column in the table and what sort of data
type it is. The syntax becomes clearer with an example below.

A copy of an existing table can be created using a combination of the CREATE TABLE
statement and the SELECT statement. You can check complete detail at Create Table Using
another Tables

EXAMPLE:
Following is an example which creates a CUSTOMERS table with ID as primary key and
NOT NULL are the constraints showing that these fileds can not be NULL while creating
records in thisy table:

SQL> CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(

ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

You can verify if your table has been created successfully by looking at the message displayed
by the SQL server otherwise you can use DESC command as follows:
SQL> DESC CUSTOMERS;
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| Field | Type | Null | Key | Default | Extra |
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| ID | int(11) | NO | PRI | | |
| NAME | varchar(20) | NO | | | |
| AGE | int(11) | NO | | | |
| ADDRESS | char(25) | YES | | NULL | |
| SALARY | decimal(18,2) | YES | | NULL | |
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Now you have CUSTOMERS table available in your database which you can use to store
required information related to customers.

8 SQL - DISTINCT KEYWORD

EXAMPLE:

Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
First let us see how the following SELECT query returns duplicate salary records:
SQL> SELECT SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS
ORDER BY SALARY;

This would produce following result where salary 2000 is coming twice which is a duplicate
record from the original table.

+----------+
| SALARY |
+----------+
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 4500.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 8500.00 |
| 10000.00 |
+----------+
Now let us use DISTINCT keyword with the above SELECT query and see the result:

SQL> SELECT DISTINCT SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY SALARY;

This would produce following result where we do not have any duplicate entry:

+----------+
| SALARY |
+----------+
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 4500.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 8500.00 |
| 10000.00 |
+----------+

SQL - Group By
EXAMPLE:

Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

If you want to know the total amount of salary on each customer, then GROUP BY query would
be as follows:

SQL> SELECT NAME, SUM(SALARY) FROM CUSTOMERS

GROUP BY NAME;
This would produce following result:

+----------+-------------+
| NAME | SUM(SALARY) |
+----------+-------------+
| Chaitali | 6500.00 |
| Hardik | 8500.00 |
| kaushik | 2000.00 |
| Khilan | 1500.00 |
| Komal | 4500.00 |
| Muffy | 10000.00 |
| Ramesh | 2000.00 |
+----------+-------------+

Now let us has following table where CUSTOMERS table has following records with duplicate
names:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Ramesh | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | kaushik | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Now again, if you want to know the total amount of salary on each customer, then GROUP BY
query would be as follows:

SQL> SELECT NAME, SUM(SALARY) FROM CUSTOMERS

GROUP BY NAME;

This would produce following result:

+---------+-------------+
| NAME | SUM(SALARY) |
+---------+-------------+
| Hardik | 8500.00 |
| kaushik | 8500.00 |
| Komal | 4500.00 |
| Muffy | 10000.00 |
| Ramesh | 3500.00 |
+---------+-------------+
 SQL - ORDER BY Clause
EXAMPLE:

Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example which would sort the result in ascending order by NAME and
SALARY:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY NAME, SALARY;

This would produce following result:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example which would sort the result in descending order by NAME:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY NAME DESC;

This would produce following result:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

SQL - SORTING Results

The SQL ORDER BY clause is used to sort the data in ascending or descending order, based on
one or more columns. Some database sorts query results in ascending order by default.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of ORDER BY clause which would be used to sort result in ascending or
descending order is as follows:

SELECT column-list
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition]
[ORDER BY column1, column2, .. columnN] [ASC | DESC];

You can use more than one column in the ORDER BY clause. Make sure whatever column you
are using to sort, that column should be in column-list.

Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example which would sort the result in ascending order by NAME and
SALARY:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY NAME, SALARY;

This would produce following result:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example which would sort the result in descending order by NAME:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY NAME DESC;

This would produce following result:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

To fetch the rows with own preferred order, the SELECT query would as follows:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY (CASE ADDRESS
WHEN 'DELHI' THEN 1
WHEN 'BHOPAL' THEN 2
WHEN 'KOTA' THEN 3
WHEN 'AHMADABAD' THEN 4
WHEN 'MP' THEN 5
ELSE 100 END) ASC, ADDRESS DESC;

This would produce following result:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

This will sort customers by ADDRESS in your ownoOrder of preference first and in a natural
order for the remaining addresses. Also remaining Addresses will be sorted in the reverse alpha
order.

SQL - TOP, LIMIT or ROWNUM Clause

The SQL TOP clause is used to fetch a TOP N number or X percent records from a table.

Note: All the databases do not support TOP clause. For example MySQL supports LIMIT
clause to fetch limited number of records and Oracle uses ROWNUM to fetch limited number of
records.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of TOP clause with SELECT statement would be as follows:

SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)

FROM table_name
WHERE [condition]

Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example on SQL server which would fetch top 3 records from CUSTOMERS
table:

SQL> SELECT TOP 3 * FROM CUSTOMERS;

This would produce following result:

+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+

If you are using MySQL server then, here is equivalent example:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

LIMIT 3;

This would produce following result:

+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+

If you are using Oracle server then, here is equivalent example:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE ROWNUM <= 3;

This would produce following result:

+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
SQL - DELETE Query

Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example which would DELETE a customer whose ID is 6:

SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE ID = 6;

Now CUSTOMERS table would have following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

If you want to DELETE all the records from CUSTOMERS table, you do not need to use
WHERE clause and DELETE query would be as follows:

SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS;

SQL - UPDATE Query

Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example which would update ADDRESS for a customer whose ID is 6:

SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS

SET ADDRESS = 'Pune'
WHERE ID = 6;

Now CUSTOMERS table would have following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | Pune | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

If you want to modify all ADDRESS and SALARY column values in CUSTOMERS table, you
do not need to use WHERE clause and UPDATE query would be as follows:

SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS

SET ADDRESS = 'Pune', SALARY = 1000.00;

Now CUSTOMERS table would have following records:

+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Pune | 1000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
SQL - AND and OR Conjunctive Operators

Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example which would fetch ID, Name and Salary fields from the CUSTOMERS
table where salary is greater than 2000 AND age is less tan 25 years:

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY

FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY > 2000 AND age < 25;

This would produce following result:

+----+-------+----------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+-------+----------+
| 6 | Komal | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 10000.00 |
+----+-------+----------+

The OR Operator:
The OR operator is used to combine multiple conditions in an SQL statement's WHERE clause.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of OR operator with WHERE clause is as follows:

SELECT column1, column2, columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE [condition1] OR [condition2]...OR [conditionN]
You can combine N number of conditions using OR operator. For an action to be taken by the
SQL statement, whether it be a transaction or query, only any ONE of the conditions separated
by the OR must be TRUE.

Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example which would fetch ID, Name and Salary fields from the CUSTOMERS
table where salary is greater than 2000 OR age is less tan 25 years:

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY

FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY > 2000 OR age < 25;

This would produce following result:

+----+----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+----------+----------+
| 3 | kaushik | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+----------+

SQL - Using Joins

The SQL Joins clause is used to combine records from two or more tables in a database. A JOIN
is a means for combining fields from two tables by using values common to each.

Consider following two tables, (a) CUSTOMERS table is as follows:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

(b) Another table is ORDERS as follows:

+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+

Now let us join these two tables in our SELECT statement as follows:

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AGE, AMOUNT

FROM CUSTOMERS, ORDERS
WHERE CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;

This would produce following result:

+----+----------+-----+--------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | AMOUNT |
+----+----------+-----+--------+
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | 3000 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | 1500 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | 1560 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | 2060 |
+----+----------+-----+--------+

Here it is noteable that the join is performed in the WHERE clause. Several operators can be
used to join tables, such as =, <, >, <>, <=, >=, !=, BETWEEN, LIKE, and NOT; they can all be
used to join tables. However, the most common operator is the equal symbol.

SQL Join Types:

There are different type of joins available in SQL:

INNER JOIN: returns rows when there is a match in both tables.

LEFT JOIN: returns all rows from the left table, even if there are no matches in the right
table.
 RIGHT JOIN: returns all rows from the right table, even if there are no matches in the
left table.
FULL JOIN: returns rows when there is a match in one of the tables.
SELF JOIN: is used to join a table to itself, as if the table were two tables, temporarily
renaming at least one table in the SQL statement.
CARTESIAN JOIN: returns the cartesian product of the sets of records from the two or
more joined tables.

INNER JOIN
Syntax:
The basic syntax of INNER JOIN is as follows:

SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2...

FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.common_filed = table2.common_field;

Example:
Consider following two tables, (a) CUSTOMERS table is as follows:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

(b) Another table is ORDERS as follows:

+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| OID | DATE | ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+

Now let us join these two tables using INNER JOIN as follows:

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE

 FROM CUSTOMERS
INNER JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;

This would produce following result:

+----+----------+--------+---------------------+
| ID | NAME | AMOUNT | DATE |
+----+----------+--------+---------------------+
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
+----+----------+--------+---------------------+

LEFT JOIN

Syntax:
The basic syntax of LEFT JOIN is as follows:

SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2...

FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.common_filed = table2.common_field;

Here given condition could be any given expression based on your requirement.

Example:
Consider following two tables, (a) CUSTOMERS table is as follows:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

(b) Another table is ORDERS as follows:

+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+

Now let us join these two tables using LEFT JOIN as follows:

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE

FROM CUSTOMERS
LEFT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;

This would produce following result:

+----+----------+--------+---------------------+
| ID | NAME | AMOUNT | DATE |
+----+----------+--------+---------------------+
| 1 | Ramesh | NULL | NULL |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 5 | Hardik | NULL | NULL |
| 6 | Komal | NULL | NULL |
| 7 | Muffy | NULL | NULL |
+----+----------+--------+---------------------+

RIGHT JOIN

Syntax:
The basic syntax of RIGHT JOIN is as follows:

SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2...

FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.common_filed = table2.common_field;

Example:
Consider following two tables, (a) CUSTOMERS table is as follows:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

(b) Another table is ORDERS as follows:

+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+

Now let us join these two tables using RIGHT JOIN as follows:

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE

FROM CUSTOMERS
RIGHT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;

This would produce following result:

+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| ID | NAME | AMOUNT | DATE |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+

SQL - FULL JOINS

The SQL FULL JOIN combines the results of both left and right outer joins.

The joined table will contain all records from both tables, and fill in NULLs for missing matches
on either side.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of FULL JOIN is as follows:

SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2...

FROM table1
FULL JOIN table2
ON table1.common_filed = table2.common_field;

Here given condition could be any given expression based on your requirement.

Example:
Consider following two tables, (a) CUSTOMERS table is as follows:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

(b) Another table is ORDERS as follows:

+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+

Now let us join these two tables using FULL JOIN as follows:

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE

FROM CUSTOMERS
FULL JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;

This would produce following result:

+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| ID | NAME | AMOUNT | DATE |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| 1 | Ramesh | NULL | NULL |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 5 | Hardik | NULL | NULL |
| 6 | Komal | NULL | NULL |
| 7 | Muffy | NULL | NULL |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+

If your Database does not support FULL JOIN like MySQL does not support FULL JOIN, then
you can use UNION ALL clause to combile two JOINS as follows:

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE

FROM CUSTOMERS
LEFT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID
UNION ALL
SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE
FROM CUSTOMERS
RIGHT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID

SELF JOIN
The SQL SELF JOIN is used to join a table to itself, as if the table were two tables, temporarily
renaming at least one table in the SQL statement.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of SELF JOIN is as follows:

SELECT a.column_name, b.column_name...

FROM table1 a, table1 b
WHERE a.common_filed = b.common_field;

Here WHERE clause could be any given expression based on your requirement.

Example:
Consider following two tables, (a) CUSTOMERS table is as follows:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Now let us join this table using SELF JOIN as follows:

SQL> SELECT a.ID, b.NAME, a.SALARY

FROM CUSTOMERS a, CUSTOMERS b
WHERE a.SALARY < b.SALARY;

This would produce following result:

+----+----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+----------+---------+
| 2 | Ramesh | 1500.00 |
| 2 | kaushik | 1500.00 |
| 1 | Chaitali | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Chaitali | 1500.00 |
| 3 | Chaitali | 2000.00 |
| 6 | Chaitali | 4500.00 |
| 1 | Hardik | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Hardik | 1500.00 |
| 3 | Hardik | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Hardik | 6500.00 |
| 6 | Hardik | 4500.00 |
| 1 | Komal | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Komal | 1500.00 |
| 3 | Komal | 2000.00 |
| 1 | Muffy | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Muffy | 1500.00 |
| 3 | Muffy | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Muffy | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Muffy | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Muffy | 4500.00 |
+----+----------+---------+

CARTESIAN JOIN or CROSS JOIN

The CARTESIAN JOIN or CROSS JOIN returns the cartesian product of the sets of records
from the two or more joined tables. Thus, it equates to an inner join where the join-condition
always evaluates to True or where the join-condition is absent from the statement.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of INNER JOIN is as follows:

SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2...

FROM table1, table2 [, table3 ]
Example:
Consider following two tables, (a) CUSTOMERS table is as follows:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

(b) Another table is ORDERS as follows:

+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+

Now let us join these two tables using INNER JOIN as follows:

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE

FROM CUSTOMERS, ORDERS;

This would produce following result:

+----+----------+--------+---------------------+
| ID | NAME | AMOUNT | DATE |
+----+----------+--------+---------------------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 1 | Ramesh | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 1 | Ramesh | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 1 | Ramesh | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 6 | Komal | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 6 | Komal | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 6 | Komal | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 6 | Komal | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
+----+----------+--------+---------------------+

SQL UNION

The SQL UNION clause/operator is used to combine the results of two or more SELECT
statements without returning any duplicate rows.

To use UNION, each SELECT must have the same number of columns selected, the same
number of column expressions, the same data type, and have them in the same order but they do
not have to be the same length.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of UNION is as follows:

SELECT column1 [, column2 ]

FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]

UNION

SELECT column1 [, column2 ]

FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]

Here given condition could be any given expression based on your requirement.

Example:
Consider following two tables, (a) CUSTOMERS table is as follows:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

(b) Another table is ORDERS as follows:

+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+

Now let us join these two tables in our SELECT statement as follows:

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE

FROM CUSTOMERS
LEFT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID
UNION
SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE
FROM CUSTOMERS
RIGHT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;

This would produce following result:

+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| ID | NAME | AMOUNT | DATE |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| 1 | Ramesh | NULL | NULL |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 5 | Hardik | NULL | NULL |
| 6 | Komal | NULL | NULL |
| 7 | Muffy | NULL | NULL |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+

The UNION ALL Clause:

The UNION ALL operator is used to combine the results of two SELECT statements including
duplicate rows.

The same rules that apply to UNION apply to the UNION ALL operator.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of UNION ALL is as follows:

SELECT column1 [, column2 ]

FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]

UNION ALL

SELECT column1 [, column2 ]

FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]

Here given condition could be any given expression based on your requirement.

Example:
Consider following two tables, (a) CUSTOMERS table is as follows:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

(b) Another table is ORDERS as follows:

+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+

Now let us join these two tables in our SELECT statement as follows:

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE

FROM CUSTOMERS
LEFT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID
UNION ALL
SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE
FROM CUSTOMERS
 RIGHT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;

This would produce following result:

+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| ID | NAME | AMOUNT | DATE |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| 1 | Ramesh | NULL | NULL |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 5 | Hardik | NULL | NULL |
| 6 | Komal | NULL | NULL |
| 7 | Muffy | NULL | NULL |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+

There are two other clauses (i.e operators ) which are very similar to UNION clause:

SQL INTERSECT Clause: is used to combine two SELECT statements, but returns rows
only from the first SELECT statement that are identical to a row in the second SELECT
statement.
SQL EXCEPT Clause : combines two SELECT statements and returns rows from the
first SELECT statement that are not returned by the second SELECT statement.

INTERSECT clause/operator
The SQL INTERSECT clause/operator is used to combine two SELECT statements, but returns
rows only from the first SELECT statement that are identical to a row in the second SELECT
statement. This means INTERSECT returns only common rows returned by the two SELECT
statements.

Just as with the UNION operator, the same rules apply when using the INTERSECT operator.
MySQL does not support INTERSECT operator

Syntax:
The basic syntax of INTERSECT is as follows:

SELECT column1 [, column2 ]

FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]

INTERSECT
SELECT column1 [, column2 ]
FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]

Here given condition could be any given expression based on your requirement.

Example:
Consider following two tables, (a) CUSTOMERS table is as follows:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

(b) Another table is ORDERS as follows:

+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+

Now let us join these two tables in our SELECT statement as follows:

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE

FROM CUSTOMERS
LEFT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID
INTERSECT
SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE
FROM CUSTOMERS
RIGHT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;

This would produce following result:

+------+---------+--------+---------------------+
| ID | NAME | AMOUNT | DATE |
+------+---------+--------+---------------------+
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 2 | Ramesh | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 4 | kaushik | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
+------+---------+--------+---------------------+

SQL - EXCEPT Clause

The SQL EXCEPT clause/operator is used to combine two SELECT statements and returns
rows from the first SELECT statement that are not returned by the second SELECT statement.
This means EXCEPT returns only rows which are not available in second SELECT statement.

Just as with the UNION operator, the same rules apply when using the EXCEPT operator.
MySQL does not support EXCEPT operator.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of EXCEPT is as follows:

SELECT column1 [, column2 ]

FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]

EXCEPT

SELECT column1 [, column2 ]

FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]

Here given condition could be any given expression based on your requirement.

Example:
Consider following two tables, (a) CUSTOMERS table is as follows:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
(b) Another table is ORDERS as follows:

+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+

Now let us join these two tables in our SELECT statement as follows:

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE

FROM CUSTOMERS
LEFT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID
EXCEPT
SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE
FROM CUSTOMERS
RIGHT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;

This would produce following result:

+----+---------+--------+---------------------+
| ID | NAME | AMOUNT | DATE |
+----+---------+--------+---------------------+
| 1 | Ramesh | NULL | NULL |
| 5 | Hardik | NULL | NULL |
| 6 | Komal | NULL | NULL |
| 7 | Muffy | NULL | NULL |
+----+---------+--------+---------------------+

SQL - NULL Values

The SQL NULL is the term used to represent a missing value. A NULL value in a table is a
value in a field that appears to be blank.

A field with a NULL value is a field with no value. It is very important to understand that a
NULL value is different than a zero value or a field that contains spaces.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of NULL while creating a table:
SQL> CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(
ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

Here NOT NULL signifies that column should always accept an explicit value of the given data
type. There are two column where we did not use NOT NULL which means these column could
be NULL.

A field with a NULL value is one that has been left blank during record creation.

Example:
The NULL value can cause problems when selecting data, however, because when comparing an
unknown value to any other value, the result is always unknown and not included in the final
results.

You must use the IS NULL or IS NOT NULL operators in order to check for a NULL value.

Consider following table, CUSTOMERS having following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Now following is the usage of IS NOT NULL operator:

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS, SALARY

FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY IS NOT NULL;

This would produce following result:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Now following is the usage of IS NULL operator:

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS, SALARY

FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY IS NULL;

This would produce following result:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

SQL - Alias Syntax

You can rename a table or a column temporarily by giving another name known as alias.

The use of table aliases means to rename a table in a particular SQL statement. The renaming is a
temporary change and the actual table name does not change in the database.

The column aliases are used to rename a table's columns for the purpose of a particular SQL
query.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of table alias is as follows:

SELECT column1, column2....

FROM table_name AS alias_name
WHERE [condition];

The basic syntax of column alias is as follows:

SELECT column_name AS alias_name

FROM table_name
WHERE [condition];

Example:
Consider following two tables, (a) CUSTOMERS table is as follows:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

(b) Another table is ORDERS as follows:

+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+

Now following is the usage of table alias:

SQL> SELECT C.ID, C.NAME, C.AGE, O.AMOUNT

FROM CUSTOMERS AS C, ORDERS AS O
WHERE C.ID = O.CUSTOMER_ID;

This would produce following result:

+----+----------+-----+--------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | AMOUNT |
+----+----------+-----+--------+
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | 3000 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | 1500 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | 1560 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | 2060 |
+----+----------+-----+--------+

Following is the usage of column alias:

SQL> SELECT ID AS CUSTOMER_ID, NAME AS CUSTOMER_NAME

FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY IS NOT NULL;

This would produce following result:

+-------------+---------------+
| CUSTOMER_ID | CUSTOMER_NAME |
+-------------+---------------+
| 1 | Ramesh |
| 2 | Khilan |
| 3 | kaushik |
| 4 | Chaitali |
| 5 | Hardik |
| 6 | Komal |
| 7 | Muffy |
+-------------+---------------+

SQL - Indexes

Indexes are special lookup tables that the database search engine can use to speed up data
retrieval. Simply put, an index is a pointer to data in a table. An index in a database is very
similar to an index in the back of a book.

For example, if you want to reference all pages in a book that discuss a certain topic, you first
refer to the index, which lists all topics alphabetically, and are then referred to one or more
specific page numbers.

An index helps speed up SELECT queries and WHERE clauses, but it slows down data input,
with UPDATE and INSERT statements. Indexes can be created or dropped with no effect on the
data.

Creating an index involves the CREATE INDEX statement, which allows you to name the index,
to specify the table and which column or columns to index, and to indicate whether the index is
in ascending or descending order.

Indexes can also be unique, similar to the UNIQUE constraint, in that the index prevents
duplicate entries in the column or combination of columns on which there's an index.

The CREATE INDEX Command:

The basic syntax of CREATE INDEX is as follows:

CREATE INDEX index_name ON table_name;

Single-Column Indexes:
A single-column index is one that is created based on only one table column. The basic syntax is
as follows:

CREATE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column_name);
Unique Indexes:
Unique indexes are used not only for performance, but also for data integrity. A unique index
does not allow any duplicate values to be inserted into the table. The basic syntax is as follows:

CREATE INDEX index_name

on table_name (column_name);

Composite Indexes:
A composite index is an index on two or more columns of a table. The basic syntax is as follows:

CREATE INDEX index_name

on table_name (column1, column2);

Whether to create a single-column index or a composite index, take into consideration the
column(s) that you may use very frequently in a query's WHERE clause as filter conditions.

Should there be only one column used, a single-column index should be the choice. Should there
be two or more columns that are frequently used in the WHERE clause as filters, the composite
index would be the best choice.

Implicit Indexes:
Implicit indexes are indexes that are automatically created by the database server when an object
is created. Indexes are automatically created for primary key constraints and unique constraints.

The DROP INDEX Command:

An index can be dropped using SQL DROP command. Care should be taken when dropping an
index because performance may be slowed or improved.

The basic syntax is as follows:

DROP INDEX index_name;

You can check INDEX Constraint chapter to see actual examples on Indexes.

When should indexes be avoided?

Although indexes are intended to enhance a database's performance, there are times when they
should be avoided. The following guidelines indicate when the use of an index should be
reconsidered:

Indexes should not be used on small tables.

 Tables that have frequent, large batch update or insert operations.
Indexes should not be used on columns that contain a high number of NULL values.
Columns that are frequently manipulated should not be indexed.

SQL - ALTER TABLE Command

The SQL ALTER TABLE command is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an existing
table.

You would also use ALTER TABLE command to add and drop various constraints on a an
existing table.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to add a new column in an existing table is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype;

The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to DROP COLUMN in an existing table is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name;

The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to change the DATA TYPE of a column in a table is as
follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY COLUMN column_name datatype;

The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to add a NOT NULL constraint to a column in a table is as
follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY column_name datatype NOT NULL;

The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to ADD UNIQUE CONSTRAINT to a table is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD CONSTRAINT MyUniqueConstraint UNIQUE(column1, column2...);

The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to ADD CHECK CONSTRAINT to a table is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD CONSTRAINT MyUniqueConstraint CHECK (CONDITION);
The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to ADD PRIMARY KEY constraint to a table is as
follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD CONSTRAINT MyPrimaryKey PRIMARY KEY (column1, column2...);

The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to DROP CONSTRAINT from a table is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP CONSTRAINT MyUniqueConstraint;

If you're using MySQL, the code is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP INDEX MyUniqueConstraint;

The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to DROP PRIMARY KEY constraint from a table is as
follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP CONSTRAINT MyPrimaryKey;

If you're using MySQL, the code is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP PRIMARY KEY;

Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is the example to ADD a new column in an existing table:

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS ADD SEX char(1);

Now CUSTOMERS table is changed and following would be output from SELECT statement:

+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY | SEX |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 | NULL |
| 2 | Ramesh | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 | NULL |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 | NULL |
| 4 | kaushik | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 | NULL |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 | NULL |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 | NULL |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 | NULL |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+------+

Following is the example to DROP sex column from existing table:

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS DROP SEX;

Now CUSTOMERS table is changed and following would be output from SELECT statement:

+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Ramesh | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | kaushik | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+

SQL - TRUNCATE TABLE Command

The SQL TRUNCATE TABLE command is used to delete complete data from an existing
table.

You can also use DROP TABLE command to delete complete table but it would remove
complete table structure form the database and you would need to re-create this table once again
if you wish you store some data.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of TRUNCATE TABLE is as follows:

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is the example to turncate:

SQL > TRUNCATE TABLE CUSTOMERS;

Now CUSTOMERS table is truncated and following would be output from SELECT statement:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;

Empty set (0.00 sec)

SQL - Having Clause

The HAVING clause enables you to specify conditions that filter which group results appear in
the final results.

The WHERE clause places conditions on the selected columns, whereas the HAVING clause
places conditions on groups created by the GROUP BY clause.

Syntax:
The following is the position of the HAVING clause in a query:

SELECT
FROM
WHERE
GROUP BY
HAVING
ORDER BY

The HAVING clause must follow the GROUP BY clause in a query and must also precede the
ORDER BY clause if used. The following is the syntax of the SELECT statement, including the
HAVING clause:
SELECT column1, column2
FROM table1, table2
WHERE [ conditions ]
GROUP BY column1, column2
HAVING [ conditions ]
ORDER BY column1, column2

Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is the example which would display record for which similar age count would be
more than or equal to 2:

SQL > SELECT *

FROM CUSTOMERS
GROUP BY age
HAVING COUNT(age) >= 2;

This would produce following result:

+----+--------+-----+---------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+--------+-----+---------+---------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
+----+--------+-----+---------+---------+

The COMMIT Command:

The COMMIT command is the transactional command used to save changes invoked by a
transaction to the database.

The COMMIT command saves all transactions to the database since the last COMMIT or
ROLLBACK command.
The syntax for COMMIT command is as follows:

COMMIT;

Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is the example which would delete records from the table having age = 25, and then
COMMIT the changes in the database.

SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE AGE = 25;
SQL> COMMIT;

As a result, two rows from the table would be deleted and SELECT statement would produce
following result:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

The ROLLBACK Command:

The ROLLBACK command is the transactional command used to undo transactions that have
not already been saved to the database.

The ROLLBACK command can only be used to undo transactions since the last COMMIT or
ROLLBACK command was issued.

The syntax for ROLLBACK command is as follows:

ROLLBACK;

Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is the example which would delete records from the table having age = 25, and then
ROLLBACK the changes in the database.

SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE AGE = 25;
SQL> ROLLBACK;

As a result, delete operation would not impact the table and SELECT statement would produce
following result:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

The SAVEPOINT Command:

A SAVEPOINT is a point in a transaction when you can roll the transaction back to a certain
point without rolling back the entire transaction.

The syntax for SAVEPOINT command is as follows:

SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;
This command serves only in the creation of a SAVEPOINT among transactional statements.
The ROLLBACK command is used to undo a group of transactions.

The syntax for rolling back to a SAVEPOINT is as follows:

ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT_NAME;

Following is an example where you plan to delete the three different records from the
CUSTOMERS table. You want to create a SAVEPOINT before each delete, so that you can
ROLLBACK to any SAVEPOINT at any time to return the appropriate data to its original state:

Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Now here is the series of operations:

SQL> SAVEPOINT SP1;

Savepoint created.
SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE ID=1;
1 row deleted.
SQL> SAVEPOINT SP2;
Savepoint created.
SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE ID=2;
1 row deleted.
SQL> SAVEPOINT SP3;
Savepoint created.
SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE ID=3;
1 row deleted.

Now that the three deletions have taken place, say you have changed your mind and decided to
ROLLBACK to the SAVEPOINT that you identified as SP2. Because SP2 was created after the
first deletion, the last two deletions are undone:

SQL> ROLLBACK TO SP2;

Rollback complete.

Notice that only the first deletion took place since you rolled back to SP2:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
6 rows selected.

The RELEASE SAVEPOINT Command:

The RELEASE SAVEPOINT command is used to remove a SAVEPOINT that you have created.

The syntax for RELEASE SAVEPOINT is as follows:

RELEASE SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;

Once a SAVEPOINT has been released, you can no longer use the ROLLBACK command to
undo transactions performed since the SAVEPOINT.

TRANSACTION
The SET TRANSACTION Command:
The SET TRANSACTION command can be used to initiate a database transaction. This
command is used to specify characteristics for the transaction that follows.

For example, you can specify a transaction to be read only, or read write.

The syntax for SET TRANSACTION is as follows:

SET TRANSACTION [ READ WRITE | READ ONLY ];

Transaction Control:
There are following commands used to control transactions:

COMMIT: to save the changes.

ROLLBACK: to rollback the changes.
SAVEPOINT: creates points within groups of transactions in which to ROLLBACK
 SET TRANSACTION: Places a name on a transaction.

Transactional control commands are only used with the DML commands INSERT, UPDATE,
and DELETE only. They can not be used while creating tables or dropping them because these
operations are automatically commited in the database.

SQL - Temporary Tables

There are RDBMS which support temporary tables. Temporary Tables are a great feature that
lets you store and process intermediate results by using the same selection, update, and join
capabilities that you can use with typical SQL Server tables.

The temporary tables could be very useful in some cases to keep temporary data. The most
important thing that should be knows for temporary tables is that they will be deleted when the
current client session terminates.

Temporary tables are available in MySQL version 3.23 onwards. If you use an older version of
MySQL than 3.23 you can't use temporary tables, but you can use heap tables.

As stated earlier temporary tables will only last as long as the session is alive. If you run the code
in a PHP script, the temporary table will be destroyed automatically when the script finishes
executing. If you are connected to the MySQL database server through the MySQL client
program, then the temporary table will exist until you close the client or manually destroy the
table.

Example
Here is an example showing you usage of temporary table:

mysql> CREATE TEMPORARY TABLE SALESSUMMARY (

-> product_name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL
-> , total_sales DECIMAL(12,2) NOT NULL DEFAULT 0.00
-> , avg_unit_price DECIMAL(7,2) NOT NULL DEFAULT 0.00
-> , total_units_sold INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL DEFAULT 0
);
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.00 sec)

mysql> INSERT INTO SALESSUMMARY

-> (product_name, total_sales, avg_unit_price, total_units_sold)
-> VALUES
-> ('cucumber', 100.25, 90, 2);

mysql> SELECT * FROM SALESSUMMARY;

+--------------+-------------+----------------+------------------+
| product_name | total_sales | avg_unit_price | total_units_sold |
+--------------+-------------+----------------+------------------+
| cucumber | 100.25 | 90.00 | 2 |
+--------------+-------------+----------------+------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

When you issue a SHOW TABLES command then your temporary table would not be listed out
in the list. Now if you will log out of the MySQL session and then you will issue a SELECT
command then you will find no data available in the database. Even your temporary table would
also not exist.

Dropping Temporary Tables:

By default all the temporary tables are deleted by MySQL when your database connection gets
terminated. Still you want to delete them in between then you do so by issuing DROP TABLE
command.

Following is the example on dropping a temproary table.

mysql

SQL - Clone Tables

There may be a situation when you need an exact copy of a table, and CREATE TABLE ...
SELECT... doesn't suit your purposes because the copy must include the same indexes, default
values, and so forth.

If you are using MySQL RDBMS, you can handle this situation by following steps.

Use SHOW CREATE TABLE command to get a CREATE TABLE statement that
specifies the source table's structure, indexes and all.
Modify the statement to change the table name to that of the clone table and execute the
statement. This way you will have exact clone table.
Optionally, If you need the table contents copied as well, issue an INSERT INTO ...
SELECT statement, too.

Example:
Try out following example to create a clone table for TUTORIALS_TBL whose structure is as
follows:

Step 1:
Get complete structure about table
SQL> SHOW CREATE TABLE TUTORIALS_TBL \G;
*************************** 1. row ***************************
Table: TUTORIALS_TBL
Create Table: CREATE TABLE `TUTORIALS_TBL` (
`tutorial_id` int(11) NOT NULL auto_increment,
`tutorial_title` varchar(100) NOT NULL default '',
`tutorial_author` varchar(40) NOT NULL default '',
`submission_date` date default NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (`tutorial_id`),
UNIQUE KEY `AUTHOR_INDEX` (`tutorial_author`)
) TYPE=MyISAM
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

Step 2:
Rename this table and create another table

SQL> CREATE TABLE `CLONE_TBL` (

-> `tutorial_id` int(11) NOT NULL auto_increment,
-> `tutorial_title` varchar(100) NOT NULL default '',
-> `tutorial_author` varchar(40) NOT NULL default '',
-> `submission_date` date default NULL,
-> PRIMARY KEY (`tutorial_id`),
-> UNIQUE KEY `AUTHOR_INDEX` (`tutorial_author`)
-> ) TYPE=MyISAM;
Query OK, 0 rows affected (1.80 sec)

Step 3:
After executing step 2 you will a clone table in your database. If you want to copy data from old
table then you can do it by using INSERT INTO... SELECT statement.

SQL> INSERT INTO CLONE_TBL (tutorial_id,

-> tutorial_title,
-> tutorial_author,
-> submission_date)
-> SELECT tutorial_id,tutorial_title,
-> tutorial_author,submission_date,
-> FROM TUTORIALS_TBL;
Query OK, 3 rows affected (0.07 sec)
Records: 3 Duplicates: 0 Warnings: 0

Finally you will have exact clone table as you wanted to have.

SQL - Sub Queries

A Subquery or Inner query or Nested query is a query within another SQL query, and embedded
within the WHERE clause.
A subquery is used to return data that will be used in the main query as a condition to further
restrict the data to be retrieved.

Subqueries can be used with the SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements along
with the operators like =, <, >, >=, <=, IN, BETWEEN etc.

There are a few rules that subqueries must follow:

Subqueries must be enclosed within parentheses.

A subquery can have only one column in the SELECT clause, unless multiple columns
are in the main query for the subquery to compare its selected columns.
An ORDER BY cannot be used in a subquery, although the main query can use an
ORDER BY. The GROUP BY can be used to perform the same function as the ORDER
BY in a subquery.
Subqueries that return more than one row can only be used with multiple value operators,
such as the IN operator.
The SELECT list cannot include any references to values that evaluate to a BLOB,
ARRAY, CLOB, or NCLOB.
A subquery cannot be immediately enclosed in a set function.
The BETWEEN operator cannot be used with a subquery; however, the BETWEEN can
be used within the subquery.

Subqueries with the SELECT Statement:

Subqueries are most frequently used with the SELECT statement. The basic syntax is as follows:

SELECT column_name [, column_name ]

FROM table1 [, table2 ]
WHERE column_name OPERATOR
(SELECT column_name [, column_name ]
FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE])

Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 35 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Now let us check following sub-query with SELECT statement:

SQL> SELECT *
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY > 4500) ;

This would produce following result:

+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+

Subqueries with the INSERT Statement:

Subqueries also can be used with INSERT statements. The INSERT statement uses the data
returned from the subquery to insert into another table. The selected data in the subquery can be
modified with any of the character, date, or number functions.

The basic syntax is as follows:

INSERT INTO table_name [ (column1 [, column2 ]) ]

SELECT [ *|column1 [, column2 ]
FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[ WHERE VALUE OPERATOR ]

Example:
Consider a table CUSTOMERS_BKP with similar structure as CUSTOMERS table. Now to
copy complete CUSTOMERS table into CUSTOMERS_BKP, following is the syntax:

SQL> INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS_BKP

SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID
FROM CUSTOMERS) ;

Subqueries with the UPDATE Statement:

The subquery can be used in conjunction with the UPDATE statement. Either single or multiple
columns in a table can be updated when using a subquery with the UPDATE statement.

The basic syntax is as follows:

UPDATE table
SET column_name = new_value
[ WHERE OPERATOR [ VALUE ]
(SELECT COLUMN_NAME
FROM TABLE_NAME)
[ WHERE) ]

Example:
Assuming, we have CUSTOMERS_BKP table available which is backup of CUSTOMERS
table.

Following example updates SALARY by 0.25 times in CUSTOMERS table for all the customers
whose AGE is greater than or equal to 27:

SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS

SET SALARY = SALARY * 0.25
WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM CUSTOMERS_BKP
WHERE AGE >= 27 );

This would impact two rows and finally CUSTOMERS table would have following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 35 | Ahmedabad | 125.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 2125.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Subqueries with the DELETE Statement:

The subquery can be used in conjunction with the DELETE statement like with any other
statements mentioned above.

The basic syntax is as follows:

DELETE FROM TABLE_NAME

[ WHERE OPERATOR [ VALUE ]
(SELECT COLUMN_NAME
FROM TABLE_NAME)
[ WHERE) ]

Example:
Assuming, we have CUSTOMERS_BKP table available which is backup of CUSTOMERS
table.

Following example deletes records from CUSTOMERS table for all the customers whose AGE
is greater than or equal to 27:

SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM CUSTOMERS_BKP
WHERE AGE > 27 );

This would impact two rows and finally CUSTOMERS table would have following records:

+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+

SQL - Handling Duplicates

There may be a situation when you have multiple duplicate records in a table. While fetching
such records, it makes more sense to fetch only unique records instead of fetching duplicate
records.

The SQL DISTINCT keyword, which we already have discussed, is used in conjunction with
SELECT statement to eliminate all the duplicate records and fetching only unique records.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of DISTINCT keyword to eliminate duplicate records is as follows:

SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2,.....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE [condition]

Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

First let us see how the following SELECT query returns duplicate salary records:

SQL> SELECT SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY SALARY;

This would produce following result where salary 2000 is coming twice which is a duplicate
record from the original table.

+----------+
| SALARY |
+----------+
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 4500.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 8500.00 |
| 10000.00 |
+----------+

Now let us use DISTINCT keywork with the above SELECT query and see the result:

SQL> SELECT DISTINCT SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY SALARY;

This would produce following result where we do not have any duplicate entry:

+----------+
| SALARY |
+----------+
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 4500.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 8500.00 |
| 10000.00 |
+----------+