Geostatistics

An article outlining the issues

that affect the use of geostatistics

in geotechnical engineering

analysis. The profession needs to

fully appreciate the power of the

method, understand its concepts

and tools, and make its use part of

routine geotechnical analysis. Geomechanics

software solutions
used worldwide by
geotechnical
engineers

Article prepared for RocNews

Software tools for rock and soil Spring 2003
Geostatistics in Geotechnical Engineering:
A fad or an empowering approach?

Geotechnical engineering is constantly evolving and its practitioners always on

the lookout for tools, which improve design and help better cope with the large

uncertainties and variations in soil and rock properties.

In recent years, several authors have the period from 1970 to 2003. It
attempted to apply geostatistics found 64 such publications. We
to the problems of geotechnical then sorted the outcome by year of
engineering. Does this field hold publication and created a histogram
promise for geotechnical (Figure 1) of the resulting table.
applications? Geotechnical
engineering is constantly evolving
and always seeking for tools, which
improve design and help better
cope with the large uncertainties
and variations in soil and rock
properties. In recent years, several
authors have attempted to apply
geostatistics to the problems of
geotechnical engineering. Does this
field hold promise for geotechnical
applications?

To help track the evolution of the Figure 1 - A histogram plot of the frequency of geotechnical
publications on geostatistics over the last 33 years
interest of geotechnical engineers in
this science, we conducted a simple
survey of geotechnical engineering
papers that listed geostatistics in
their titles, abstracts, descriptions
or keywords. The search covered

2
The histogram indicates that up What is Geostatistics?
until 1978, no paper existed that
listed its focus as geostatistics and Geostatistics deals with spatial data,
geotechnical engineering. Over the i.e. data for which each value is
rest of the period, interest seems associated with a location in space.
to peak and fall a few times, and In such analysis it is assumed that
currently interest appears to be at there is some connection between
another low. Is there going to be location and data value. From
another peak or are we seeing the known values at sampled points,
end of interest in geostatistics? Why geostatistical analysis can be used
is geotechnical engineering losing to predict spatial distributions
interest in geostatistics? Does it of properties over large areas or
If the profession
not offer the profession significant volumes.
is unable to soon
advantages? These are just a few of
the questions that beg to be asked To determine geotechnical and harness the power

from our simple analysis. geological conditions, such as the of geostatistics,

stratigraphy of soil or rock layers application of the

We believe that the profession is at a project site, boreholes are method might again

at a crossroads with regards to drilled at some specified locations. be shelved.

geostatistics. If the profession is Very often, and as expected, one

able to fully appreciate the power finds that measurements from
of the method and understand its boreholes near to each other tend
concepts and tools, geotechnical to be more similar than those
engineering will benefit from widely separated boreholes.
tremendously. If the profession is This observation forms the basis
unable to soon harness the power of the assumption in geostatistics
of geostatistics, application of the that location has a relationship to
method might again be shelved, measured properties.
at least for a while. We believe that
Rocscience can contribute in a way In what way does geostatistics
that helps ensure successful use of differ from conventional statistics?
geostatistics in routine geotechnical Statistics generally analyzes and
analysis. interprets the uncertainty caused
by limited sampling. For example,
a conventional statistical analysis
of core samples from a site
investigation program might show
that measured cohesion values

3
of a material can be described by How can geostatistics
a normal distribution. However,
benefit geotechnical
this distribution only describes the
engineering?
population of values gathered in
the investigation; it does not offer
To help appreciate what
any information on which zones are
geostatistics can do for geotechnical
likely to have high cohesion values
engineering, let us take a brief look
and which areas low values.
at the origins of the discipline and
examine its successful application to
Geostatistical analysis, on the
a variety of fields. The method was
other hand, interprets statistical
originally conceived in the 1960s
distributions of data and also
as a methodology for estimating
examines spatial relationships. For
recoverable reserves in mining
the example given, it is capable of
deposits. Today it is extensively
revealing how cohesion values vary
used in the mining and petroleum
over distance, and of predicting
industries, and in recent years has
areas of high and low cohesion
been successfully integrated into
values. The discipline provides tools
remote sensing and GIS.
for capturing maximum information
on a phenomenon from sparse,
The problem in reserve estimation
often biased, and often under-
was that decisions on very costly
sampled data. Ultimately it produces
expenditure had to be made
predictions of the probable
based on very sparsely sampled
distribution of properties in space.
information. The ratio of the
volume of samples recovered from
We believe that the geotechnical
exploration boreholes to the volume
engineering profession should give
of a deposit of interest was often
strong consideration to adopting
of the order of 1 x 10-9! Yet on this
the techniques of geostatistics. Wide
information recoverable reserves
application of the discipline will lead
had to be reliably estimated, and
to more ready incorporation of the
decisions made on investing large
inherent uncertainty of soil and rock
amounts of money into developing
masses into numerical models and
the deposit.
the design process.

Although the financial costs of

the average geotechnical project
may not be as high as those of
exploration projects, geotechnical
engineering has similar concerns. In
almost every geotechnical project,

4
the volume of samples obtained for Among its many potential benefits
characterizing soil or rock masses to geotechnical engineering,
constitutes only a minute fraction of geostatistical analysis offers the
the volume of material that impacts following:
design and behaviour of proposed
w Powerful analytical tools
structures. Just like the attributes
for forming relatively simple,
measured in resource exploration,
yet accurate, models of
the engineering properties of soil
inhomogeneous material based
and rock masses are heterogeneous,
on limited sample data
with properties varying from
location to location. In addition, w Approaches for optimizing
the financial resources committed sampling locations so that
Given the potential
to geotechnical field investigations they maximize the amount of
improvements
often represent a significant portion information at minimized cost
to design and
of total project costs.
w Techniques for estimating the successes of

Regularly, either for the sake of engineering properties at geostatistics in

simplicity or for lack of information, different locations with minimum resource estimation,

geotechnical engineers assume that estimation error. geotechnical

properties are the same throughout engineering should

a material domain. However, they We shall briefly examine some of embrace the

know that the use of averaged these potential benefits. discipline.

parameter values can lead to

Optimization of Site
conclusions that significantly differ
Investigation Locations
from true behaviour, and recognize
that accurate knowledge of the In our opinion, the most immediate
spatial distribution of soil and rock benefits of applying geostatistics to
mass properties promotes safe geotechnical engineering lie in the
and economic design. Given the optimization of site investigation
potential improvements to design sampling locations. A most
and the successes of geostatistics challenging task in site investigation
in resource estimation, we believe is to design a minimal cost sampling
that geotechnical engineering program that best captures
should seriously consider the information on underground
discipline. Geostatistics will facilitate conditions. The site investigator
accurate interpretation of ground is often required to answer
conditions based on the sparse the question, If more ground
input information characteristic of investigation is to be done, will the
geotechnical engineering. additional information acquired
justify the extra cost or delay?

5
Geostatistics provides spatial Simulation and Numerical
modelling tools that can Modelling
help answer these questions. Geostatistical simulation can help
Geostatistical analysis can create geotechnical engineers assess
maps that show the magnitude uncertainty and risks in design.
and distribution of the values It produces many, equally likely,
of a parameter over an area or digital spatial representations of
volume. These digital maps provide a parameter that are consistent
estimates, which most accurately with values at sampled locations
estimate the spatial distributions of and with in situ variability. The
sampled properties. differences between alternative
models provide a measure of spatial
Contour plots of the standard
uncertainty. The spatially distributed
deviations of predicted values at
realizations of a variable can be
non-sampled locations are a very
input into numerical models and
useful outcome of geostatistical
used to evaluate risks.
analysis. These contours show
areas of higher uncertainty (higher Geostatistical simulation has been
standard deviations). Sampling from used to study the hydrology of
these locations can substantially fractured rock masses. In these
improve the accuracy of predictions. studies, different three-dimensional
fracture networks are generated,
The tools of geostatistics enable the
and then analyzed for flow patterns.
spatial variability of properties to be
Simulation can also be applied to
visualized. They also allow different
stress analysis problems. In finite
hypotheses and assumptions on
element analysis, for example,
variability to be readily tested.
each element in a model can be
This makes it possible to establish
assigned its own deformation and
the most likely structure of spatial
strength properties. It is possible
variability and determine from a
to assign different properties to
variety of interpretations the ones
different elements in a manner
most consistent with the available
that realistically reflects the true
data.
conditions and heterogeneity of a
soil or rock mass using geostatistics.
Studies have shown that the
results of such analyses can differ
substantially from those obtained
from analyses that employ averaged
values.

6
Successful application of used to determine the boundary

geostatistics to Channel between the Chalk Marl and the

Gault Clay, based on data available
Tunnel Project
before construction. Contours of
Among the many factors that made the standard deviations of predicted
the success of the Channel Tunnel depths of this boundary were
project possible, geostatistics was also generated. As a result of the
deemed to have played a significant geostatistical analysis, engineers
role. It enabled the careful were able to improve the originally
assessment of geological risks and proposed alignment of the tunnel.
was used to optimize the alignment The standard deviation contours
of the tunnel. helped engineers to realize that
Engineers were
improved precision was required at
able to improve the
Figure 2 shows a typical geological certain tunnel sections, as a result
originally proposed
cross-section of the seabed through of which they were able to design
alignment of
which the tunnel was excavated. a complementary geophysical
the tunnel using
One of the most important criteria survey of the seafloor. As more data
geostatistical
in optimizing the alignment was to became available from surveys and
analysis.
ensure that the tunnel was bored ongoing construction, geostatistics
within the Chalk Marl, avoiding enabled the tunnel engineers to
the Gault Clay material. Kriging, readily improve the spatial model of
a geostatistical technique, was the Chalk MarlGault Clay interface.

Figure 2 - Geological cross-section through the seafloor of the Channel Tunnel

(taken from Reference [2]).

7
With the help of geostatistical Many of the existing geostatistics
analysis, engineers of the Channel software tools are not formulated in
Tunnel were able to maintain risks ways that can be readily integrated
of penetrating the Gault Clay at into geotechnical analysis. This
acceptable levels and to achieve makes geotechnical engineers
their objectives of avoiding the unwilling to make the time and
Gault Clay formation. Penetration of effort commitments required to
the Gault Clay occurred only twice learn to use the method.
and in areas that had been already
predicted from the geostatistical
model. At the end of the project What can Rocscience
when engineers compared actual do to facilitate
locations of the Chalk Marl-Gault routine geotechnical
Clay boundary to the predictions
geostatistical analysis?
from the geostatistical model,
they found the two to be in For the geotechnical profession to
good agreement. If there were fully exploit the advantages and
any doubters to the usefulness power of geostatistics, it requires
of geostatistics to geotechnical appropriately adapted tools,
engineering, this project should and needs to develop a tradition
have helped put their fears to rest. of applying the discipline. A
natural starting point for bringing
geostatistics into mainstream
The reluctance of geotechnical engineering practice
geotechnical engineers seems to be through application to
in adopting geostatistics site investigations.

We have not fully analyzed the Given Rocsciences success

reasons why geostatistics has not in developing geotechnical
become a routine application in engineering software, the company
geotechnical engineering. However, can play a vital role in helping the
we believe that one of the biggest profession to adopt geostatistics.
reasons could be widespread The company can create easy-
unfamiliarity with the concepts of to-use geostatistical software
geostatistics. As well, the theoretical tools specifically developed
complexity and the effort required for the geotechnical engineer.
to perform a geostatistical study Organized intuitively, such tools
could be factors. will greatly minimize the time
and effort required to understand

8
the principles of geostatistics, for geotechnical engineers will allow
and significantly reduce the effort them to realistically incorporate
required to apply them. inherent spatial variability into
numerical models.
Geostatistical analysis tools,
appropriately implemented in the Given the levels of financial and
companys suite of user-friendly other resources devoted to field
applications, will facilitate powerful investigations and data collection,
and interactive visualization of the and which already capture the
spatial distributions of geotechnical inherent spatial variability of soil
parameters. It will aid in the and rock masses, geotechnical
correct interpretation of data. engineering will be well served by
Such software will also enable and adopting geostatistics. Rocscience is
encourage exploration of alternative prepared to play a role.
assumptions and interpretations in
the analysis of ground conditions. NB: If you have any comments, questions
Through export of the spatial or ideas on geostatistics and its usefulness
to geotechnical engineering, you may
distribution of geotechnical
email your thoughts to:
properties, geostatistical software [email protected]

References
1. Isaaks, E.H. and Srivastava, R.M. An Introduction to Applied
Geostatistics, Oxford University Press, Toronto. 1989. Description: This
book provides an excellent introduction to Geostatistics, and does not overwhelm
the reader with mathematical theory. It also explains geostatistical concepts
through practical application to a sample data set.

2. Chiles, J-P. and Delfiner, P. Geostatistics: Modeling Spatial Uncertainty,

John Wiley & Sons, Toronto. 1999. Description: This meticulously written
book is one of the most definitive references currently available on geostatistics.
However, it is not an introductory text. It covers a wide range of techniques and
theories, and into considerable depth.

3. Geostatistics for Environmental and Geotechnical Applications,

ASTM STP 1283, eds. S. Rouhani, R.M. Srivastava, A.J. Desbarats,
M.V. Cromer, and A.I. Johnson. 1996. Description: This Special Technical
Publication of the ASTM contains an excellent collection of papers that provide
an overview of geostatistics and describe applications to environmental and
geotechnical engineering.

4. La Pointe, P.R. Analysis of the spatial variation in rock mass properties

through geostatistics, in Proceedings of the 21st Symposium on Rock
Mechanics: A State 0f the Art, University of Missouri, Rolla, May 28
30, 1980, pp. 570-580. Description: This is a well-written paper that describes
the specific application of geostatistics to rock engineering.