Transport in Mammals

1989 Paper 2 Question 6

6. (a) With reference to TWO named examples, compare and contrast an open
circulatory system with a closed circulatory system in terms of their structural
organizations, functional advantage(s) and disadvantage(s).
(10 marks)

(b) With reference to TWO named examples, discuss the advantages of a complete
double circulatory system over a single circulatory system. (6 marks)

(c) Discuss the role of plasma protein in the control of tissue fluid volume in a
mammal. (4 marks)

Ans

1991 Paper 2 Question 6

6. Explain the mechanisms which maintain an efficient circulation of blood in the body of a
mammal when at rest and during intense activity. (20 marks)

Ans

1992 Paper 2 Question 5

5. Compare the type of circulatory system found in a named insect with that found in a
named mammal. Consider the advantages and disadvantages of each type of system in
relation to gas exchange and nutrient distribution within these organisms. (20 marks)

Ans

1993 Paper 1 Question 8

8. (a) In an experiment performed on a dog, the relationship between cardiac output and
blood volume of the left ventricle just before contraction started was studied. This
relationship was studied by artificially changing the total blood volume of the
animal, thus altering the ventricular volume. The experiment was then repeated
with simultaneous electrical stimulation of nerve A which innervates the heart.
The results are shown in the graph below :

(i) What conclusions can be drawn from this experiment ? (2 marks)

(ii) (1) Suggest a physiological state of the animal that would give a cardiac
response similar to that produced by stimulation of nerve A. (1 mark)

(2) What is the functional significance of such a response ? (1 mark)

(iii) Injection of chemical X into the circulation of the animal would give a
response similar to that produced by electrical stimulation of nerve A.

(1) Suggest what chemical X is. ( 1 mark)

(2) What is the possible functional relationship between stimulation of nerve

 A and chemical X on the functioning of the heart (2 marks)

(b) In another experiment, the heart rate of the dog under each of the following
conditions was monitored :

(1) in the resting state (as the control),

(2) electrical stimulation of nerve A which innervates the heart, and

(3) electrical stimulation of nerve B which also innervates the heart.

The results are as follows :

Resting state Nerve A stimulation Nerve B stimulation

Heart rate (beats/min) 130 180 100

(i) State the effects of the above nerve stimulations on heart rate. What can you
deduce about the nature of innervations to the heart ? (2 marks)

(ii) Outline the mechanism which affects the heart rate under each of the
following conditions:

(1) in the resting state

(2) when nerve A is stimulated
(3) when nerve B is stimulated (4 marks)

(iii) Which part of the nervous system is responsible for regulating the activities of
nerves A and B ? (1 mark)

(c) Based on the results of all the above experiments, summarise your understanding
on the mechanism controlling cardiac function. (3 marks)

(d) How would the heart rate of the dog at the resting state compare with that of man ?
Account for such a difference. (3 marks)

Ans
1993 Paper 2 Question 2

2. (a) Distinguish between diffusion and active transport. (4 marks)

(b) State four environmental factors that influence salt absorption in plants. Explain
how each exerts its effect. (6 rnarks)

(c) (i) Give three examples of body functions in mammals where active transport is
essential.

(ii) Briefly describe the functional significance of active transport in each case.

(iii) With reference to one of the functions you have mentioned in (i), describe
how the structure(s) concerned is / are structurally adapted to this function.
(10 marks)

Ans

1993 Paper 2 Question 7

7. Give an account of the role of blood in the uptake, transport and release of respiratory
gases. (20 marks)

Ans

1995 Paper 2 Question 1

1. (a) Describe and explain how lymph is formed from blood. (7 marks)

(b) Explain the importance of the lymphatic system in mammals. (7 marks)

(c) Compare and contrast gaseous exchange in a human adult and foetus. (6 marks)

Ans
1996 Paper 1 Question 12

12. The following figure presents the change of pressure with time in the left atrium, left
ventricle and aorta during two cardiac cycles of a healthy young man at rest.

(a) During time period J, the left atrium is at diastole. Describe and account for the
changes in atrial pressure during this phase of the cardiac cycle. Name the heart valve
involved and describe its activity. (Hint: The pressure change is related to the blood flow
in the heart.) (4 marks)

(b) State the activity of the left atrium during time period K. How is this activity related
to the pressure change of the left ventricle during the same time period ? (1
marks)

(c) (i) State the activities of the left ventricle during time periods M and N.

(ii) How would you expect the pressure change in the right ventricle to differ in
magnitude as compared to the left ventricle during the same time periods ?
Explain your answer. (2 marks)

(d) Describe the changes in aortic pressure during time period L. How is this change
 related to the activities of the left ventricle and blood flow ? Name the heart valve
involved and describe its activity. (4 marks)

(e) How would the peak pressure and frequency of the cardiac cycles shown in the
figure change after the man has run up a flight of stairs ? (1 mark)
Total : 13 marks

Ans

1997 Paper 2 Question 6

6. Describe the mechanisms that bring about the movement of water in the transport
systems of flowering plants and mammals. State two essential differences regarding the
nature of control which affects water movement in flowering plants and mammals. (20
marks)

Ans

Solution

1989 Paper 2 Question 6 Solution

6. (a) Open circulatory system Closed circulatory
system
Examples :
Most arthropods (insects, crabs) & most All vertebrates & annelids 1
molluscs (snails, clams)
Structural similarities :
The presence of organ(s) (i.e. heart or modified blood vessel) for the pumping of 2
blood, and a system of oneway valves to keep the blood flow in one direction
Structural differences :
Blood is not enclosed within a system of Blood is enclosed within a system of 2
vessels. After leaving the heart and major blood vessels and does not come in
blood vessels, it flows into the space direct contract with other tissues
(sinuses or haemocoel) between the
internal organs and tissues
Disadvantages : Advantages :
A low pressure system. Blood flow in low. A high pressure system. Blood flow is 2
faster and hence the transporting function
is made more efficient.
Distribution of blood is poorly controlled. Distribution of blood (or cardiac output) to 2
various tissues can be regulated by
means of muscle driven changes in
vessel diameter.
Advantage : Disadvantage :
It does not require the development of a It is more demanding on the heart to 1
powerful pumping organ for propulsion of generate the force required to propel1
blood. blood through the system of vessels.
(10)
(b) Example B :
fish single circulatory system
1
Birds and mammals double circulatory system in complete double
circulatory system, blood after oxygenation is returned to the heart and
pumped out to other tissues under high pressure.
1
The higher blood pressure increases flow rate and hence allows the
transporting function to be carried out more efficiently.
1
The filtration and removal of waste by the glomeruli of the kidney
become more efficient.
1
 These enable the organism concerned to have a higher metabolic rate
1
The heart is supplied with oxygenated blood instead of deoxygenated
blood in return, it can pump more forcefully to generate higher blood
pressure and flow rate.
1
(6)

(c) Plasma proteins are macromolecules and most of them are too large to
pass through the wall of capillaries
1
As a result they give rise to a colloidal osmotic pressure which is higher
for plasma than for tissue fluid.
1
The gradient of colloidal osmotic pressure at the venous end favors net
reabsorption of tissue fluid from interstitial space into capillaries.
It is important in counteracting the hydrostatic pressure gradient at
arteriole end which brings about tissue fluid formation by driving fluid out
from capillaries into the interstitial space.
2
(4)

1991 Paper 2 Question 6 Solution

6. Resting condition / normal activities :

(10)

heart :
myocardial rhythm
pacemaker : action of SA node, AV node and Purkinje fibers
characteristics of cardiac muscle : not fatigued
contraction of heart created a pressure (systolic pressure = 120
mm Hg) forcing blood into the arteries
distending the elastic wall of the arteries which recoil and push blood
forward (diastolic pressure = 80 mm Hg)
semilunar valves prevent backflow of blood into the heart
venous blood flow maintained by :
a. residual heart pressure
b. contraction of adjacent skeletal muscles
 c. valves preventing backflow
d. inspiratory movement of the chest
e. hydrostatic pressure of tissue fluid

Control of circulation to adjust to different physical states of activity :

(10)

Control of heart beat (cardiac rhythm)

cardiovascular center (within the medulla of the brain) accelerates /

decelerates the heart rate by sending nerve impulses along the
sympathetic / parasympathetic (vagus) nerve to the pacemaker
which nerve being stimulated depends on factors like : pH, CO 2
concentration of blood (sensed by chemoreceptors in blood vessel),
blood pressure (sensed by baroreceptors in blood vessel) which in turn
depend on the state of physical activity of the animal concerned.

Control of peripheral flow (blood vessels)

involves the autonomic sympathetic nervous system (adrenaline effect)

controlling vasodilation or vasoconstriction
arteriole control / shunt vessels etc.
(20)

1992 Paper 2 Question 5 Solution

5. Name each = 1 mark

Insect Mammal Advantage / disadvantage 1
System open system closed system less mass flow needed 1+1+2
type less efficient carriage problem of supply
to extremities
Pump heart is a tube 4-chambered Insect heart no blood flow discrimination 1+1+2
structure heart mammal heart good discriminator,
increases efficiency
circulation both have a system of one-way 1
control valves to keep the blood flow in one
direction
Nutrient nutrient distribution complex network no control of nutrient supply to tissues in 1+1+2
distribution by simple diffusion of blood vessels insects / complex control via shunts,
 from haemolymph and capillaries liver circulation, vasoconstriction /
to organs bathing dilation in mammals
in it
Gaseous no special highly complex gas / pH metabolic control 1+1+2
carrier pigments in specialised (Bohr effect) for uptake / release of
system haemolymph; O2 pigments for O2 gases to meet demands under different
directly into tissues carriage physiological conditions
Gas no significant role totally controls gaseous exchange in insects is 1+1+2
exchange in gas exchange gas exchange independent of changes in blood
(tracheal system processes pressure, viscosity, etc. Such changes in
instead) a mammal may be life threatening
An overall statement of the comparison
1
max. (20)
1993 Paper 1 Question 8 Solution

8. (a) (i) Cardiac output increases with increase in the ventricular volume
just before contraction starts.
1
Such a relationship was also observed with stimulation of nerve A,
although the degree of cardiac output was greater than in the
control.
,

(ii) (1) Exercise (or fear)

1
(2) To supply more blood and hence more nutrients and oxygen
to the tissues for providing more energy for exercise.
,

(iii) (1) Chemical X is adrenaline / noradrenaline

1
(2) Chemical X is possibly a transmitter released from the nerve
terminal of A to the cardiac muscle upon excitation of the
nerve.
2

(b) (i) Stimulation of nerve A increases the heart rate, while

stimulation of nerve B decreases the heart rate.

That is, the heart receives a dual innervation, of reciprocal /
antagonistic effect.
1

(ii) (1) In the resting state, heart beat is initiated by the spontaneous
excitation of the pacemaker muscle of the heart (SA node).
1,1
(2) Stimulation of nerve A enhances the rate of excitation of the
pacemaker
1
(3) Stimulation of nerve B suppresses the rate of excitation of the
pacemaker.
1

(iii) Medulla (oblongata)

1

(c) Both the cardiac output and heart rate are under the regulation of
nerves innervating the heart.

Normal function of the heart is adjusted by the outflow of nerve impulse
from the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system.

Excitation of nerve A increases both the cardiac output and heart beat.

Although stimulation of nerve B decreases heart beat, the experiments
gave no indication on the possible influence of such a stimulation on
cardiac output.

From results of the infusion experiment, the extent of cardiac output is
also affected by chemicals transported in the blood (endocrine control)
in addition to nervous control.

(d) The heart rate of the dog at the resting state (130 beats per min.)
1
is much greater than that of man (72 beats per min.)
1
The faster heart rate in dog is to cope with its relatively higher basal
 metabolic rate
The higher metabolic rate is to compensate the higher rate of heat loss
due to its larger S.A. to volume ratio when compared with man.
1
(20)

1993 Paper 2 Question 2 Solution

2. (a) Diffusion Active transport

encompass movements that occur direct input of metabolite energy required 1
without metabolic energy being
expended
intake of gases (e.g. oxygen) and ions intake of molecules across the 1
and small polar molecules (e.g. membrane against a concentration
glucose) through diffusion follow the gradient
concentration gradient (i.e. high conc.
to low conc. )
could be reversible usually unidirectional 1
no specific carriers involved specific carriers or pumps required 1
(4)
(b) Factors :
1. Temperature :
1)
increase in temperature will increase rate of salt absorption
narrow temperature range
over maximal temperature will have inhibitory effect
(denaturation of enzymes)

2. Hydrogen ion concentration (pH) :

1)
ionization of electrolytes affected by pH environment
e.g. acidic pH favour for monovalent phosphate ions basic pH
favour for di- and trivalent phosphate ions

3. Light :
1)
light affect opening / closure of stomata, photosynthesis, etc.;
this will in turn affect the mass flow of water so that rate of
salt absorption is affected
 light affect photosynthesis / energy formation, thus affect
active transport

4. Oxygen tension :
1)
oxygen concentration affects the rate of respiration, thus
affecting the availability of ATP for active transport

Any other suitable answers

1)
any 6 marks

(c) (i) reabsorption of glucose from the uriniferous tubules into the blood
1
absorption of digested food from the intestinal lumen
1
the transport of sodium and potassium ions across the membrane of a
neurone 1

(ii) enables complete reabsorption of glucose from the

glomerular filtrate, otherwise it would be excreted and wasted

1
enables complete absorption of digested nutrients from the
alimentary canal, otherwise these nutrients would be egested
and wasted
1
maintains the conc. gradient of ions across the cell
membrane and thereby maintains the polarity across the
membrane (inside negative) in creating the resting
membrane potential
1

(iii) large number of mitochondria for ATP sources

2)
carrier systems for transport of specific molecules / ions
2)
large surface area (long / villi / microvilli, etc.) for increasing
contact with the molecules / ions to be transported
2)
 any 4 marks
(20)

1993 Paper 2 Question 7 Solution

7. Oxygen
Oxygen in the alveolar space of the lung diffuses across the alveolar
membranes into the blood of the pulmonary capillaries, due to a difference in
the partial pressure of oxygen ( PO2 ,) on the two sides of the alveolar-

capillary membrane (high in the alveoli, 105 mm Hg; low in systemic venous
blood, 40 mm Hg).
2
In the blood, <2% of oxygen dissolves in the plasma, while >98% of oxygen is
carried in the erythrocytes reversibly bound to haemoglobin.
2
As a result, PO 2 in the blood is normally less than PO 2 in the alveoli (until

the haemoglobin is 100% saturated). This favours the diffusion of oxygen into
the blood from alveolar space.
1
The difference in PO 2 is maintained by constant flow of blood and ventilation

mechanism of the lungs.

1
Each haemoglobin molecule(contains iron atoms) can bind four molecules of
oxygen. 1
In the arterial system (with PO 2 , > 70 mm Hg), 95% of the haemoglobin is

combined with oxygen.

1
Mass flow of erythrocytes from the heart to other parts of the body.
1
A number of other factors also affect the extend of haemoglobin saturation.
These include PO 2 in the blood, H+ concentration and temperature. An

increase in any of these factors (such as in active cells) decrease the affinity
of haemoglobin for oxygen.
2
This causes haemoglobin to release more oxygen. At the level of the tissues
in the rest of the body, oxygen in the interstitial fluid diffuses into the cells
along the concentration gradient generated by cellular utilization of oxygen
(cellular metabolism).
1
PO 2 in the interstitial fluid is low when compared with PO 2 in the blood.

This produces a concentration gradient and oxygen diffuses out of the

capillary into the interstitial fluid.
1
PO 2 , in the blood is now lower than PO 2 in the erythrocyte and oxygen
diffuses out of the erythrocyte into the blood.
1
The lowering of PO 2 in the erythrocyte causes the dissociation of oxygen

from the haemoglobin, thus liberating oxygen.

1
max. (12)
Carbon Dioxide
Metabolic processes in the tissue cells constantly produce carbon dioxide and
consume oxygen. The partial pressure of carbon dioxide ( PC O 2 ) in the cell

becomes higher than that of the blood.

1
Thus, there is a diffusion of carbon dioxide from the cells into the blood.
1
At the tissue capillaries, a small portion of carbon dioxide (10%) dissolves the
plasma and is transported in the blood as such.
1
Another portion of carbon dioxide (30%) reacts with haemoglobin in the
erythrocyte to form a haemoglobin-complex (carbamino compound).
1
Most carbon dioxide (60%) in the erythrocyte is converted to bicarbonate.
This process occurs only within erythrocyte due to the enzyme involved is
present only in the erythrocytes and not in the plasma.]
1
Once formed, most of the bicarbonate- moves out of the erythrocytes and is
carried in the plasma. It is largely in the above forms that carbon dioxide is
carried to the lung.
1
At the lung capillaries, the systemic venous blood has a high PC O 2 ,(46 mm
Hg) and a low PO 2 . PC O 2 , of alveolar air (40 mm Hg) is lower than PC O 2 ,

of the blood, and this results in diffusion of carbon dioxide from blood into
alveolar space. 2
This leads to a lowering of PC O 2 in the blood.
 1
Within the erythrocytes, carbon dioxide will then be released
1
from the carbamino compound. Also, bicarbonate in the plasma
1
will re-enter the erythrocytes and be converted to carbon dioxide. These
carbon dioxide will diffuse from the erythrocytes into the plasma.
1
As a consequence of the above processes, all the carbon dioxide delivered
into the blood from the tissues is delivered into the alveoli.
Carbon dioxide is then removed from the body via expiration.

max. (10)
max. (20)

1995 Paper 2 Question 1 Solution

1. (a) When blood reaches the arterial end of a capillary (), it is under high
pressure () because of the pumping action of the heart / heart exerts
high pressure ()and the artery (). This (high) hydrostatic pressure
exceeds the (high) osmotic pressure in the blood (1).
3
This forces all the constituents of the blood plasma except the (large)
proteins (1) through the walls of the capillaries () into the intercellular
spaces () by filtration. This forms tissue fluid ().
2
(Majority of the tissue fluid is drawn back into the capillaries by
osmosis.) Due to the high hydrostatic pressure of the tissue fluid at the
intercellular space (1) the rest of the tissue fluid is forced / diffuse / enter
into the lymphatic capillaries / vessels () forming lymph ().
2
(max. 7)

(b) Lymphatic system forms a link / bridge between the tissue fluid and the
cardiovascular / blood vascular system (1) as it transports (excess)
tissue fluid back to the blood circulation ().
1
 Without the lymphatic system, there will be a continual build up of tissue
fluid in the intercellular space () leading to swelling / oedema ().
1

Transports absorbed fats () from the lacteals / the small intestine to the
blood ().
1

Lymph nodes () are situated at intervals along the lymphatic system.

Lymphocytes () at the lymph nodes produce antibodies () which act to
neutralize the effect of antigens / kill pathogens () thus forming part of
the immune system () of the body.
2

Lymph nodes contain / produce phagocytic white blood cells /

phagocytes / macrophages () which engulf / destroy bacteria and
foreign particles () in the lymph.
1
(7)
(c) Comparison

Both are effected by the diffusion (1) of respiratory gases along their
respective concentration gradients.
1
Both exchange surfaces maintain steep diffusion gradients of gases by
mass flow (ventilation or circulation) of exchange media (1).
1
Both have thin, moist, richly vascularized and large surface area for
gaseous exchange. (Any two, + )
1

Contrast
Adult Foetus
Exchange surface lung / alveoli placenta / chorionic villi formed by 1
maternal and foetal tissues
Exchange media Gaseous and liquid Both sides liquid 1
Exchange Oxygen from air to blood ; Oxygen from maternal blood to 1
direction reverse for carbon dioxide foetal blood ; reverse for carbon
dioxide
 Foetal haemoglobin with higher 1
oxygen affinity.
(max. 6)
(Note : Similar concepts but expressed in a way different from the
above should be accepted
Separate description no contrast -1 mark)

1996 Paper 1 Question 12 Solution

12. (a) Atrial pressure first increased (), this is due to the entry of blood from
the pulmonary vein into the left atrium. (1)
1
When atrial pressure exceeds ventricular pressure, () the *bicuspid /
mitral valve opens, (1) blood (leaves the atrium and) enters the ventricle
() this explains the decrease in pressure () in the atrium.
2
(4)
(b) K = systole / contraction ()
As the atrium contracts, more blood enters the ventricle, () ventricular
pressure increases ()
(1)

(c) (i) M = systole / contraction ()

N = diastole / relaxation ()
1

(ii) Pressure change is smaller () in the right ventricle because it is less

muscular (). 1
(2)

(d) Aortic pressure first increases. () This is due to the entry of blood from
the ventricle () which is undergoing systole. () The * semi-lunar valve
opens (+ ) because ventricular pressure exceeds aortic pressure. ()
3
Aortic pressure drops later, () because blood flows away from the aorta
() and less blood flows into the aorta from the ventricle. ()
1
(4)
 (e) shortening of cardiac cycle / increased frequency of the heart cycle /
increased
frequency of diastole and systole. () The peak pressure readings
become higher. ()
(1)
(Do not accept increased heart beat.)
(Total : 13 marks)

1997 Paper 2 Question 6 Solution

6. (Deduct 1 mark for answers in 'note' or 'point' form.)

(a) Mechanisms for water movement in flowering plants (10 marks)

Water is transported along the xylem ().

(1) Cohesion-tension () # developed from transpiration leads to the
mass flow of water in the xylem.
Water is lost from the leaf by transpiration () and this develops a
water potential gradient () (in the form of a pressure gradient)
which constantly draws water from the leaf xylem to the leaf cells
() and from the xylem in the stem to that in the leaf (). This
creates a tension () negative pressure / transpiration pull / pull
along the xylem vessels. Water / pressure potential in the root
xylem is lowered () and this draws water in from the soil () *by
suction. At the same time, presence of cohesive force between
water molecules () # and adhesive force between water molecules
and xylem wall () / capillarity enables the water columns inside the
xylem to remain unbreakable (). All these together leads to the
mass flow of water in the xylem.
6
[Water is used up in metabolism and cell growth which also
creates a water potential gradient to move water from the xylem
into the cells (1).]
(2) The root pressure () is a positive pressure in the root xylem
pushing water up the stem from the root.

In the root, there is active secretion / transport of (mineral) ions ()
from the surrounding parenchyma () / endodermis into the root
xylem vessels (). This accumulation of solutes in the xylem lowers
 its water potential () and leads to the absorption of water () * from
the soil by osmosis. This continual entry of water creates a
pressure to push water upwards (1) along the xylem.
3
(For makers' reference : Root pressure builds up only when leaf
transpiration is minimal e.g. at night.)
* / # Count once only
10
(b) Mechanism of water movement in mammals (12 marks)
Water is transported in blood () and lymph () around the body.
1
(1) Rhythmic contraction of the heart is the driving force to propel
blood along the blood vascular system(1). The pace maker
(sinoatrial / SA node) initiates the electrical excitation (1) and sets
the right and the left atria to contract simultaneously (). This
propels blood from the atria to the ventricles (). The wave of
contraction then spreads to the atrioventricular / AV node (), the
bundle of His and the Purkinje fibres which cause the right and left
ventricles to contract. Blood is force out from the heart into the
arteries () in pulses.
(For markers' reference : Tissue fluid formation and its return to the
venules (2). Relaxation of ventricles sucks in blood from atria ().)
7
(2) The wall of the arteries are elastic. The recoil of the artery wall
after its dilation due to squirts of blood from the heart pushes the
blood and the water in it further away from the heart (1).
1
(3) Skeletal muscle In the veins and lymphatic vessels, blood and
lymph flow under reduced pressure (). Flow is enhanced by the
contraction of adjacent skeletal muscles () which compress the
wall () of veins and lymphatics. The valves in the veins and
lymphatics prevent back flow (1).
2
The negative pressure in the thorax produced during inspiration also
helps to draw blood and lymph towards the heart (1).
1
12
(c) Differences between the nature of the controlling factors affecting
water movement (4 marks - award 0 mark if no comparison made)
Mammals (2 marks) Flowering plants (2 marks)
Active (1) - has pumping Passive (1) - no pumping 2
Control is internal / physiological / Control is external / environmental (1) 2
homeostatic (1) - by (autonomic) nervous e.g. soil water availability, humidity, air
system and hormones e.g. adrenaline temperature and light.
4
(Max. : 20)