Support and movement

1989 Paper 1 Question 5(b)

5. For each of the following, state the animal phylum or plant division with which the
structure is usually associated and state its function :

(b) tube foot

Ans

1989 Paper 2 Question 1

1. (a) What structural components of the stem of a tree are involved in support ? Explain
how they are adapted to their functions. (4 marks)

(b) Three types of skeletal systems have evolved in the animal kingdom, namely the
hydrostatic skeleton, the exoskeleton and the endoskeleton.

(i) With a named example in each case, describe the characteristics of each
skeletal system and the associated structures that provide for support and
movement. (10 marks)

(ii) Describe the mechanisms of movement of these animals with respect to the
skeletal and muscular systems they possess. (6 marks)

Ans
1990 Paper 2 Question 7
7. (a) Compare the structure and functions of cartilage and bone. (8 marks)

(b) Explain why ligaments and tendons are necessary for locomotion in mammals. (4
marks)

(c) Compare locomotion in Amoeba and Paramecium. (3 marks)

(d) Discuss the need for support in the aquatic and terrestrial environments. Illustrate
the corresponding adaptive features using a named aquatic plant and a named
terrestrial plant as
examples. (5 marks)

Ans

1992 Paper 2 Question 3

3. (a) Briefly explain the following terms:

(i) tropic movement

(ii) tactic movement (4 marks)

(b) What is the functional significance of each of these types of movement ? Illustrate
your answer with one example for each type of movement. (4 marks)

(c) With reference to a named organism, design an experiment to show whether it

exhibits tactic movement. (4 marks)

(d) Give a brief account of the different forms of locomotion shown by vertebrates. (8
marks)

Ans
1993 Paper 1 Question 3
3. Compare and contrast the structures and functions of collenchyma and sclerenchyma
tissues. (7 marks)

Ans

1993 Paper 2 Question 4

4. (a) Give a brief account of the structural and functional arrangements that are required
for effecting movement at a joint of a mammal. (5 marks)

(b) The initiation of muscular contraction depends on neural input. By means of a flow
chart, outline the processes that occur at the neuromuscular junction. (5 marks)

(c) (i) Describe with annotated diagrams the fine structure of the muscle component
in (a).

(ii) Outline the mechanism of muscle contraction. (10 marks)

Ans

1994 Paper 2 Question 3

3. (a) (i) What is the function of a joint in a mammal ? Briefly explain how the structure
of a synovial joint facilitates its function. (5 marks)

(ii) List the different types of movements that can be facilitated by the different
joints of the mammalian skeleton. Name an example of joint for each type of
movement. (4 marks)

(b) What are the functional differences between skeletal and smooth muscles ? Name
an example for each type of muscle. (6 marks)
 (c) Outline how the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems co-ordinate
the autonomic function of a named body part. (5 marks)

Ans

1995 Paper 2 Question 6

6. Organisms living in terrestrial environments need mechanical support. Explain how this
support is achieved by herbaceous dicotyledons and tetrapedal mammals. (20 marks)

Ans

1996 Paper 1 Question 8

8. The following electron micrograph shows part of the skeletal muscle cell in the relaxed
state.
 (a) State the changes in length of regions 1, 2 and 3 when the muscle fibrils contract.
(1 marks)

(b) Name and describe the major physiological process that takes place at region 4
during prolonged vigorous exercise. (4 marks)

Ans

1997 Paper 2 Question 2

2. (a) Name two types of 'skeletons' found in invertebrates that involve the use of
muscles to produce locomotion. Compare the characteristics of these skeletons
and the roles they play in the locomotion of named animals. (10 marks)

(b) Describe two types of locomotion in animals that do not involve the use of
muscles. What are the disadvantages of such locomotion when compared to
locomotion involving muscles ? (5 marks)

(c) Contrast tropic movements in flowering plants and reflex actions in mammals in
terms of the nature of stimuli, co-ordination and response. (5 marks)

Ans

Solution

1989 Paper 1 Question 5(b) Solution

5. (b) Echinodermata : for locomotion / attachment ,
1989 Paper 2 Question 1 Solution
1. (a) Xylem has tracheary elements (nonliving cells) with supporting function
: tracheids and vessels. Walls of tracheids and vessels are thickened
with cellulose and lignin; they offer resistance to collapse especially
during transpiration.
3
After secondary growth, more mechanical tissues are formed. These
offer additional support.
1
(4)
(b) (i) Hydrostatic skeleton :
e.g. earthworm or any other suitable example.

The body wall is composed of 2 layers of muscle fiber circular
muscle on the outside, and longitudinal muscle on the inside
(length of longitudinal muscle fiber extends through 2 or 3
segments).
1
Hydrostatic skeleton refers to the fluidfilled coelomic cavity.

The cavity is partially subdivided by transverse septa into
segments.

Presence of chaetae on the ventral surface of certain segments.

Exoskeleton :
e.g. cockroach or any other suitable example

Body surface is covered by a firm cuticle (made up of protein and
chitin).
1
Exoskeleton is segmented. Presence of appendages with joints
(provide a system of levers).
1
Two ends of the striated muscles are anchored to adjacent
segments; attachment of the muscle to internal surfaces of the
cuticle.
 1

Endoskeleton :
e.g. man or any other suitable example
1
Support : short bones joined to form the vertebral column. Serves
to support the skull, girdles and appendages.
1
Movement : different range of movement, depending on the
structure of the joint (e.g. slightly movable and freely movable
joints). Bones constituting a joint are held together by ligaments. .
1
Most striated muscles span across one joint upon which they work.
Tendon attaches muscle to bone. Long bones in cooperation with
inserted striated muscle pairs function as lever system.
1
(10)
(ii) Earthworm :
Contraction of circular muscle elongates the segment, while
contraction of longitudinal muscle produces shortening and
thickening of the segment (because of the incompressibility of the
coelomic fluid).
2 3 segments contract as a unit because the longitudinal muscle
fibers extend through these segments. Contractions pass down the
length of the body as a peristaltic wave. The transverse septa
allow segmental contraction to occur. Chaetae provide anchorage
to the substratum.
3

In both cockroach and man :

Antagonistic action of striated muscles (e.g. flexor 2 contracts and
extensor relaxes, or vice versa) across a freely moveable Joins.
This enables coordinated movements of limb on various lever
systems.
2
Similarity in antagonistic muscle actions in cockroach and man.
1
(6)
1990 Paper 2 Question 7 Solution
7. (a) Structure :
both are firm, supporting connective tissues consisting of cells
surrounded by matrix

cartilage :
consists of perichondrium, chondroblasts / chondrocytes and
matrix of chondrin )
softer, normally no hard calcium salt )
no blood vessels & nerve endings )
any 3
nutrition by diffusion )
a diagram showing / a description of the spatial relationship of the
various components
1
e.g.

bone :
consists of periosteum, osteoblasts / osteocytes, canaliculi and
lacuna & Harversian system )
harder, with calcium deposition )
any 2
nutrition supplied by Harversian cannal / canaliculi )
a diagram showlng / a description of the spatial relationship of the various
components 1
e.g.
 Functions :
cartilage :
important supporting tissue in embryonic stage )
resists to compression force, provide flexibility and elasticity,
serves to absorb mechanical shocks between articular surfaces of
bones )
any 2
collagen fibrils for resisting tension which may impose on the
tissue )
bone :
body support, maintain body shape in adult stage (except for cartilaginous
fish) )
protection )
muscle attachment and movement )
any 4
maintain mineral balance (Ca2+) )
production of red blood cells )

(8)

(b) Locomotion in mammals involve systems of leverage consisting of

bones whose relative positions in relation to one another must be
somehow determined and maintained to prevent dislocation, and this is
the function of the ligaments which join bones to bones. In addition, the
elasticity of the ligament tissue also allows movement of bones.
2
For every leverage system, there must be an effort applied to move the
lever. It is provided by muscle contraction in this case. Muscles attach to
bones via tendons which are tough, relatively inextensible connective
 tissue such that force produced by the muscle can be transmitted to the
bones to move them. But tendons have no contractile ability as muscles
do. 2

(4)
(c) Amoeba :
by amoeboid movement

locomotive organ : pseudopodium (flow of fluid endoplasm inside
the layer of ectoplasm to form a temporary projection of the cell)

endoplasm everts when it reaches the leading end of the
advancing pseudopodium, and changes into the stiffer ectoplasm.
At the other end the reverse happens. The movement is the result
of changes within the protoplasm, from gel - solution - gel.

Paramecium :
by ciliary movement

locomotive organ : cilia (successive cilia in each row beat in a
synchronised way, which propels the animal forward / backward).

pattern : spiral movement, so that the asymmetrical body progress
on a direct course. This is achieved by beating the cilia diagonally.

(3)

(d) The density of water (1 g dm -3 at 4C) is similar to that of protoplasm

(1.028 g dm-3) and therefore offers excellent support to most of the
aquatic organisms. Air, on the contrary, has a low density (0.0013 g dm -3
) and offers poor support to terrestrial organisms.
1
As a result, supporting structures are required in the terrestrial
environment, in order for organisms to erect on the ground against the
force of gravity (e.g. for the purposes of obtaining sunlight for
photosynthesis, walking etc.) while supporting structure / tissue may be
greatly reduced or entirely lacking in aquatic organisms since support is
already provided by water.
 1
Giant kelp (or any aquatic plant) :

no supportive tissue and structure, since excellent buoyance and
support are provided by water air space inside / pneumatocyst for
buoyance 1
Bauhinia (or any land plant) :

supportive tissues and structures are well developed, since poor support
is offered by air adaptive supporting tissues include
xylem
sclerenchyma
collenchyma
woody tissue (secondary thickening)
herbaceous plants rely very much on turgidity of cells for support

(5)

1992 Paper 2 Question 3 Solution

3. (a) (i) Tropic movement

Growth movement in plants which occurs in response to an
external unidirectional stimulus and results in the orientation of
plant structures related to the direction of the stimulus.
2
Such a tropic movement is effected by differential growth rates on
opposite side of a reacting plant organ. This growth being confined
to regions of cell expansion / elongation induced by differential
auxin / plant hormone concentration in the organ.

(ii) Tactic movement

The movement of motile unicells related to a unidirectional external
stimulus. The movement is of a locomotive nature and is effected
by organelles such as cilia / flagella or changes in protoplasmic
consistency.
2

(b) Functional significance - tropic movement

 Tropic movements establish and maintain the correct orientation of plant
organs in order to obtain the necessary materials (water, oxygen,
nutrients, light) for optimal plant growth and propagation of species.
1
One appropriate example cited e.g. phototropism, geotropism, etc.
1
Functional significance - tactic movement
To position the organism concerned in an optimal environment for
growth and survival
1
One appropriate example cited e.g. phototaxis, chemotaxis, aerotaxis,
etc. 1

(c) Experimental design - Phototaxis

4
Experimental conditions :
1. Organism named must be capable of exhibiting response cited, be
motile and have light sensitive pigments.
2. Evidence of gradient / variation in light intensity or spectrum
3. Aggregation of organisms must match area of illumination.
4. Must describe experimental procedure and pattern of cell
movement.
OR Experimental design - Chemotaxis
4
1. Stimulant chemical can be an attractant (peptone, meat extract,
glucose) or repellant (phenol, acetic acid).
2. Attractant / repellant introduced in DILUTE concentration
(3&4) as above

(d) Type of Locomotive Animal Description of movement

movement
Enviro organ and mechanics of action
 nme
nt
Swimming () aquatic habitat fins / webbed fish, frogs, sculling, rowing motion, not
feet / flipper whales, capable of reverse
() seals, turtles movement ()
()
Walking / executed over legs () correct ditto : bipedal, tetrapedal
running / solid animal () movement ()
jumping () substratum
flight () Air wings () birds, bats () ditto : gliding, flapping flight
()
(mark allocation : (), , , , 2) 3 = max. 8)
(max. 8)

1993 Paper 1 Question 3 Solution

3. Collenchyma Sclerenchyma
cells alive dead 1
component cellulose, hemicellulose and mainly lignin 1
materials pectin
shape elongate parallel to the elongated, with spherical for 1
longitudinal axis of the organ, interlocking sclerids or stone
deposition of extra cellulose at tapering ends cells
the corners of the cells
cell wall thickened, empty lumen at
centre
function Provide mechanical strength individually they are strong 4
with elasticity, because it is mechanically owing to their lignified
living, can grow and stretch walls, their interlocking ends increases
without imposing limitations on their combined length. Mature cells are
the growth of other cells around dead and incapable of elongation so
it they do not mature until elongation of
the living cells around them is complete.
(7)
1993 Paper 2 Question 4 Solution

4. (a) The joint must be a movable one. )

The two bones of a movable joint are held together by ligaments )
to prevent dislocation. )
In such a joint, the friction between the articulating )
surfaces of the bones during movement )
is minimized by hyaline cartilage and synovial fluid )
The skeletal muscle is attached via tendons to the )
any 5 marks
jointed bones )
one end of the muscle to one of the bones (origin) and )
the other end of the muscle to the other bone ( insertion) )
A pair of antagonistic skeletal muscles (with opposite mode of action)
are )
attached to the bones of a joint. )
In order to move a joint, there must be contraction of one muscle and )
simultaneous relaxation, of the other member of the muscle pair. )
The control of muscle contraction and relaxation comes from neural
inputs )
originating from the central nervous system . )
(5)
(b) Arrival of nerve action potential at nerve terminals causes 1)
the entry of extracellular calcium ions into the nerve terminals; 1)
release of acetylcholine into the neuromuscular junction 1)
Acetylcholine combines with receptors on postjunctional membrane; 1)
any 5
this causes depolarization of membrane to threshold for action potential;
1)
self-propagation of action potential on muscle membrane (sarcolemma)
1)
Depolarization (of T-tubules / T-system) leading to muscle contraction )
as a result of actin-myosin interaction 1)
(5)
(c) (i) Diagram : clear and accurate 5)
Annotations :
 Skeletal muscle is striated in nature as )
characterized by the repeating patterns of light and dark band. )
Each muscle fibre consists of interdigitating thick and thin filaments
) any 6 marks
which contains the )
contractile proteins of myosin and actin respectively )

(ii) Activation of skeletal muscle fibre only begins when there is an

action potential in the muscle plasma membrane (sarcolemma).
1
the myosin head to attach to the actin filament (cross-bridge
formation), thereby producing a sliding action on each other.
1
Then in the presence of ATP, the cross-bridge dissociates (for
further attachment)
1
Contraction or shortening of muscle is thus achieved and tension
in the muscle is developed.
1
(10)

1994 Paper 2 Question 3 Solution

3. (a) (i) Function of a joint : serve as a pivot () upon which the adjoining
bones can act as levers () for muscles to exert forces resulting in
 movement.
1

Overall structure and function of a synovial joint : (correctly

labelled diagram also acceptable)
fibrous (synovial) capsule / ligament () keeps bones together
/ for articulation of bones / prevent dislocation ()
1

Structure () and function () of components :

synovial membrane () : secretes synovial fluid () into
synovial cavity to act as a cushion / lubricant / shock
absorber to allow free movement of the bones at the joint
1
pads of articulator cartilage : to cushion compact bone
surface from abrasion / absorb shock / prevent wearing out of
bone by friction ()
1
(5)
(ii) Variety of movements facilitated by joints : ( for movement, for
type of joint)
movements in one direction () : elbow / knee / hinge joint
(nodding)
1
sliding / gliding movements of joints, one over the other () :
ankle joint / between vertebrae ()
1
movements in all directions () : hip joint / shoulder joint / ball
and socket ()
1
moving from side to side / shaking of head (rotational
movement) () : pivot joint ./ between atlas and axis ()
1
(4)

(b) Skeletal Muscle Smooth muscle

Under control of somatic (voluntary) under control of autonomic nervous 1+1
nervous system system
powerful / rapid contractions / not sustained rhythmical / short contraction 1+1
rhythmic (relaxation) / less powerful
 easily get fatigue not easily get fatigue 1+1
Appropriate example quoted + 1
flexor / extensor / muscle lining wall of
ileum () biceps triceps ()
max. (6)

(c) an example of a named body part (any appropriate body part) :

Correct description of the effects of sympathetic and parasympathetic

control. (any one below or other suitable examples)
1

iris () contraction (s) and retraction(p) (1)

heart rate () increase (s) and decrease(p) (1)
anal sphincter () dilation (p) and constriction(s) (1)
co-ordination of autonomic function is by antagonistic activity (1) of
the 2 systems
1

have two different types of neurons by which antagonistic effects

result due to different chemical transmitters at the neuroeffector
junctions () (excitatory / inhibitory action)

parasympathetic neurons : acetylcholine, i.e., cholinergic neurons

1

sympathetic neurons secrete noradrenaline / epinephrine, i.e.,

adrenergic neurons
1
(answers must relate to the action of the body part)
max. (5)

1995 Paper 2 Question 6 Solution

6. Terrestrial environment
(a) Essentially consists of two media : air and soil. Soil offers support to
sedentary plants as a substrate for anchorage by their spreading root
system.(1) Air offers very little support. () Strong skeletal systems ()
have been evolved in land plants and animals to achieve support.
2
(2)
(b) Herbaceous dicot (non-woody, may have secondary growth)

(i) Cells with cell walls made of cellulose which keeps the shape of
individual cells(1) 1

(ii) Possess a variety of tissues to provide support :

a. *parenchyma () made of thin wall living cells, can

consider as a form of hydrostatic
skeleton where cells take up
water / become turgid(1), shape
enables them to be tightly packed
()
distributed in cortex of stem () /
and pith of stem / cortex of roots /
mesophyll of leaves.
2

b. *collenchyma () living cells which provide strength

and support by deposition of extra
cellulose () at corners of cells. ()
distributed in sub-epidermal
position in young and herbaceous
stems / forming a ring of tissue ()
conferring strength against bending
force.
3

c. *sclerenchyma () dead cells with thick (), lignified

cell walls (), confer mechanical
strength ()
distributed in stem periphery /
bundle cap in stem of herbaceous
dicot / and bundle sheath in leaves
 () for reinforcement of vascular
tissue (), confers great tensile /
compressional strength () to resist
bending forces ()
4

d. *xylem () dead cells with thick (), lignified

cell walls (), offers mechanical
strength ()
distributed in periphery of stem ()
to withstand bendinq forces () and
in the centre of roots () to reinforce
against pulling ()
found in veins in leaves to support
it ()
4
*secondary xylem () confers additional support, allow
the plant to grow, for the increase
in diameter of the stem () to keep
pace with the increase in biomass
()

(max. 15)
N.B. When the world cell appears after the name f the plant
tissue.
(marked with * above), the name is accepted only for the purpose
of marking)

(c) Tetrapedal mammals :

(i) *endoskeleton / framework of bones ()

framework consists of an axial skeleton () consists of skull,
vertebral column, ribs and sternum () and appendicular
skeleton () consists of girdle and limb bones ()
2

bones of the limbs are articulated to the girdles(1), the pelvic

girdle is fused to the vertebral column(1), thus helps to offer
extra support
2
 made of bone () and cartilage ()
bones are hollow, therefore reduce weight(1)
bones are made of calcium and phosphorus, thus giving
strength to bones ()
bones are of high density / hard () therefore able to
withstand compression / resist mechanical shock (), offers
rigidity ()
4

framework for muscle attachment ()

OR : for muscle attachment and give shape to body ()

(ii) skeletal muscles () muscles especially those of the limbs are

in a semi-contracted / muscle tone ()
state (made possible of the coordination
of the brain)(thus offering extra strength
() to the limb bones in supporting the
body.
1
(max. 9)
(max. 20)

1996 Paper 1 Question 8 Solution

8. (a) 1 shortens ()
2 shortens ()
3 unchanged ()
(1)

(b) anaerobic respiration ()

phosphorylation () of hexoses (), splitting of hexose phosphate ()
into triose phosphate ().
conversion to pyruvate ()
conversion of pyruvate to lactic acid () using NADH + H+ / NADH /
NADH2 (), ATP is also formed ().
 Depolarisation of transverse tubules () triggers an increase in
permeability () of sarcoplasmic reticulum () to Ca2+ ().
Higher concentration of calcium ions () in sarcoplasmic reticulum
results in outflux of calcium ions () to sarcoplasm / cytoplasm ().
Max. 4
Q8 = 6 marks

1997 Paper 2 Question 2 Solution

2. (a) *Hydrostatic skeleton () (no mark if *Exoskeleton () (no mark if spelled wrong) 2
spelled wrong) in earthworm () in a named arthropod ()

consists of coelomic fluid () , heavy / consists of hardened chitinous plates 2

movement is slow () (), light / spend less energy to move
about ().
not rigid, movement in burrows is rigid (), offers good support when 1
flexible () moving on land ()

coelom is segmented / presence of highly segmented (), flexible at the 3

septa (), this localizes pressure joints allows for flexibility / independent
changes resulting in regional movement of body parts (1)
movement of the body (1)
acted on by muscle of the body wall inward projections provides surfaces 2
() , change in shape of body for attachment of (antagonistic muscles
alternate bulging and elongation (1), () to effect movement at joints ()
does not form lever () forms lever system () to magnify effort 1
applied ()
acts on substratum (legs on land and 1
wings on air) to generate propulsion (1)
(max. 10)
Deduct 2 marks if no comparison is made [Denote as N-2]Deduct mark for
answers in incomplete sentences in table form, [Denote as T-]

(b) (Any two, 2 x ) (accept alternatives which are correct)

1
Ciliated () / amoeboid () / flagellated ()
 max. 2

(Any two, max 2) (Drawing to illustrate locomotion is acceptable).

Ciliated : cilia all over the organism's body () , they beat against the
medium () to generate forward push () .
Amoeboid : cytoplasm flows to form () pseudopodia ()
Flagellated : flagellum is a fine long thread projecting from a cell () ,
beats against the medium () , generates push () .
Disadvantages : too little propulsion () therefore cannot overcome big
body mass () / limited to small organisms, and limited
to water medium () / move on a liquid film.
1

(c) Reflex actions in mammals

Tropism in
flowering
plants
Stimulus : Unidirectional () not unidirectional () 1
Co-ordination : Hormones () nervous along neurone () 1
Response : Directional () , uneven growth muscle contraction / glandular max. 3
() / growth () curvature (), reaction () quick () , not long
long lasting (), slow () lasting (), stereotyped ()

(5)
Deduct 1 mark if no comparison is made [Denote as N-1]
Deduct mark for answers in incomplete sentences in table form [Denote as T-]