BUILDING MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY BUILDING MATERIALS

UNIT VI

BUILDING COMPONENTS
5.1. Walls
5.1.1. Load bearing walls
A load-bearing wall or bearing wall is a wall that bears a load resting upon it by conducting
its weight to a foundation structure. The materials most often used to construct load-bearing
walls in large buildings are concrete, block, or brick.

Depending on the type of building and the number of floors, load-bearing walls gauge to
the appropriate thickness to carry the weight above them. Without doing so, it is possible that
an outer wall could become unstable if the load exceeds the strength of the material used,
potentially leading to the collapse of the structure and could result disastrously. The primary
function of this wall is to enclose or divide space of the building to make it more functional
and useful. It provides privacy afford security and gives protection against heat, cold, sun or
rain.

5.1.2. Cavity Walls

A cavity walls or a hollow wall consists of two separate walls called 'leaves or skins,
with a cavity or a gap in between them two leaves of the cavity wall may be of equal
thickness or unequal thickness. The former arrangement is adopted for non-load bearing wall
and the latter arrangement, the internal leaf may be made thicker than the external leaf to
meet with the structural requirements
Reasons of providing a cavity or a hollow space in a

(1) Prevention of dampness: When cavity wall construction is adopted, there is a

considerable decrease in the penetration of dampness from outside to inside of the
building.
(2) Heat insulation: The air in the cavity acts as a non-conductor of heat and hence the
uniform temperature is maintained inside the building.
(3) Sound insulation: The considerable portion of external noise is not allowed to
enter the inside of a building by adopting cavity wall construction.
(4) Load on foundation: Due to less solid thickness of wall, the loads on walls are
considerably reduced.
(5) Efflorescence: The construction of a cavity walls results in the reduction of
nuisance of efflorescence to a great extent.
(6) Economical: In addition to above-mentioned advantages, it is found that the
construction cost of a cavity wall is approximately 20% less than the construction
price of a corresponding solid wall.

5.1.3. Partition walls

A dividing or a screen wall which is constructed inside the enclosed area is known as a
partition and it can be constructed either on ground floor or upper floors. on ground floor,
the partitions rest either on flooring concrete or on beams spanning between the main
walls. In multi-storeyed buildings, the partitions are supported on concrete beams
spanning between columns or on slab beams provided in the floor slab.

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Requirements of partition walls:

Following are the requirements of a reasonably good partition wall:
(1) It should be strong enough to carry its own dead weight.
(2) It should be capable of resisting impact developed due to the use of the building.
(3) It should act as a sound barrier especially when it divides a room into two units.
(4) It should possess enough strength to support some wall fixtures, sinks, wash basins,
etc.
(5) It Should have the capacity to -support suitable decorative surface.
(6) It should be light, thin, cheap, fire-resistant and easy to construct.

5.2. Formwork and Scaffolding

5.2.1. Formwork
The concrete is contained in a timber or a steel casing for a certain period after its placing.
This casing is known as the shuttering, formwork or moulds and it is to be removed when
the concrete has hardened sufficiently to support its own weight.
Following precautions should be taken for the formwork of concrete.
(1) The formwork should be designed in such a way that it can be easily removed and
used again.
(2) The formwork should be fixed in such a way that the least hammering is required for
its removal. Otherwise it may injure the concrete.
(3) The inside surface of formwork should be coated with crude oil or soft soap solution:
This will make removal of the formwork easy.
(4) The formwork should be sufficiently strong to bear the dead load of wet concrete as
well as the impact of ramming or vibrating the concrete. The over-estimation of loads
results in the expensive formwork and the under-estimation of loads results in the
failure of formwork.
(5) It is desirable to bring down the cost of formwork to a minimum consistent with
safety: The various steps such as reduction in number of irregular shapes of forms, use
of component parts of commercial sizes, putting the formwork in use again as early as
possible, etc., may be taken to effect economy in the formwork.
(6) The formwork should be so arranged that there is minimum of leakage through the
joints. This is achieved by providing tight joints between adjacent sections of the
formwork.

5.2.2. Scaffolding
When the height above floor level exceeds about 1.50 m a temporary structure,
usually of timber, is erected close to the work to provide a safe working platform for the
workers and to provide a limited space for the storage of plant and building materials.
The temporary framework is known as a scaffolding or simply a scaffold and it is useful
in construction, demolition, maintenance or repair works.

Component parts of a scaffolding:

An ordinary scaffolding consists of the following parts.

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(1) Standards: These are the vertical members of the framework and they are either
supported on the ground or drums or embedded into the ground.
(2) Ledgers: These are the horizontal members parallel to the wall.
(3) Putlogs: These are the transverse pieces which are placed on the ledgers and which
are supported on the wall at one end. They are at right angles to the wall.
(4) Transoms: These are putlogs, but their both ends are supported on the ledgers.
(5) Braces: These are the diagonal or cross pieces fixed on the standards.
(6) Bridle: This is a piece which is used to bridge an opening in a wall and it supports
one end of the putlog at the opening
(7) Guard rail: This is a rail provided like a ledger at the working level.
(8) Toe board: This is a board placed parallel to the ledgers and supported between the
putlogs. It is provided to work as a protective measure on the working platform.
(9) Raker: This is an inclined support.

Types of scaffolding:
(1) Single scaffolding or bricklayer's scaffolding
(2) Double scaffolding or mason's scaffolding
(3) Cantilever or needle scaffolding
(4) Suspended scaffolding Trestle scaffolding
(5) Steel scaffolding
(6) Patented scaffolding

5.3. Arches
5.3.1. Element of an arch
The. Openings for doors, windows, ventilators, cupboards wardrobes, etc., are
invariably required in a wall. These openings are bridged by the provision of either an arch
or a lintel. Thus the arch as well as the lintel are structural members which are designed to
support the loads of the portion of wall above the openings and to transmit such loads to the
ends of walls or piers or jambs or columns over which they are supported.
Fig. below shows the various elements of a segmental arch. The definitions of
technical terms used in connection with the arch work are as follows:

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(1) Intrados: This is the inner curve of the arch.

(2) Soffit: This is the inner surface of the arch. Sometimes the terms intrados and
soffit are treated as synonymous.
(3) Extrados or back: This is the external curve of an arch
(4) Voussiors: These are the wedge-shaped units forming the courses of an arch.
(5) Skewback: This is the inclined or splayed surface on the abutment. It is prepared
to receive the arch and from it, spring the arch
(6) Springer: This is the first voussior at springing level on either side of an arch and
it is immediately adjacent to the Skewback
(7) Crown: Thig is the highest point of the extrados.
(8) Key: Thig is the wedge-shaped unit at the crown of an arch. It is sometimes made
prominent by making it of a larger section and projecting it below and above the
outlines of an arch.
(9) Abutment: This is the end support of an arch.
(10) Piers: These are the intermediate supports of an arcade.
(11) Springing points: These are the points from which the curve of an arch springs.
(12) Springing line: This is the imaginary horizontal line joining the two springing
points.
(13) Span: This is the clear horizontal distance between the supports,
(14) Rise: This is the clear vertical distance between the highest point on the intrados
and the springing line.
(15) Centre: This is the geometrical centre of the curve of an arch.
(16) Ring: This is the circular course forming an arch.
(17) Depth or height: This is the perpendicular distance between the intrados and
extrados.
(18) Spandril: This is the irregular, triangular space formed between the extrados and
the horizontal line drawn tangent to the crown.
(19) Haunch: This is the lower half portion of the arch between the crown and the
skewback
(20) Arcade: This is a row of arches supporting a wall above and being supported by
the piers
(21) Thickness or breadth of soffit: The horizontal distance measured perpendicular to
the front and back faces of an arch is known as the thickness or breadth of soffit.
(22) Impost: The projecting course at the upper part of a pier or an abutment to stress
the springing line is called the impost.

5.3.2. Classification of an arches

Classification of arches according to shape:
According to shape, the arches are classified as follows.
(1) Flat arch: The apparent shape of this arch is flat and usually the skewback forms an angle
of 600 with the horizontal as shown in the fig below.

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Thus an equilateral triangle - is formed with one side as intrados. The depth of a flat arch
is invariably made equivalent to some courses of masonry. The intrados is given a slight rise
or camber of about 10 mm to 15 mm per metre width of the opening so as to allow for slight
settlement of the arch. The extrados is kept perfectly horizontal or sometimes, in order to
prevent it from becoming hollow when arch settles, it is given half the camber of the
intrados. The flat arches are found to be comparatively weak and they are used only for light
loads and for spans up to 1.50 m
(2) Segmental arch: The centre of the arch is situated below the springing line. Fig. below
shows a segmental arch. This is the common type of arch used for buildings. The thrust
transferred to the abutment is in an inclined direction.

(3) Semi-circular arch: The centre of the arch lies on the springing line and the shape of
curve of arch is a semi-circle. As the skewback is horizontal, the thrust transferred to the
abutment is perfectly in vertical direction.

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(4) Semi-elliptical arch: This arch has more than one centre and its shape is that of a semi-
ellipse. It may have either three centres or five centres

(5) Inverted arch: This type of arch is used for shallow foundations.

(6) Pointed arch: This type of arch consists of two curves which are meeting at the apex
triangle. The triangle formed may be equilateral or isosceles. The latter type is known as
the Lancet Arch The centres of the arch may be on or below the springing line and they
may be in between or outside the springing points. In equilateral arch, the centres will be
on the springing points.

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(7) Relieving arch: This arch is constructed over a wooden joist or a flat arch as shown in
fig. below. Thus it relieves the joist or flat arch from carrying the load. The ends of a
relieving arch should be kept sufficiently inside the solid wall or there should be enough
cover beyond the end of joist, opening or portion to be strengthened by the relieving
arch. Thus the span of the relieving arch will be equal to the clear span of the opening
plus twice the bearing of wooden joist which is being relieved from taking the load. The
relieving arch makes it possible to replace the existing decayed or damaged wooden
lintel without disturbing the stability of the existing structure.

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(8) Horse-shoe arch: This arch has the shape of a horse-shoe as shown in fig. below and it is
mainly adopted from architectural considerations. The shape of the arch includes more
than a semi-circle.

(9) Stilted arch: This type of arch has a semi-circular shape attached at the tops of two
vertical portions as shown in fig. below. The springing line of arch passes through the
tops of vertical portions.

(10) Venetian arch: In this type of arch, the depth at crown is more than that at the
springing line as shown in fig. below. The venetian arch has four centres, all located on
the springing line.

(11) Florentine arch: This type of arch is similar to the venetian arch except that the
intrados has the shape of a semi-circular curve as shown in fig. below. There are three
centres for a florentine arch, all located on the springing line.

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Classification of arches according to number of centres:

According to number of centres, the arches are classified as
follows

(1) One-centred arch: This type of arch has one centre only
The flat, segmental, semi-circular, "horse-shoe and stilted
arches are one-centred.

(2) Two centred arch: This type of has two centres. A pointed arch is a good example of
this type of arch.

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(3) Three centres arch: This type of arch has three centres. It is in the form of a semi-
ellipse as shown in the fig below.

(4) Four-centred or Tudor arch: This type of arch has four centres. Fig. below shows a pointed
arch of the Tudor period. It consists of two different curves and has -the appearance of an
ellipse at the haunches.

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(5) Five-centred arch: This type of arch has got five centres and it looks nearly like a
semi-elliptical arch

Classification of arches according to workmanship:

According to workmanship, the arches are classified as follows

(1) Rough arch: This type of arch is constructed from ordinary uncut bricks. As the bricks
are rectangular in shape, the mortar joints become wider at the extrados than at the
intrados. In order to prevent the thick end of mortar to become too large, such arches
are constructed in rings of half-bricks. A rough arch is used where appearance is of
secondary importance or when it is Intended to plaster the face of the arch
(2) Axed or rough-cut arch: This type of arch is constructed from bricks which are cut to a
wedge-shape by means of an axe. According to class of the work, the bricks are rough-
axed or fine-axed. The thickness of mortar joints varies from 3 mm to 6 mm
(3) Gauged arch: This type of arch is constructed from bricks which are finely cut by
means of a wire saw. The surfaces of bricks are finished with a file. The mortar joints
are as thin as 1.50 mm to 0.75 mm. This arch is used where a fine finish of the surface
is required

Classification of arches according to materials of construction:

According to the materials of construction, the arches are classified as follows:
(1) Stone arches: These arches can be constructed in the rubble masonry or ashlar
masonry. The rubble masonry arch is comparatively weak and hence it is used for
inferior type of work The span of rubble masonry stone arch is limited to about 1 m
or so.
(2) Brick arches: These arches can be constructed from ordinary bricks or purpose-made
bricks or soft bricks.
The ordinary bricks are not cut to the shape of voussoirs and hence the rough
brick arches are formed. For getting the arch curve, the joints are made wedge-
shaped with greater thickness at the extrados and smaller thickness at the intrados.
Due to such joints the appearance of the arch is spoiled and hence the rough brick
arches are not suitable for the exposed brickwork.
(3) Concrete arches: These arches can be constructed of the pre-cast cement concrete
blocks or monolithic concrete. The blocks are similar to stones and are Prepared by
casting cement concrete prepared moulds: The monolithic concrete arches are
constructed from cast-in-situ concrete and are suitable for big spans. Hence they are
employed in the construction of culverts and bridges.

5.3.3. Stability of arch

An arch transmits the super-imposed load to the abutment or piers or side wall through
the combined action of friction between the surfaces of voussiors and the cohesion of mortar.
Every element of an arch remains in compression and it has also to bear the transverse shear.

Following are the four ways of failure of an arch:

(1) Crushing of the masonry: In this cage, the compressive stress or thrust exceeds the
safe crushing strength of the materials and the- arch fails due to crushing of the
masonry. The measures to avoid failure of an arch due to this reason are ag follows:

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(i) The material used for construction should be of adequate strength.

(ii) The size of voussiors should be properly designed to bear the thrust transmitted
through them.
(iii) The height of voussoirs should not be less than one-twelfth of the span. If the span
exceeds 6.50 m, the thickness of the arch ring may be increased by about 20% of the
thickness of the crown.
(iv) If necessary, the voussoirs of variable heights may be provided i.e. less height near
crown and more height at skewback.
(2) Rotation of some joint about an edge: To prevent the rotation of the joint, the line of
resistance should be kept within intrados and extrados. The line of thrust should also be
made to cross the joint away from the edge so as to prevent the crushing of that edge. It
should fall within the middle-third portion of the arch height.
(3) Sliding of voussoir: To safeguard against the sliding of adjacent voussoirs due to
transverse shear, the voussoirs of greater height should be provided It should also be seen
that the angle between the line of resistance of the arch and the normal to any point is less
than the angle of internal friction.
(4) Uneven settlement of the abutment or pier: The secondary stresses in the arch are
developed due to the uneven settlement of the supports. of arch and to avoid such
conditions, the following precautions should be taken;
(i) The arch should be symmetrical so that unequal settlements of the two
abutments or abutment and pier are minimized.
(ii) The supports of the arch should be strong enough to take or resist the thrust as
well as to bear all the loads transferred to them through the arch.
5.4. Lintel and Balcony
5.4.1. Lintels
A lintel is a structural horizontal block that spans the space or opening between
two vertical supports.[1] It can be a load-bearing building component, a decorative
architectural element, or a combined ornamented structural item. It is often found
over portals, doors, windows, and fireplaces.

Functions:

(i) In worldwide architecture of different eras and many cultures, a lintel has been
an element of post and lintel construction. Many different building materials
have been used for lintels.
(ii) In classical western construction methods, defining lintel by its Merriam-
Webster definition, a lintel is a load-bearing member and is placed over an
entranceway.
(iii) In ancient Western classical architecture, the lintel, called an architrave, is a
structural element that is usually rested on stone pillars or stacked stone
columns, over a portal or entranceway. An example from the Mycenaean
Greece cultural period (c. 1600 BCE c. 1100 BCE) is the Treasury of
Atreus in Mycenae, Greece. It weighs 120 tons, with approximate dimensions
8.3 5.2 1.2 m, one of the largest in the world.

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(iv) A lintel in a fireplace supports the chimney above the fireplace, and a stone
lintel bridge is simply a lintel which spans a distance for a path or road.
5.4.2. Chajja

A chhajja is the projecting or over hanging eaves or cover of a roof, usually

supported on large carved brackets. It forms part of the architecture of Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. In Rajasthan they are particularly large.
It helps preventing water getting inside the windows.

5.4.3. Canopy

A canopy is an overhead roof or else a structure over which a fabric or metal

covering is attached, able to provide shade or shelter. A canopy can also be a tent,
generally without a floor.
Architectural canopies include projections giving protection from the weather, or
merely decoration. Such canopies are supported by the building to which they are
attached and often also by a ground mounting provided by not less than two stanchions,
or upright support posts.
Canopies can also stand alone, such as a fabric covered gazebo or cabana. Fabric
canopies can meet various design needs. Many modern fabrics are long-lasting, bright,
easily cleaned, strong and flame-retardant. Modern frame materials offer high strength-to-
weight ratios and corrosion resistance. The proper combination of these properties can
result in safe, strong, economical and attractive products.
5.4.4. Balcony

A balcony is a platform projecting from the wall of a building, supported

by columns or console brackets, and enclosed with a balustrade, usually above the ground
floor.

Functions:

Sometimes balconies are adapted for ceremonial purposes, e.g. that of St. Peter's
Basilica at Rome, when the newly elected pope gives his blessing after the conclave. Inside
churches, balconies are sometimes provided for the singers, and in banqueting halls and the
like for the musicians.
A unit with a regular balcony will have doors that open up onto a small patio with railings, a
small Patio garden or Skyrise greenery. A French balcony is actually a false balcony, with
doors that open to a railing with a view of the courtyard or the surrounding scenery below.

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In theatres, the balcony was formerly a stage-box, but the name is now usually confined to
the part of the auditorium above the dress circle and below the gallery.

5.5. Doors and Windows

5.5.1. Location of doors and windows
The number of doors should be kept minimum

The location of door & window should meet functional requirements of the room.

The door should not be kept in the centre of the wall.

The window should be located in opposite wall, facing a door or another window,
to achieve cross ventilation.

From the point of view of fresh air, a window should be located on the northern
side of a room.

The sill should be located about 70 to 80 cm about floor level of the room.

5.5.2. Technical terms of doors and windows

(1) Frame: This consists of a group of members which forms a support for a door or a
window.
(2) Style: This is the outside vertical member of the shutter of a door or a window.
(3) Head: The top or uppermost horizontal part of a frame is known as the head.

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(4) Sill: The lowermost or bottom horizontal part of a window frame is known as the
sill. The door frames are usually not provided with the sills.
(5) Top rail: This is the topmost horizontal member of the shutter
(6) Lock rail: This is the middle horizontal member of the shutter where the locking
arrangement is provided
(7) Bottom rail: This is the lowermost horizontal member of the shutter.
(8) Intermediate or cross-rails: The additional horizontal rails fixed between the top and
bottom rails of a shutter are known as the intermediate or cross-rails. A rail which is
fixed between the top rail and lock rail is catted the frieze rail.
(9) Panels This is the area of shutter enclosed between the adjacent rails.
(10) Holdfast: This is generally in the form of a mild steel flat bar of section 30 mm x, 6
mm and of length 200 mm The three numbers of such holdfasts are provided on
each side of the door frame and two numbers of such holdfasts are provided on each
side of the window frame. They keep the frame in position.
(11) Horn: This is a horizontal projection of head or sill beyond the face of the frame. It
facilitates the fixing of the frame on the wall opening and its length is about 100
mm toM50 mm.
(12) Shutter: The entire assembly of styles, panels and rails is known as the shutter.
(13) Sash: This is a special type of frame, made of light sections and designed to carry
glass. A sash consists of two vertical styles, a top rail and a bottom rail. A sash can
be divided vertically or horizontally by providing bars. These bars are known as the
sash bars or glazing bars.
(14) Mullion: This is a vertical member which is employed to sub-divide a window or a
door opening vertically.
(15) Transom: This is a horizontal member which is employed to sub-divide a window
opening horizontally.
(16) Louver: This is a piece of timber which is fixed in an inclined position within a
frame.
(17) Jamb: The vertical wall face of an opening which supports the frame of door and
window is known as the jamb.
(18) Reveal: The external jamb of a door or a window opening at right angles to the wall
face is known as the reveal
(19) Rebate: The depression or recess made inside the door frame to receive the door
shutter is known as the rebate
(20) Putty: This is a mixture of linseed oil and whiting chalk It is used for fixing glass
panels.
(21) Architrave: This is a strip of wood, usually moulded or splayed, which is fixed
around the sides and head of openings. It thus helps in giving a decent appearance
to the joint of frame with the masonry. It is used only when doors and windows are
placed flush with the face of masonry.

5.5.3. Types of doors

(1) Ledged doors (fig. below): A ledged door is formed of the vertical boards, known
as the battens, which are secured by horizontal supports, known as the ledges as
shown in fig. below.
The battens are 100 mm to 150 mm wide and 20 mm to 30 mm thick. The
ledges are generally 100 mm to 200 mm wide and 30 mm thick. The three ledges
are generally employed top, middle and bottom. The battens are Secured by suitable
joints; and the shutter is hung on T - hinges which are fixed on ledges. This is the

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simplest form of door and it is used where strength and appearance are not
important.

(2) Ledged and braced doors: These are similar to the ledged doors except that the
diagonal members, known as the braces, are provided as shown in fig. The braces
are generally 100 mm to 150 mm wide and 30 mm-thick. The braces give rigidity to
the door and hence the doors of this type are useful for wide openings. The braces
are usually housed in the ledges. It should be noted that the braces must slope
upwards from the hanging side as they have to work in compression and not in
tension.

(3) Ledged and framed doors: In this type of doors a framework. for provided to make
the doors stronger and better in appearance as shown in fig. below. The styles are
generally 100 mm wide and 40 mm thick. The battens and ledges are provided as
usual.

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(4) Ledged, framed and braced doors: This is just similar to the above type except that
the braces are introduced as shown in fig. below. This type of door is more durable
and stronger and hence it can be adopted for external use. The braces should incline
upwards from the hanging side.

(5) Framed and panelled doors: This is the most usual variety of door Top Rail and it
consists of a framework in which panels are fitted. Fig. below shows a double-
leafed, framed and panelled door with four panels. This type of door reduces the
tendency of shrinkage and presents a decent appearance. The styles are continuous
from top to bottom and rails are joined to the styles. The mullions, if any, are
joined to rails. The thickness of shutter depends on various factors such as type of
work, situation of door, number of panels, etc. But the thickness of shutter is about
30 mm to 40 mm.
The thickness of panels is about 20 mm. The panels are secured in position
by grooves made inside the edges of the framework. The number and size of
panels depend upon the architect's design or owner's desire. But the number varies
from one to six and panels are moulded to add to the beauty of the door.

(6) Glazed or sash doors: In order to admit more light, in addition to that coming
from the windows, the fully glazed or partly panelled and partly glazed
doors are used.
Usually the ratio of glazed Panel portion to panelled portion is 2:1 . The
glass Is received into the rebates provided in the wooden sash bars and secured
by nails and putty or by wooden beads fixed to the frame.

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(7) Flush doors: A flush door consists of a framework of rails and styles and it is
covered with plywood or hard-board. There are two varieties of flush doors a
framed flush door and a laminated flush door.
A framed flush door consists of styles, rails, horizontal ribs, vertical ribs and
plywood. The holes in horizontal ribs are provided for ventilation. The vertical ribs
rest on rails. The hollow space, instead of being kept empty, is sometimes filled up
with granulated cork or any other light material.
A lock block and hinge blocks should be provided to the shutter to fix
mortise lock and hinges. The flush doors, with hollow space, are light in weight and
cheap. But as they are weak, they have practically become obsolete.

(8) Louvered doors: In this type of doors, the shutters are provided with louvers, either
fully or partly. The louvers are arranged at such an inclination that the horizontal
vision is obstructed. Thus the upper back edge of any louver will be higher than the
lower front edge of the louver just above it. The louvers may be movable or fixed.
In case of movable louvers, a vertical piece of timber is provided to which the
louvers are attached through hinges. The upward or downward movement of the
louvers can be carried out with the help of vertical piece of timber. The louvers may
be either of wood or glass.

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(9) Collapsible steel doors: A collapsible steel door consists of a mild steel frame. The
two vertical pieces of mild steel channels, about 15 mm to 20 mm wide, are joined
together with the hollow portion of the channel inside. A vertical gap of about 12
mm to, 15 mm is thus created. Such Pieces are spaced at about 120mm centre to
centre and are joined to one another by cross iron pieces as shown in fig. below.
The cross iron pieces are usually 10 mm to 15 mm wide and 15 mm thick. The
rollers, mounted on horizontal piece, are provided at top and bottom ends of the
vertical pieces. The door can be opened or closed manually by a slight pull or push.
The door is also provided with handles, locking arrangement, stoppers, etc.
A collapsible steel door thus works without hinges and it is used for
compound gates, residential buildings, schools, godowns, workshops, public
buildings, etc. for providing increased safety and protection to the property. The
collapsible steel doors are also recommended in situations where light and
ventilation are desired even when the opening is closed.

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(10) Revolving doors: A revolving door essentially consists of a centrally placed

mullion or pivot in a circular opening. The revolving shutters or leaves which are
four in number are radially attached to the pivot as shown in fig. below. The
shutters may be fully glazed, fully panelled or partly panelled and partly glazed.
The central pivot is provided with ball bearing at the bottom and bush bearing
at the top so that its rotation is smooth and without any jerk, friction and noise. The
shutters and the pivot are enclosed in a vestibule. At the rubbing ends of shutters,
the vertical rubber pieces are provided which prevent a draught of air. The
arrangements are made such that the shutters can be folded when traffic is more
and the opening can be locked, when not in use.

5.5.4. Types of windows

(1) Casement window: These are the Frame windows, the shutters of which open like
doors. The construction of a casement window is similar to the door construction and,
it consists of a frame, styles, rails, vertical and horizontal sash bars and sometimes, it
also includes mullions and transoms. Fig. below shows a typical wooden casement
window.

(2) Double hung windows: These windows consist of a pair of shutters which can slide
within the grooves provided in the frame. A pair of metal weights connected by cord
or chain over pulleys is provided for each sash. It is so arranged that the upper sash
moves in the downward direction, thus opening at the top and the lower sash moves in
the upward direction, thus opening at the bottom. The cord or chain is fixed to the

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style. The weights, when pulled, open the shutter to the required level. Thus the
ventilation can be controlled and cleaning of shutters can be carried out easily.

(3) Pivoted windows: In this type of windows, the shutters are allowed to swing round the
pivots. The frame of a pivoted window is just similar to casement window except that
no rebates are provided. The windows may be vertically pivoted or horizontally
pivoted as shown in fig. below. The pivoted windows are easy to clean and they admit
more light than the side-hung windows.

(4) Sliding windows: These windows are similar to the sliding doors and the shutters
move on the roller bearings, either horizontally or vertically. Suitable openings are
provided in the walls to receive the shutters when windows are opened out. Such
windows are provided in trains, buses, bank counters, shops, etc.

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(5) Louvered windows: In this type of windows, the louvers are provided as in case of
louvered doors. They allow free passage of air when closed and at the same time, they
maintain sufficient privacy.

(6) Sash or glazed windows: These are fully glazed casement windows. The sashes are
rebated to receive glass panels. The width and depth of rebates are about 15 mm and 5
mm respectively The glass is secured in position either by putty or by small fillets,
known as the glazing beads.

(7) Metal windows: These are now-a-days widely used, especially for public buildings.
The meta used in the construction may be mild steel, bronze or other alloys The steel
windows are manufactured in standard sizes and are widely used metal windows. The
metal frame may be fixed direct to the wall or it may be fixed on a wooden frame. In
the former case, the lugs and plugs are provided to keep the frame in position. In the
latter case, the screws are used to fix the metal frame with the wooden frame.

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(8) Clerestory windows: These windows are provided near the top of main roof as shown
in fig. below. The pivoted windows are used for this purpose. The clerestory
windows provide ventilation to the inside of the room as the front is blocked by the
veranda. They also improve the appearance of building.
The care should be taken to see that the upper part opens inside and the lower
part opens outside. Otherwise the rain water will accumulate in the room

(9) Lanterns or lantern lights: These are the windows which are fixed on flat roofs to
provide light to the inner portion of the building where light coming from the
windows in the external walls is insufficient. They may be square or rectangular or
curved. Fig. below shows a square lantern light. The glass panels are generally fixed.
But if ventilation is also required in addition to light, the pivoted windows may be
provided.

(10) Skylights: These are the windows which are provided on the sloping surface of a
pitched roof. The common rafters are suitably trimmed and the skylight is erected on a
curb frame. As skylights are mainly meant for light, they are usually provided with the
fixed glass panels. The opening of skylight is properly treated by lead flashing to
make water-proof the roof area surrounding the opening.

5.6. Stairs
5.6.1. Technical terms

a. Stringer: - The inclined sides of the stair carrying the steps.

b. Riser: - The vertical timber which closes the space between two steps.
c. Rise: - It is the vertical distance between the top of the one tread and the top of
the tread immediately above it. Usually 175 mm.
d. Tread: - The board forming the top-surface upon which the foot is placed.

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e. Go or Going: - The horizontal distance between the face of one riser and the
face of the next. Usually 250 mm.
f. Nosing: - The rounded edge of the tread projecting over the riser. Usually 20
mm.
g. Landing: - The floor at the beginning or the end of a stair flight and the
intermediate floor between two flights.
h. Well or Well-hole: - The space in the centre of a staircase between the outer
stringers of the flight.
i. Flight: - A complete set of stairs reaching from floor to floor or from floor to a
landing.
j. Newel: - An upright post at each end of a flight of stairs to carry the handrails
and sometimes also the stringers.
k. Handrail: - The support for the hands at the sides of the stair.

5.6.2. Requirements

a) The minimum clear width of staircase in case of residential buildings shall not be
less than 1m. In case of a public building, a staircase not less than 1.2m in width
should be provided for 600 persons or thereof, expected to use the building and
the farthest corner of the building shall not be more than 30m distant from the
staircase.

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b) The maximum riser and minimum width of tread of staircase should be as given in
the table 2.

Type of Building Maximum riser Minimum tread width

Public buildings 15 cm 30 cm

Domestic buildings 19 m 25 m

c) Be so situated that at least one of its walls shall be open to external air.
d) Not be directly over or under any room other than another latrine, washing place,
bath or terrace, unless it has a water tight floor.
e) Have the platform or seat either plastered with cement or be made of some water
tight non-absorbent materials,
f) Be enclosed by walls or partitions of bricks. Surface of every such wall or
partitions should be finished with a smooth impervious material, such as cement
plaster, 1.3cm thick of glass glazed tiles or polished marbles or any suitable
material to a height of not less than 1m above the floor of such a room.
g) Be provided with an impervious floor covering sloping towards the drain and not
towards varnishes or any other room.
h) Have a floor level of such a height as to ensure suitable grade towards the sewage
drain.
5.6.3. Type of stairs

Straight stairs
Despite its simplicity, it is convenient and functional. It is easy to go up and down it, as also
to carry things on the next floor. But the presence of one long flight makes this type of
staircases limited in height. As you already know, the amount of treads in one straight flight
shall not exceed 16. The usage of staircases with straight flight is feasible only in those cases
when we need to join two levels connected by imaginary straight line.

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Fig. Straight stairs

If two flights of stairs going in one direction are supplemented by a landing, the minimum
depth of the landing shall amount to the sum of the step length and the depth of one tread in
plan. If depth of the landing shall be more than the value received, the increase shall be a
multiple of the minimal depth value. The landing divides the staircase into two, thereby
reducing quantity of treads in one flight, and makes walking more comfortable. But the usage
of staircases with straight flights and intermediate landing is limited in view of inefficient
usage of space needed for the stair flight construction.

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Fig. Straight stairs with intermediate landing

Quarter Landing Stairs

Quarter Landing Stairs represent a variety of straight stairs, which also include a landing. But
here the landing is needed to change a direction of the flight by 90 degrees and at the same
time it serves as a place for rest when moving. The landing may change its position in the
flight from its beginning and up to its end. Staircases of this type are more convenient and
safe than straight staircases. Due to the presence of the landing the flight is divided into two,
thereby reducing quantity of treads in one flight, and makes walking more comfortable.
You shall pay particular attention to the shape of landing. As you already know from the
section How to build stairs, the depth of landing shall be longer by half of the tread width in
each direction, or by the whole tread width in one direction.
Staircases of this type enable rationale use of the space needed for the stair flight
construction.

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Fig. Quarter Landing Stairs

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Fig. Double Quarter Landing Stairs

Half Landing Stairs

Half Landing Stairs are also a variety of staircases with straight flights. Just like Quarter
Landing Stairs they also have a landing, but here it changes a direction of the flight by 180
degrees already and also serves as a place for rest when moving. The landing divides the
staircase into two, thereby reducing quantity of treads in one flight, and makes walking more
comfortable.
Staircases of this type are very convenient, functional, and safe.
Pay attention to the shape of the landing. Just like for Quarter Landing Stairs, the depth of
landing shall be longer by half of the tread width in each direction, or by the whole tread
width in one direction.

Fig. Half Landing Stairs

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Winder Stairs

Winder Stairs are the stairs with a turn by 90 and 180 degrees, but in contradistinction to
Quarter Landing Stairs and Half Landing Stairs on turn the wedge-shaped treads are used for
their construction. It is no need to construct an intermediate landing, and also to reduce the
space occupied by the staircase. In terms of design, staircases of this type possess soft and
flowing lines, which underline their beauty, of course. And such staircase looks evidently
intriguing, as if inviting to go up the radial stairs. However, staircases of such type satisfy
safety requirements. The treads on turn being located not straight across the trajectory and
tapering at one side build a zone inconvenient for walking. But if you design it all correctly,
you can minimize the discomforts In view of absence of an intermediate landing the amount
of treads according to general rules is limited to 16. Staircases of this type are complicated in
designing and require accurate calculations.

Single Winder Stairs

Single Winder Stairs are stairs with a turn by 90 degrees. Winder treads may change their
position in the flight from its beginning and up to its end. However, it is worth mentioning
that the staircases with winder treads located at the beginning of the flight are more
convenient than those with winder treads located at the end of the flight. This is because of
winder treads located at the beginning of the flight are well within view from below, and it is
handier to maneuver with things when you carry them onto the next floor.

Fig. Single Winder Stairs

Double Winder Stairs

Double Winder Stairs are stairs with a turn by 180 degrees. They are more compact than
Single Winder Stairs. In this type of staircases we can distinguish two varieties: smoother
passage of winder treads from turn to turn, and more abrupt passage. Stairs with smoother
passage are more convenient but they occupy more space.

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Fig. Double Winder Stairs

Arched Stairs
Arched Stairs are the stairs with a flight resembling an arch in its shape. The treads in such
stairs are wedge-shaped as well, but tapering at one side is not very vital as that at Winder
Stairs. They are elegant and graceful in appearance, and with pertinent components the
staircase looks very effective. They are very difficult-to-make because all basic details,
closed strings and (or) open strings, as well as handrails are curved.

Fig. Arched Stairs

Spiral Stairs

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Stairs of this type have stair flight resembling a circle or a part of it in its shape. Here just like
in Winder Stairs and Arched Stairs the treads are wedge-shaped, but all of them (except for
the last one) are uniform-sized. Spiral stairs have a central vertical post constituting the
backup abutment for all treads in the flight. Due to their spiral shape such staircases look very
effective. Such staircases are not convenient for frequent use in view of fast climbing up on a
confined area.

Fig. Spiral Stairs

Compact Stairs
These are stairs occupying minimum space in the house. Quite often they are called "goose-
step" or "sambo" stairs because of the distinctive shape of their treads. You shall start going
up or down them only with the "proper" foot; otherwise you may end up by falling down.
When designing Compact Stairs it should be taken into account that as a rule most people
start moving with the right foot. That is why the quantity of treads in the flight shall be such
as to start going up or down with the right foot. They are extremely inconvenient and not
ergonomic consequently the usage of such stairs shall be limited. They can only be installed
in utility rooms where there is particularly little movement.

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