____________________________________________________________________________________________________

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN KIMIA
BASIC PETROLEUM ENGINEERING LABORATORY
(CGE 478)

EXPERIMENT : BERNOULLIS THEOREM DEMONSTRATION

DATE PERFORMED : 22/01/2017
SEMESTER :2
PROGRAMME/CODE : EH 243
GROUP :5

NAMA NO PELAJAR
RIZUAN HAKIM BIN HAMID 2016691666
MUHAMMAD ISRUL AZAM BIN MOHD 2016691744
SUHAIZANI
HASIF SAFWAN BIN OMAR 2016691694
MUHAMMAD AFIF BIN AHMAD MURAD 2016691754

No. Title Allocated marks % Marks

1 Abstract/ Summary 5
2 Introduction 5
3 Aims/ Objectives 5
4 Theory 5
5 Apparatus 5
6 Procedures 10
7 Result 10
8 Calculations 10
9 Discussion 20
10 Conclusions 10
11 Recommendations 5
12 References 5
13 Appendices 5
Total 100

Remarks:

Checked by:
TABLE OF CONTENT

No. Title Pages

1 Abstract/ Summary 2

2 Introduction 3

3 Aims/ Objectives 4

4 Theory 4-5

5 Apparatus 6-7

6 Procedures 8

7 Results 9-11

8 Calculations 12-17

9 Discussion 18-19

10 Conclusion 20

11 Recommendations 20

12 References 20

13 Appendices 21-23

1
1.0 ABSTRACT

This experiment was conducted to determine the validity of the Bernoulli equation when
applied to the steady flow of water in a tapped duct. This experiment is also aiming in
measuring the flow rates and both static and total pressure heads in a rigid convergent/
divergent tube of known geometry for a range of steady flow rates. Bernoullis principle
states that pressure decreases as velocity increases. In general, when the water flow towards a
narrower part, the velocity of the water will increase (drop in pressure at the same time) and
when flow towards wider part it is vice versa.

Briefly, the experiment is started by eliminating all air bubbles and make the water level half
from the measurements. Then, hypodermic tube is slide to each cross section and readings are
taken and this process is repeated with different flow rate. Flow rate is measured using
volumetric method.

From the result of the experiment, it clearly validates Bernoullis equation because the
velocity increases as water flow from #A to #C (wide part to narrow part) resulting in
decreasing pressure and as water flow from #C to #F (narrow part to wide part), the velocity
decreases resulting in increasing pressure.

2
2.0 INTRODUCTION

In fluid dynamics subject that have been learned we know that Bernoullis principle states
that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a
decrease in the fluids potential energy. This principle has been named after Daniel Bernoulli.

This principle obviously state that if non-viscous fluid were travelled along a pipe with a
higher velocity will against a lower pressure while with the lower velocity with the higher
pressure. This was expressed with the following equation:

P = STATIC PRESSURE OF THE FLUID (Pa)

P = DENSITY OF THE FLOWING FLUID (kg/m3)

g = GRAVITIONAL ACCELERATION (m/s2)

v = VELOCITY OF THE FLUID (m/s)

h = HEAD OF THE CENTER AT THE CROSS-SECTION RESPECT TO DATUM

(m)

Bernoulli principles can be applied to various type of flow, resulting in which what is loosely
denoted as Bernoulli Equation. But there is a different Bernoullis equation for a different
type of flow. Bernoulli principles were derived from the principle of conservation of energy.

In this condition, in a steady flow the sum of all forms of energy along the streamline were
same at every point in the streamline.

Actually, Bernoullis equation can be derived from Newtons Second Law. If a small volume
of fluid is flowing horizontally from part of a high pressure to the part of a lower pressure,
then the pressure that gathered behind is greater than in front pressure. This condition will
form a net force on the volume an accelerating it along the streamline.

3
3.0 OBJECTIVES
This experiment was conducted to:

1. investigate the validity of the Bernoullis equation when applied to the steady flow of
water in a tapered duct
2. measure flow rates and both static and total pressure heads in a rigid convergent/
divergent of known geometry for a range of steady flow rates

4.0 THEORY

Bernoulli's law expresses that if a non-viscous fluid is streaming along a pipe of shifting
cross area, then the pressure is lower at constrictions where the speed is higher, and the
pressure is higher where the pipe opens out and the fluid stagnate. Many individuals discover
this circumstance paradoxical when they first experience it (higher speed, lower pressure). It
is expressed with the following equation:

+ + = =

Where,

P = fluid static pressure at the cross section

= density of the streaming fluid

g = gravity acceleration

v = mean velocity of fluid stream at the cross section

z = elevation head of the center at the cross section with respect to a datum

h* = total (stagnation) head

The terms on the left-hand-side of the above condition speak to the pressure head (h),
velocity head (hv), and elevation head (z), respectively. The total of these terms is known as
the aggregate head (h*). As per the Bernoulli's hypothesis of liquid move through a pipe, the
aggregate head h* at any cross area is consistent. In a real flow because of friction and other

4
imperfections, and in addition measurement vulnerabilities, the outcomes will go astray from
the theoretical ones.

In this test setup, the centerline of all the cross sections are discussing about lie on a same
horizontal plane (which we may pick as the datum, z = 0, and in this way, all the "z" qualities
are zeros so that the above equation decreases to:

+ += =

This represents the total head at a cross section.

Stated that the assumptions made in deriving the Bernoullis equation are:

1. The liquid is incompressible.

2. The liquid is non-viscous.

3. The flow is steady and the velocity of the liquid is less than the critical velocity for
the liquid.

4. There is no loss of energy due to friction.

5
5.0 APPARATUS
1. Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration Unit (Appendix 13.1)

Figure 5.1 Front view of Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration Unit

Figure 5.2: Top View of Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration Unit

6
1. Venturi meter (Appendix 13.2):
a) Venture meter is made of transparent acrylic with following specification:
i. Throat diameter : 16 mm
ii. Upstream diameter : 26 mm
iii. Designed Flow rate : 20 LPM
2. Manometer:
a) There are eight manometer tubes, each length 320 mm, for static pressure and
total head measuring along the Venturi meter. The manometer tubes are connected
to an air bleed screw for air release as well as tube pressurization.
3. Baseboard:
a) Is an epoxy coated and designed with four height adjustable stands to level the
Venturi meter.
4. Discharge valve:
a) One discharge valve is installed at the Venturi discharge section for flow rate
control.
5. Connections:
a) Hose connections are installed at both inlet and outlet.
6. Hydraulic bench:
a) Sump tank : 120 L
b) Volumetric tank : 100 L
c) Centrifugal pump: 0.37 kW, 50 LPM

7
6.0 PROCEDURES
1. All manometer tubing are checked to ensure they are properly connected to the
corresponding pressure taps and are bubble-free.
2. The control valve is closed and then the level of the water in each of the manometer
are adjusted to be half from the measurement of the manometer.
3. The control valve is adjusted to a low measurable flow rate.
4. After the level stabilizes, the hypodermic tube (total head measuring) connected to
manometer #H is gently slide, so that its end reaches the cross section of the Venturi
tube at #A. Wait for some time, and the readings from manometer #H and #A are
recorded.
5. Step 4 is repeated for other cross sections (#B, #C, #D and #F).
6. Then, the water flow rate is measured.
7. Step 3 to 6 are repeated with two other increasing flow rate by regulating the control valve.
8. The velocity, Vb, is calculated using the Bernoullis equation where
ViB = [2 (*-i)].
9. The velocity, Vc, is calculated using the continuity equation where
ViC = Qav / Ai

8
7.0 RESULTS

Diameter, D, of each cross sections (mm) (Appendix 13.3):

A = 26 mm , B = 21.6 mm , C = 16 mm , D = 20 mm , E = 22 mm , 26 mm

7.1 First flow rate

Volume = 10 L

Time: 104 s

Flow rate, Qav = 0.0962 L/s @ 9.615410-5 m3/s

Cross Using Bernoullis equation Using Continuity Difference

Section equation
# h*=hH hi ViB = Ai= ViC = Qav (ViB ViC) /
(mm) (mm) [2 (*- Di2 / 4 / Ai ViC
i)] (m2)
(m/s)
A 165 163 0.1981 5.309310-4 0.1811 0.0939
B 165 160 0.3132 3.664310-4 0.2624 0.1934
C 165 148 0.5775 2.010610-4 0.4782 0.2077
D 165 154 0.4646 3.141610-4 0.3061 0.5178
E 164 156 0.3962 3.801310-4 0.2529 0.5667
F 164 158 0.3431 5.309310-4 0.1811 0.8945

Table 7.1 First flow rate

9
7.2 Second flow rate

Volume = 10 L

Time = 45 s

Flow rate, Qav = 0.2222 L/s @ 2.222210-4 m3/s

Cross Using Bernoullis equation Using Continuity Difference

Section equation
# h*=hH hi ViB = Ai= ViC = Qav / (ViB ViC) /
(mm) (mm) [2 (*- Di2 / 4 Ai ViC
i)] (m2)
(m/s)
A 174 167 0.3076 5.309310-4 0.4185 -0.1145
B 174 161 0.5050 3.664310-4 0.6064 -0.1672
C 174 105 1.1635 2.010610-4 1.1052 0.0528
D 174 138 0.7063 3.141610-4 0.7073 -0.0014
E 174 145 0.5690 3.801310-4 0.5846 -0.0267
F 174 155 0.3728 5.309310-4 0.4185 -0.1092

Table 7.2 Second flow rate

10
7.3 Third flow rate

Volume = 10 L

Time = 23 s

Flow rate, Qav = 0.4348 L/s @ 4.347810-4 m3/s

Cross Using Bernoullis equation Using Continuity Difference

Section equation
# h*=hH hi ViB = Ai= ViC = Qav / (ViB ViC) /
(mm) (mm) [2 (*- Di2 / 4 Ai ViC
i)] (m2)
(m/s)
A 210 230 0.6264 5.309310-4 0.8189 -0.2351
B 190 240 0.9810 3.664310-4 1.1865 -0.1732
C 30 242 4.1594 2.010610-4 2.1624 0.9235
D 132 233 1.9816 3.141610-4 1.3840 0.4318
E 150 230 1.5696 3.801310-4 1.1438 0.3723
F 180 230 0.9810 5.309310-4 0.8189 0.1979

Table 7.3 Third flow rate

11
8.0 CALCULATIONS

Cross section area, Ai, of:

#A: Ai= Di2 / 4 = ((0.0260)2 / 4) = 5.309310-4 m2

#B: Ai= Di2 / 4 = ((0.0216)2 / 4) = 3.664310-4 m2

#C: Ai= Di2 / 4 = ((0.0160)2 / 4) = 2.010610-4 m2

#D: Ai= Di2 / 4 = ((0.0200)2 / 4) = 3.141610-4 m2

#E: Ai= Di2 / 4 = ((0.0220)2 / 4) = 3.801310-4 m2

#F: Ai= Di2 / 4 = ((0.0260)2 / 4) = 5.309310-4 m2

Flow rates, Qav:

First flow rate: Qav = V / t = 10 / 104 = 0.0962 L/s @ 9.615410-4 m3/s

Second flow rate: Qav = V / t = 10 / 45 = 0.2222 L/s @ 2.222210-4 m3/s

Third flow rate: Qav = V / t = 10 / 23 = 0.4348 L/s @ 4.347810-4 m3/s

8.1 First flow rate

Cross section A

ViB = [2 (*-i)] = [2 9.81 (0.165-0.163)] = 0.1981 m/s

ViC = Qav / Ai = 9.615410-5 / 5.309310-4 = 0.1811 m/s
Percentage error (%) = ((ViB ViC) / ViC) 100%
= ((0.1981-0.1811) / 0.1811) 100%
= 9.39%

12
Cross section B

ViB = [2 (*-i)] = [2 9.81 (0.165-0.160)] = 0.3132 m/s

ViC = Qav / Ai = 9.615410-5 / 3.664310-4 = 0.2624 m/s
Percentage error (%) = ((ViB ViC) / ViC) 100%
= ((0.3132-0.2624) / 0.2624) 100%
= 19.34%

Cross section C

ViB = [2 (*-i)] = [2 9.81 (0.165-0.148)] = 0.5775 m/s

ViC = Qav / Ai = 9.615410-5 / 2.010610-4 = 0.4782 m/s
Percentage error (%) = ((ViB ViC) / ViC) 100%
= ((0.5775-0.4782) / 0.4782) 100%
= 20.77%

Cross section D

ViB = [2 (*-i)] = [2 9.81 (0.165-0.154)] = 0.4646 m/s

ViC = Qav / Ai = 9.615410-5 / 3.141610-4 = 0.3061 m/s
Percentage error (%) = ((ViB ViC) / ViC) 100%
= ((0.4646-0.3061) / 0.3061) 100%
= 51.78%

Cross section E

ViB = [2 (*-i)] = [2 9.81 (0.164-0.156)] = 0.3962 m/s

ViC = Qav / Ai = 9.615410-5 / 3.801310-4 = 0.2529 m/s
Percentage error (%) = ((ViB ViC) / ViC) 100%
= ((0.3962-0.2529) / 0.2529) 100%
= 56.67%

13
Cross section F

ViB = [2 (*-i)] = [2 9.81 (0.164-0.158)] = 0.3431 m/s

ViC = Qav / Ai = 9.615410-5 / 5.309310-4 = 0.1811 m/s
Percentage error (%) = ((ViB ViC) / ViC) 100%
= ((0.3431-0.1811) / 0.1811) 100%
= 89.45%

8.2 Second flow rate

Cross section A

ViB = [2 (*-i)] = [2 9.81 (0.174-0.167)] = 0.3706 m/s

ViC = Qav / Ai = 2.222210-4 / 5.309310-4 = 0.4185 m/s
Percentage error (%) = ((ViB ViC) / ViC) 100%
= ((0.3706-0.4185) / 0.4185) 100%
= -11.45%

Cross section B

ViB = [2 (*-i)] = [2 9.81 (0.174-0.161)] = 0.5050 m/s

ViC = Qav / Ai = 2.222210-4 / 3.664310-4 = 0.6064 m/s
Percentage error (%) = ((ViB ViC) / ViC) 100%
= ((0.5050-0.6064) / 0.6064) 100%
= -16.72%

Cross section C

ViB = [2 (*-i)] = [2 9.81 (0.174-0.105)] = 1.1635 m/s

ViC = Qav / Ai = 2.222210-4 / 2.010610-4 = 1.1052 m/s
Percentage error (%) = ((ViB ViC) / ViC) 100%
= ((1.1635-1.1052) / 1.1052) 100%
= 5.28%

14
Cross section D

ViB = [2 (*-i)] = [2 9.81 (0.174-0.138)] = 0.7063 m/s

ViC = Qav / Ai = 2.222210-4 / 3.141610-4 = 0.7073 m/s
Percentage error (%) = ((ViB ViC) / ViC) 100%
= ((0.7063-0.7073) / 0.7073) 100%
= -0.14%

Cross section E

ViB = [2 (*-i)] = [2 9.81 (0.174-0.145)] = 0.5690 m/s

ViC = Qav / Ai = 2.222210-4 / 3.801310-4 = 0.5846 m/s
Percentage error (%) = ((ViB ViC) / ViC) 100%
= ((0.5690-0.5846) / 0.5846) 100%
= -2.67%

Cross section F

ViB = [2 (*-i)] = [2 9.81 (0.174-0.155)] = 0.3728 m/s

ViC = Qav / Ai = 2.222210-4 / 5.309310-4 = 0.4185 m/s
Percentage error (%) = ((ViB ViC) / ViC) 100%
= ((0.3728-0.4185) / 0.4185) 100%
= -10.92%

8.3 Third flow rate

Cross section A

ViB = [2 (*-i)] = [2 9.81 (0.230-0.210)] = 0.6264 m/s

ViC = Qav / Ai = 4.347810-4 / 5.309310-4 = 0.8189 m/s
Percentage error (%) = ((ViB ViC) / ViC) 100%
= ((0.6264-0.8189) / 0.8189) 100%
= -23.51%

15
Cross section B

ViB = [2 (*-i)] = [2 9.81 (0.240-0.190)] = 0.9810 m/s

ViC = Qav / Ai = 4.347810-4 / 3.664310-4 = 1.1865 m/s
Percentage error (%) = ((ViB ViC) / ViC) 100%
= ((0.9810-1.1865) / 1.1865) 100%
= -17.32%

Cross section C

ViB = [2 (*-i)] = [2 9.81 (0.242-0.030)] = 4.1594 m/s

ViC = Qav / Ai = 4.347810-4 / 2.010610-4 = 2.1624 m/s
Percentage error (%) = ((ViB ViC) / ViC) 100%
= ((0.9810-1.1865) / 1.1865) 100%
= 92.35%

Cross section D

ViB = [2 (*-i)] = [2 9.81 (0.233-0.132)] = 1.9816 m/s

ViC = Qav / Ai = 4.347810-4 / 3.141610-4 = 1.3840 m/s
Percentage error (%) = ((ViB ViC) / ViC) 100%
= ((1.9816-1.3840) / 1.3840) 100%
= 43.18%

Cross section E

ViB = [2 (*-i)] = [2 9.81 (0.230-0.150)] = 1.5696 m/s

ViC = Qav / Ai = 4.347810-4 / 3.801310-4 = 1.1438 m/s
Percentage error (%) = ((ViB ViC) / ViC) 100%
= ((1.5696-1.1438) / 1.1438) 100%
= 37.23%

16
Cross section F

ViB = [2 (*-i)] = [2 9.81 (0.230-0.180)] = 0.9810 m/s

ViC = Qav / Ai = 4.347810-4 / 5.309310-4 = 0.8189 m/s
Percentage error (%) = ((ViB ViC) / ViC) 100%
= ((0.9810-0.8189) / 0.8189) 100%
= 19.79%

17
9.0 DISCUSSIONS

This experiment was conducted to investigate the validity of the Bernoullis equation when
applied to the steady flow of water in a tapered duct and to measure flow rates and both static
and total pressure heads in a rigid convergent/ divergent of known geometry for a range of
steady flow rates. In order to that, the following formula are used:

Bernoullis equation: ViB = [2 (*-i)]

Continuity equation : ViC = Qav / Ai
Flow rate : Qav = V / t
Area : Ai= Di2 / 4

The flow rates for this experiment are calculated with a fixed volume of water which is 10L.
For the first flow rate which is 0.0962 L/s @ 9.615410-4 m3/s, the time taken was 104 s. The
velocities calculated using Bernoullis equation, ViB, for each of the cross-sectional area A, B,
C, D, E and F are 0.1981 m/s, 0.3132 m/s, 0.5775 m/s, 0.4646 m/s, 0.3962 m/s and 0.3431
m/s respectively. For the velocities calculated using Continuity equation, ViC, for each of the
cross-sectional area A, B, C, D, E and F are 0.1811 m/s, 0.2624 m/s, 0.4782 m/s, 0.3061 m/s,
0.2529 m/s and 0.1811 m/s respectively. The percentage error of the calculation made for
each cross-sectional area from A to F are 9.39%, 19.34%, 20.77%, 51.78%, 56.67% and
89.45% respectively.

For the second flow rate which is 0.2222 L/s @ 2.222210-4 m3/s, the time taken was 45 s.
The velocities calculated using Bernoullis equation, ViB, for each of the cross-sectional area
A, B, C, D, E and F are 0.3076 m/s, 0.5050 m/s, 1.1635 m/s, 0.7063 m/s, 0.5690 m/s and
0.3728 m/s respectively. For the velocities calculated using Continuity equation, ViC, for each
of the cross-sectional area A, B, C, D, E and F are 0.4185 m/s, 0.6064 m/s, 1.1052 m/s,
0.7073 m/s, 0.5846 m/s and 0.4185 m/s respectively. The percentage error of the calculation
made for each cross-sectional area from A to F are -11.45%, -16.72%, 5.28%, -0.14%, -
2.67% and -10.92% respectively.

For the third flow rate which is 0.4348 L/s @ 4.347810-4 m3/s, the time taken was 23 s. The
velocities calculated using Bernoullis equation, ViB, for each of the cross-sectional area A, B,
C, D, E and F are 0.6264 m/s, 0.9810 m/s, 4.1594 m/s, 1.9816 m/s, 1.5696 m/s and 0.9810
m/s respectively. For the velocities calculated using Continuity equation, ViC, for each of the

18
cross-sectional area A, B, C, D, E and F are 0.8189 m/s, 1.1865 m/s, 2.1624 m/s, 1.3840 m/s,
1.1438 m/s and 0.8189 m/s respectively. The percentage error of the calculation made for
each cross-sectional area from A to F are -23.51%, -17.32%, 92.35%, 43.18%, 37.23% and
19.79% respectively.

Venturi tube have three main parts which are the converging part, the throat and the
diverging part. When water flow from the converging part to the throat there is significant
increase in velocity due the movement of water from a wider part to a narrower part which
explain why from all of the tabulated result of the experiment shows us that the pressure
decreases while the velocity increases to its maximum at #C as water flow into the throat.
When water flow from throat part to the diverging part, the condition is vice versa. That is
why at #A and #F the pressure is very high compared to the other cross-sectional area
connected to the Venturi tube.

Based on the result of the experiment, we can also obtain that the velocity increases as
pressure difference increases when water flow from the convergent part to the throat.
However, the velocity did decreases as pressure difference decreases when water flow
towards the divergent part.

The velocity of the water can also be seen increased when flowing from a larger cross-
sectional area towards smaller cross-sectional area.

The deviation of value of velocity obtained when using Bernoullis equation compared to
value obtained when using Continuity equation is due to many possible factors. Firstly,
deviation between values obtain is because of taking measurement at each of the tubing when
the water level is not yet stabilized. This problem would then lead to parallax error as the
eyes are not parallel with the measurement due to either meniscus being unstable or simply
because wrong eye position. Other than that, the values will absolutely deviate when there is
presence of air bubbles in the tubing. Furthermore, the inaccuracy of when to start the timer
when measuring the flow rate.

19
10.0 CONCLUSION

Bernoullis principle states that pressure is inversely proportional to velocity which means
that as pressure increases, the velocity decreases and vice versa. From the data of the
experiment, it does show that the velocity decreases as the pressure increases and vice versa
which clearly validates Bernoullis equation.

The flow rates and both static and total pressure heads are successfully measure as recorded
even though there is quite of deviation between the values. In brief, all the objectives of the
experiment are fulfilled and the Bernoullis equation is theoretically and experimentally
accepted. The experiment is a success.

11.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Ensure that the water level in each tubing have stabilized before taking readings.
2. Ensure that the eyes are parallel to the measurement when taking readings.
3. ensure that all the air bubbles are flushed out of the tubing before starting the
experiment.
4. Ensure that the timer has started as soon as you start to measure the time taken for the
flow rate.
5. Repeat the experiment a few times to get the best result.

12.0 REFERENCES

1. Bernoulli's Principle - Concept, How it works, Real-life applications, Key terms.

(2014).
Retrieved from http://www.scienceclarified.com/everyday/Real-Life-Chemistry-Vol-
3-Physics-Vol-1/Bernoulli-s-Principle.html#ixzz3GfOQWSjq
2. Yunus A. engel (2014) Fluid Mechanics Fundamentals and Application, McGraw
Hill, Singapore.
3. Bernoulli's Theorem
Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/Bernoullis-theorem
4. Bernoullis Equation
Retrieved from https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/bern.html

20
 13.0 APPENDICES

Appendix 13.1 Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration Unit

Appendix 13.2 Venturi meter

Appendix 13.3 Diameter of tubing

21