CI/SfB (J4)

September 1998

Eurocode 1 IP 13/98
The code for structural loading Part 1
Basis of design, dead, imposed, re, snow
information
and wind loads

JB Menzies and H Gulvanessian

This two-part Information to explain the context in This rst part covers basis of
Paper describes the which Eurocode 1 is design, dead, imposed, re,
evolution of Eurocode 1, intended to be used. snow and wind loads. Part
paper

summarises its contents, It gives references, where 2 covers thermal actions,

and gives some possible, to enable actions during execution,
background information on practising engineers to accidental actions, traffic
its derivation. It describes obtain further insight into loads on bridges, actions in
the assumptions and the basis and use of the silos and tanks, and actions
requirements of Codes requirements. induced by cranes and
Eurocode 0 Basis of design, machinery.

Eurocode 1 The Structural Eurocodes form a unified set of

The European code of practice Actions on structure s, international codes of practice. This set provides
commonly known as Eurocode 1 is a comprehensive the basis for the limit state design of a wide range
modern code of practice providing information on all of building and civil engineering structures that
actions (loads) that it is normally necessary to consider in includes buildings, bridges, masts, towers, silos,
the design of building and civil engineering structures. Its tanks, chimneys and geotechnical structures.
preparation, in ten Parts, began in 1985. All Parts have When completed as European standards (EN),
been accepted for publication as European pre-
there will be ten Eurocodes for structural design
standards (ENV), ie codes for voluntary experimental
(see Table 1), comprising as a whole a portfolio
use. A ve-year programme to convert them to European
standards (EN) has recently begun. Development of of more than 50 Parts[1,2].
Eurocode 1 is now in an advanced stage. When European standard Eurocode 1 is issued, it
will comprise ten EN
Parts (see
Table 1 The Structural Eurocodes Table 2). The Parts are
EN Known as Title Number
referred to in this IP by
number of Parts
their proposed EN
1990 Eurocode 0 Basis of design 1
numbers. These Parts
1991 Eurocode 1 Actions on structures 10
will provide the actions
1992 Eurocode 2 Design of concrete structures 4
(loads) for use with
1993 Eurocode 3 Design of steel structures 14
Eurocodes 2 to 9 as
1994 Eurocode 4 Design of composite steel and concrete structures 4
appropriate for design
1995 Eurocode 5 Design of timber structures 3
and verification on the
1996 Eurocode 6 Design of masonry structures 5
basis of overall principles
1997 Eurocode 7 Geotechnical design 3
which are given in
1998 Eurocode 8 Design of structures for earthquake resistance 6
Eurocode 0.
1999 Eurocode 9 Design of aluminium structures 3
2

Table 2 The Parts of Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

Proposed Title Current
EN number ENV number

1991-1-1 Densities, self-weight and imposed loads 1991-2-1

1991-1-2 Actions on structures exposed to re 1991-2-2
1991-1-3 Snow loads 1991-2-3
1991-1-4 Wind actions 1991-2-4
1991-1-5 Thermal actions 1991-2-5
1991-1-6 Actions during execution 1991-2-6
1991-1-7 Accidental actions due to impact and explosions 1991-2-7
1991-2 Trafc loads on bridges 1991-3
1991-3 Actions in silos and tanks 1991-4
1991-4 Actions induced by cranes and machinery 1991-5

The evolution of Eurocode 1 To help meet this objective, a distinction is made

in Eurocode texts between Principles and
Structural design practice varies substantially Application rules.
across Europe. Different design loads, design
methods, fabrication and construction techniques Principles comprise:
have evolved based on local tradition and general statements and definitions for which
circumstances. Variations in economic and there is no alternative;
sociological standards are reflected in local requirements and analytical models for which
practice and industry together with differences no alternative is permitted unless specifically
arising from the local climate: this ranges widely, stated.
from the continental climate in central Europe to
the maritime climates of the north and north- Application rules are generally recognised rules,
west, to the warmer climates of the south. which follow the principles and satisfy their
National codes of practice mirror the local requirements. Use of alternative rules different
national situation. Some countries have from the application rules given in Eurocodes 0
sophisticated national structural design codes; and 2 to 9 is permitted provided that the
others have no codes for specific types of alternative rules meet the relevant principles and
structure and use national codes from other will achieve at least the same structural
countries. reliability.
The preparation of the Structural Eurocodes as A proposal to develop an international set of
a whole is being undertaken against this codes of practice for structural design was first
background with the primary objective of agreed in 1974 by several technical-scientific
achieving convergence to a consistent structural organisations based largely in Europe[3].
design practice throughout Europe. They are Following preparatory work by these
being prepared initially by project teams familiar organisations, the Commission of the European
with both traditional European experience and Communities (CEC) together with the European
with the results of research in the field. They are Free Trade Association (EFTA) took the
being subjected to substantial peer review. initiative for developing the Structural
Inevitably in such a major programme involving Eurocodes at the end of the 1970s by establishing
so many engineers from 18 participating a steering committee to oversee the work. In
countries, there are a few areas where the 1989 the responsibility for their development
documents overlap or are inconsistent. These was transferred to the European Committee for
shortfalls are being addressed in the current Standardisation (CEN). Financial contributions
programme to convert the Eurocode pre- to the costs of the work continued to be provided
standards into European standards. by the CEC and EFTA. Technical Committee
Another objective of the Eurocodes is to CEN/TC250 was set up to complete the task of
provide design rules for everyday use and to preparation and implementation. Since English
provide the basis for innovative design. For was the most widely spoken and understood
construction projects as a whole and for the language, a decision was made in 1991 to
manufacture of specific construction products, conduct meetings and to prepare the Eurocodes
the aim is to facilitate innovative design, and to in English in the first instance. Once each
ensure that the Eurocodes do not prevent the Eurocode Part is approved for publication as a
development of innovative products.
 3
pre-standard (ENV) it is translated into the other Eurocode for actions on structures was feasible.
two official CEN languages, French and German, With the agreement of the steering committee a
and published in the three languages. In some small task group was established to advise on the
cases, CEN member bodies have translated these steps necessary. The task group was supported by
pre-standards into their own local language. national bodies including BRE, Centre
Most Eurocodes are in the form of European Scientifique et Technique due Batiment (CSTB),
pre-standards (ENV) issued for experimental use Institut fr Bautechnic (IfBt), and the Danish
and comment. During the development of these Building Research Institute (SBI).
ENV Eurocodes, existing national codes have An outline for a comprehensive Eurocode for
either not been updated or they have been actions was proposed, together with suggestions
amended, usually to make them more compatible for the first stages of the work, based on
with the emerging ENVs. In some member preparatory studies by task group members. The
countries there are no national codes comparable proposal was accepted by the steering committee
to some of the developing Eurocodes. At present in 1985.
the ENV Eurocodes contain boxed values, eg An inherent feature of the proposed Eurocode
for partial factors and load combination factors, was that it would be consistent with the existing
which national standards bodies may modify for drafts of Eurocodes 2 to 8 and suitable for
experimental use of the pre-standard in their structural design based on the limit state concept
country. using the partial safety factor format. Eurocode 1
A programme to convert the ENV Eurocodes then became entitled Basis of design and actions
to European standards (EN) has begun recently. on structures embracing the existing Part
Their issue as European standards will lead to the covering basis of design and the new additional
withdrawal from use of the national codes of Parts covering actions.
practice in the different European countries Priority was first given in developing the
which are members of CEN. There will be a Actions Parts of Eurocode 1 to the most
period of perhaps five years when national codes important actions related to the design of
co-exist with the European standard Eurocodes building structures. The aim was to have the
before the national codes are withdrawn. Parts covering these actions dead loads,
Updating of the EN Eurocodes will follow imposed loads, snow loads, wind loads, and
normal CEN procedures, each document being actions due to fire available for use when, or as
reviewed and amended to keep abreast of the soon as possible after, publication for
advances in construction technology on a five- experimental use by CEN of Eurocode 2: Part 1
year cycle. Design of concrete structures (ENV 1992-1-1)
Until the mid-1980s, Eurocode 1 consisted and Eurocode 3: Part 1: Steel structures: General
only of common safety requirements and rules (ENV 1993-1-1). These two Eurocodes
common principles and rules. These common were in the most advanced stage of preparation at
unified rules were published in 1984[4]. They the time and the availability of loading
were not operational but provided a basis for requirements was seen as important to facilitate
preparing the operational Eurocodes 2 to 8. their future development.
Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium structures was Subsequently, the scope of the work on actions
not added to the Eurocode preparation was extended to include traffic loads on bridges
programme until 1992. (road and rail) and loads in silos and tanks
The initial work of Eurocode preparation did leading finally to the portfolio of parts indicated
not therefore include development of rules for in Table 2.
actions (loading). It was not until 1984 that the For conversion to European standards (EN), a
steering committee agreed to a proposal that an decision was made in 1997 to divide ENV
enquiry on national codes and standards Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on
concerned with actions be undertaken by BRE structures into two separate documents:
amongst Member States. The report of the EN 1990: Basis of design
enquiry concluded that the preparation of a EN 1991: Actions on structures.
4

Eurocode 0: The basis of the Eurocode 0 defines an action (F) as either:

a direct action, ie force (load) applied to the
structural Eurocodes structure
Eurocodes as a whole, including Eurocode 1, an indirect action, ie an imposed or
adopt the general requirements and assumptions constrained deformation or an imposed
for safety and serviceability of structures and acceleration caused, for example, by
methods of design and verification as described temperature changes.
in Eurocode 0: Basis of design. It was published
in the UK as Actions are described by a model, eg vehicle axle
ENV 1991-1 in 1996. The main requirement is spacing, and their magnitude is commonly
that structures and structural elements are represented by a single scalar. The scalar may
designed, executed and maintained so that, with adopt several representative values,
appropriate degrees of reliability, they will: eg dominant or non-dominant action. Several
perform adequately under all expected scalars are used when the action is multi-
actions; component. More complex representations are
withstand all actions and other influences required for fatigue and dynamic actions.
likely to occur during execution and in use and
have adequate durability in relation to Actions are classified by:
maintenance costs; their variation in time, ie:
not be subsequently damaged permanent actions (G); variable actions (Q);
disproportionately to the original cause in the and accidental actions (A);
case of exceptional hazards such as fire, their variation in space, ie:
explosion, impact or human error. fixed actions (eg self-weight); free actions (eg
wind and snow loads);
The use of the term appropriate degrees of their nature and/or structural response, ie:
reliability allows the reliability to be different for static actions; dynamic actions.
different structures, eg where consequences of
failure are high, a higher level of reliability may The term single action is also used to define an
be chosen. action which is statistically independent in time
The validity of use of the design principles and space from any other action acting on the
depends on a number of assumptions; they structure.
include: The characteristic value of an action is its main
Structures are designed by appropriately representative value.
qualified and experienced personnel and The self-weight of a structure can be
execution is carried out by personnel having represented by a single characteristic value Gk
the necessary skill and experience. provided the variability of G is small, and can be
The construction materials and products are calculated on the basis of the nominal
used as specified in the Eurocodes or in the dimensions and the mean unit mass. If the
relevant material or product specifications. variability of G is not small and the statistical
Adequate quality assurance measures are distribution is known, two values are used; an
applied. upper value Gk, sup and a lower value Gk, inf .
The structure will be adequately maintained. More information on this subject has been given
by Ostlund[5].
The basis of design and verification given in
Eurocode 0 includes guidelines on: A variable action has the following
limit states; representative value see Figure 1:
classifications concerning actions and the characteristic value Q k
environmental influences; the combination value 0Q k
material properties and geometrical data; the frequent value 1Q k
modelling for structural analysis and the quasi-permanent value 2Q k
resistance;
design assisted by testing; The combination value 0Qk takes account of the
verification by the partial factor method. reduced probability of simultaneous occurrence
of the most unfavourable values of several
These guidelines for meeting the requirements independent variable actions. It is used for the
have generally been the basis for the preparation verification of ultimate limit states and
of the more detailed principles and rules given in irreversible serviceability limit states. The
Eurocodes 1 to 9 (Table 1). frequent value 1Q k is used for verification of
 5

variable load Q
Qk characteristic value

0Q k combination value
1Q k frequent value
2Q k quasi-permanent value

Time

Figure 1 Representative values

ultimate limit states involving accidental actions combine the design actions using the rules
and reversible limit states. The quasi-permanent given;
value 2Q k is also used for ultimate limit state verify that the effects of design actions do not
verification involving accidental actions and for exceed the design resistance for ultimate limit
reversible serviceability limit states. The states or the performance criteria for
Eurocode values given for 0, 1, 2 for serviceability limit states.
buildings are shown in Table 3 together with
those adopted in the UK application documents. The partial factors for actions in the ENV
The ENV Eurocodes are not totally consistent in Eurocodes for ultimate limit states are not totally
the values given for combination factors: some consistent yet. Tables 4 and 5 show comparisons.
slightly different values appear in Eurocodes 2 to There are also some differences between the
5 primarily because they referred to the current ENV Eurocodes in partial factors and
BSI loading codes in 1992. combinations of actions used for serviceability
To determine actions for use in design the limit states.
following steps are required: The theoretical background to Eurocode 0 is
for each relevant design situation identify discussed by Vrouwenvelder[6] and a background
critical load cases; document was published in 1996[7]. A designers
for each critical load case determine design handbook is available[8].
values for the effects of actions in combination
using the partial factors for actions;

Table 3 factors for buildings from DD ENV 1991-1

Action 0 1 2
boxed UK* boxed UK* boxed UK*
EC0 EC0 EC0

Imposed loads in buildings

domestic, residential 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
ofces 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.3
congregation areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
shopping 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.3
storage 1.0 0.9 0.8
roof (including snow) 0.6 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0
Trafc loads in buildings
vehicle weight < = 30 kN 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6
vehicle weight < = 160 kN 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.6
roofs 0.0 0.0 0.0
Wind loads on buildings 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.0 0.0
Temperature (non-re) in buildings 0.6 0.5 0.0
Crane loads
vertical 0.7 0.6 0.3
horizontal 0.7 0.6 0.3
0.9 (vertical + horizontal) 0.7 0.6 0.3
* Values determined for use of Eurocodes 2 and 3 before Eurocode 0 was published
6

Table 4 Partial factors for actions in ENV Eurocodes (ultimate limit states)
Action description EC0 EC2 EC3 EC4 EC5 EC6 EC7

Permanent favourable 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

unfavourable 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35
Variable favourable 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
unfavourable 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50
2nd and more 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.35
Single permanent favourable 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.10 0.90 0.90
unfavourable 1.10 1.34 1.35 1.35 1.10 1.10
both 1.00 1.00
Prestressing favourable 0.9/1.0 0.9
unfavourable 1.2/1.0 1.20
Vectorial favourable 0.80 0.80 0.70
Earth and water pressure 1.35 1.35 1.35
Notes
Vectorial refers to cases where the components of a vectorial effect vary independently.
EC5 introduced a set of reduced partial coefcient for specied small structures which is as follows:
Permanent favourable 1.00
unfavourable 1.20
Variable favourable 0.00
unfavourable 1.35
EC2 states that snow drift loads should be treated as a variable action with the characteristic value taken at 0.7.
EC3, EC4 and EC5 state that local snow drifting on roofs should be treated as an accidental action.

Table 5 Partial factors for actions (accidental situations)

Action description EC0 EC2 EC3 EC4 EC5 EC6 EC7

Accidental action 1.0 1.00 1.05

favourable 1.00 1.00 0.90 0.90 1.00 1.00
unfavourable 1.00 1.00 1.05 1.05 1.00 1.00
Variable 1.00 1.00 1.00
Notes
EC3 and EC4 state that the accidental action partial factor is relevant only where the accidental load
is not specied directly.
On conversion to EN the intention is to place all partial factors and combination values for actions in Eurocode 0.
 7

Eurocode 1: Part 1.1: Densities, Numerical values are given for floors and roof
loads in buildings, including parking and vehicle
self-weight and imposed loads traffic areas. For areas for storage and industrial
Scope and eld of application activities only, guidance for the determination of
This Part, which was published as an ENV in numerical values is given.
1996, covers: Different account is taken of the loading areas
the assessment of actions for use in structural for several storeys (when a reduction factor is
design due to the density of construction given) from the loading area within one storey
materials and stored material; The basis for the determination of the
the self-weight of structural elements and characteristic loads is given elsewhere[9]. For
whole structures and some fixed non- example, for the determination of the
structural items; characteristic loads in dwellings, offices,
imposed loads on floors and roofs of schools, hospitals etc the loads are caused by:
buildings, but excluding snow, which is
covered by Part 1.3. Furniture and movable objects
(eg light movable partitions and loads from
Densities and self-weight commodities and contents of containers).
In developing the sections on densities and self- These loads may be subjected to considerable
weight, consideration was given to the contents instantaneous changes in magnitude at certain
of the National Codes of the CEN member times owing, for example, to changes of tenant or
countries and the International Standard ISO change of use. The load varies very slowly and
9194. Differences in the scope and specifications the magnitude of variations is very small
were found in the national codes and the generally in the periods between the major
guidance was at times contradictory. instantaneous changes.
Additionally little statistical basis exists in
general for the load values given in these codes. Normal use by persons
These differences imposed constraints on the These loads are often periodical and present only
development work. It was not possible to during a relatively small part of the time, eg for
describe the load values as either mean or school rooms only about one quarter of the day.
characteristic values since both of these terms Additionally, the proportion of the load caused
imply some understanding of the underlying by people can be very different, being very high
statistical distribution of the load values. The in corridors and lower in residential buildings.
loads are therefore described as representative The loads from persons may also cause dynamic
values. For materials where the bulk weight effects.
density has significant variability according to its
source, a range of values is provided. Extraordinary use
Methods are provided for assessing the self- Examples include exceptional concentrations of
weight of construction elements in buildings, for people (these can also give rise to dynamic
example floors, walls, partitions, roofs, cladding effects) or of furniture, or the moving or stacking
and finishes. of commodities which may occur during
For bridges, determination of the self-weight reorganisation etc. These special situations
of non-structural elements is also defined. usually occur during a short period of time. They
occur sufficiently often during the lifetime of a
Imposed loads on buildings building to make it necessary to take them into
To determine imposed loads in buildings, loaded account.
floor and roof areas are categorised into four Assumptions have also been given[9] to enable
classes according to their use: characteristic values to be determined
areas in dwellings, offices etc; statistically. However, the statistical database
garages and vehicle traffic areas; was found to be poor: and it was very poor for
areas for storage and industrial activities; short-term loads. Therefore, the values given in
roofs. Part 1.1 were derived from comparisons of the
values in national codes including values for all
classes of imposed loads.
8

Eurocode: Part 1.2: Actions on fire exposure approach (Annex E). Parametric
fire is a general term which covers fire evolution
structures exposed to re more in line with real fires and takes into account
Scope and eld of application the main parameters which influence the growth
This Part was available as a first draft in 1990[10] of fires. Parametric temperature-time curves
and it was published as an ENV in 1996. It covers therefore vary mainly with building size, type of
the assessment of actions to be used in the construction, fire load, and size of openings. At
structural design of buildings and civil present the Annexes do not provide all the data
engineering works where they are required to needed to allow a performance-based structural
give adequate performance in fire exposure. It is fire design. Investigations are continuing with a
intended for use with the parts on structural fire view to making this approach fully operational
design in Eurocodes 2 to 6 and 9[11]. when Part 1.2 is converted to a European
Actions on structures due to fire exposure are standard (EN)[12].
classified in the Eurocodes as accidental actions. The equivalent time of fire exposure approach
For fire design, it follows that fire actions are the allows use of realistic fire exposure depending on
dominant action. design fire load density and ventilation for the
design of members by tabulated data or
Design situations simplified rules[11]. The equivalent time is the
The combined occurrence of a fire in a building time in the standard fire exposure (eg ISO 834)
and an extremely high level of mechanical loads for a structural member to reach the maximum
is assumed to be very small. The combinations of temperature obtained when exposed to the
mechanical actions which need to be considered realistic fire. The relationships between
have been described elsewhere[11]. Simultaneous equivalent time of exposure and parametric
occurrence with other independent accidental temperature-time curves are the subject of
actions need not be considered. However, Part continuing studies[13,14].
1.2 does require consideration of risks of fire in In the United Kingdom, the thermal and
the wake of other accidental actions. Post-fire mechanical actions determined using Part 1.2 are
situations after the structure has cooled down do intended to be inputs to the verification of the
not need to be considered. For buildings, Part 1.2 structural design using Eurocodes 2 to 6 and 9 for
requires fire compartments to be designed to performance requirements which are defined by
prevent fire spread. Only one fully developed fire Building Regulations[15]. Essentially, the
within one compartment is considered at a time. objective is to limit risk to life from fire by
meeting the following performance requirements
Determining actions arising in re of the structure:
The basis for determining the thermal and to maintain loadbearing function during the
mechanical actions arising in fire situations is relevant fire exposure;
given. The main text refers principally to to meet deformation criteria where the
nominal fires using the temperature/time separating or protecting function of the
relationships for standard fire conditions and construction may be impaired by structural
assumed radiation and convection heat transfer deformation in the fire;
characteristics. Nominal fires are assumed to be to maintain separating function, ie no integrity
identical whatever the size or design of the or insulation failure, during the relevant fire
building. Those used in Part 1.2 are mainly the exposure where fire compartmentation is
standard fire (ISO 834), the hydrocarbon fire required.
reaching a constant 1100C after 30 minutes, and
the external fire reaching a constant 680C after Annex D of Part 1.2 gives guidance on the
30 minutes. These nominal fires are used to determination of fire load densities. The design
verify that the level of fire resistance of structural value is either based on a national fire load
elements meets national or other requirements classification or a survey of fire loads combined
which are expressed in terms of one of these with partial factors to take account of fire
nominal fires. consequences, fire frequency and active fire
Informative Annexes provide, for the first safety measures[11]. Investigations continue to
time in an international standard, models for examine methods used in countries worldwide
more realistic calculation of thermal actions. for taking active measures into account with a
They use so-called parametric temperature-time view to improving this aspect of Part 1.2 on its
curves (Annex B) or the equivalent time of conversion to a European standard[16].
 9

Eurocode 1 : Part 1.3 : Snow loads events before significant thawing. In these
situations the accumulations are combined into a
Scope and eld of application single load case.
Published as an ENV in 1996, Part 1.3 provides Part 1.3 does not actually call these concepts
guidance for the calculation of: single and multiple events; instead, it provides
snow loads on roofs which occur in calm or rules for such eventualities. It is left to the
windy conditions; National Competent Authority to specify which
loads imposed by snow sliding down a pitched should be used for a particular region.
roof onto snowguards and other obstructions;
loads due to snow overhanging the Classication of snow loads
cantilevered edge of a roof; Snow loads are classified as variable free actions.
snow loads on bridges. Part 1.3 allows snow loads to be treated as
accidental actions in some cases. In particular,
Part 1.3 closely follows ISO 4355: 1981 and was for local drifts occurring in climatic regions
prepared taking into account the content of where single snow events generally occur and
existing national codes. It applies to: local drifting of snow on roofs is considered to
new buildings and structures; form an exceptional load because of the rarity of
significant alterations to existing buildings the occurrence.
and structures.
Method of assessment of snow load on the
It does not generally apply to sites at altitudes roof
above 1500 m. The snow load on the roof is derived by
multiplying the characteristic value of the snow
Format for taking account of climatic load on the ground by a snow load shape
variation coefficient. In addition, Part 1.3 makes provision
Both the initial deposition and any subsequent for adjustment of the roof snow load using an
movements of snow on a roof are affected by the exposure coefficient factor to allow for abnormal
presence of wind. However, there is little data on exposure to the elements and a thermal
the combined action of wind and snow to allow a coefficient factor for heat loss through the roof.
direct statistical treatment. In design, the lack of
data is normally overcome by considering one or Characteristic value of snow load on the
more critical design situations. These situations ground
are usually snow deposited when no wind is The snow load on the ground is that assumed to
blowing and snow deposited when the wind speed occur in perfectly calm conditions. It is usually
is sufficient to cause drifting, but without determined from records of snow load or snow
quantifying the precise wind speed. Owing to the depth measured in well sheltered areas (ISO
climatic variability across Europe, Part 1.3 4355 recommends in a deciduous forest). The
provides different rules for single snow events characteristic value for the snow load on the
(eg in the UK) and multiple snow events. ground is defined as the value with an annual
Single snow events occur in regions where the probability of 0.02 of being exceeded. The
snow fall is considered to be associated with variations of the snow load with geographic
weather systems of about three to four days location is generally given in map form, with
duration and where there is a reasonable separate information for each CEN member
expectation that the snow deposited on roofs will country.
thaw between the arrival of one weather system
and the next. This situation requires the separate Snow load shape coefcients
consideration of either uniform snow load or a Several different snow load coefficients need to
drift load as the two are not expected to occur be considered in design. They relate to different
together. climatic conditions before, during and after snow
Multiple snow events occur where snow is fall.
more persistent, where snow falling in calm Part 1.3 provides shape coefficients for mono-
conditions is followed by further snow carried by pitched, duo-pitched, multi-pitched and
another weather system driven by wind, and cylindrical roofs and coefficients for drifting at
where there are several repetitions of these abrupt changes in roof height and at obstructions
on roofs.
10
Three primary loading situations are identified Eurocode 1: Part 1.4 : Wind actions
and are accounted for in the coefficients
provided: Scope and eld of application
A uniformly distributed layer of snow over the This Part was published as an ENV in 1997. It
complete roof, likely to occur when snow falls enables the assessment of wind loads for the
with little wind :balanced load part. structural design of buildings up to a height of
Either an initially unbalanced distribution by 200 m, chimneys and other cantilevered
local drifting at obstructions or a redistribution structures, highway and railway bridges up to a
of snow which affects the load distribution on span of 200 m and cycle/foot bridges up to a span
the whole roof, eg snow transported from the of 30 m. It does not cover wind actions on lattice
windward slope of a pitched roof to the towers, cable stayed and suspension bridges,
leeward slope: unbalanced load part due to guyed masts or offshore structures.
drifting.
A redistribution of snow from an upper part of Basis and procedures
the building: unbalanced load part due to Part 1.4 was based initially on an ISO TC98
sliding. document and was developed using inputs from
The coefficients provided for the multiple the latest wind engineering practice introduced
snow event are based on ISO 4355:1981 and the into national standards in European countries[18].
single snow event on BS6399: Part 3. It gives principles and rules for calculating static
and dynamic response[19]. Two procedures are
Conversion to EN and future developments included: a simple approach for those structures
A background document has been prepared on whose structural properties do not make them
Part 1.3[17]. On conversion, Part 1.3 is expected to susceptible to dynamic excitation and a detailed
be modified to reflect the latest results of research procedure for those structures which are likely to
and consideration of the new version of ISO 4355. be dynamically responsive. Criteria for
To provide a fully harmonised code, a reappraisal determining the appropriate procedure are
of ground snow loads is currently in progress included.
with a view to the production of a co-ordinated Since the data on wind velocities in the
European snow map. different member countries are on different
bases, Part 1.4 includes only an indicative
European wind map and uses velocities defined
in each country for determining the reference
wind. Pressure coefficients are based on research
undertaken principally at BRE and are upper
bound values used for wind directions
orthogonal to the building. Informative annexes
give a detailed procedure for in-line response of
dynamically responsive structures and rules for
vortex excitation and other aeroeclastic effects.
The technical complexity of wind actions on
structures led to a concerted effort to provide a
consistent framework for the National
Application Documents (NAD)[20]. The United
Kingdoms NAD relating to buildings has been
published (DD ENV 1991-2-4: 1997);
publication of the companion NAD relating to
bridges is expected in 1998.

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