Gender, the Brain and Education: Do Boys and Girls Learn Differently?

By: Angela Josette Magon

A Project Report Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of

MASTER OF EDUCATION

In Leadership Studies

Department of Educational Psychology and Leadership Studies

This project is accepted as conforming

to the required standard

Project Supervisor: Adrian Blunt, PhD

University of Victoria

April, 2009

All rights reserved. This project may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other
means, without permission of the author.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 2

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study would not have been possible without the assistance and cooperation of several

individuals. I wish to thank my school principal, Ms. Sharon Klein, for her understanding and

support during this journey, and the excellent Science 9 teacher, Ms. Peggy Ransom, for her

willingness to dive into the unknown with enthusiasm. Thanks go to my 598 project supervisor,

Dr. Adrian Blunt for attentive editing and great advice. Dr. Sandra Umpleby I wish to thank for

providing excellent insight and direction in the early stages of writing my literature review.

Thanks are also extended to the Science 9 students who welcomed me to their class, and who

willingly participated in this study. In addition, I would like to thank all my colleagues, and fellow

M.Ed. students for support, helpful banter, and ideas over the course of writing this project.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 3

ABSTRACT

Recent discoveries of cerebral structural and functional differences between male and

female brains indicate that boys and girls are wired differently for learning. These differences have

significant implications for schools and pedagogy. Several gender-specific methodologies from the

literature are suggested for teaching boys and girls that incorporate the scientific findings. Several

of these methodologies were tested in a study, conducted at a British Columbia, private, all-girls

high school. Two Science 9 classes received lessons that were designed to target either boys or

girls. Results indicate that engagement and enjoyment of lessons do not always correlate to

successful learning of content. In an all-girls setting, the literature strategies aimed at teaching girls

produced higher achievement than those targeted to teaching boys.

 Gender, the Brain, and Education 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............ 2

ABSTRACT. 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............ 4

BACKGROUND AND ORIENTATION TO RESEARCH TOPIC . 6

LITERATURE REVIEW 8

Introduction . 8

Brain Research Findings . 9

Structural Gender Differentiation .. 9

Functional Gender Differentiation ............ 10

Maturation Differences and Behaviour . 16

Cautions and Limitations of Brain Research Data ............ 20

Implications and Applications for Schools . 22

The Education of Boys .. 23

The Education of Girls .. 28

Gender Training and Single-Sex Education .. 30

Literature Summary ............. 32

GENDER-TARGETED INSTRUCTION STUDY ............ 35

Experiment Overview ......... 35

Methods Summary .......... 38

Ethical Review ............ 39

Lesson Plan Design ......... 39

Lesson Observation Data ............ 42

Observations Summary and Analysis ......... 52

Quiz Results and Analysis .......... 55

 Gender, the Brain, and Education 5

Summary ......... 59

Limitations and Future Research......... 63

REFERENCES ........... 65

APPENDICES ............ 73

Appendix 1 .......... 74

Appendix 1A: Chemistry 9 Lesson 1 (Boys): Chemical Safety......... 74

Appendix 1B: Chemistry 9 Lesson 1 (Girls): Chemical Safety......... 76

Appendix 1C: Safety Skit Scenarios.......... 78

Appendix 1D: Lab Safety Rules. 80

Appendix 2 .......... 81

Appendix 2A: Chemistry 9 Lesson 2 (Boys): Investigating Matter ......... 81

Appendix 2B: Chemistry 9 Lesson 2 (Girls): Investigating Matter.......... 84

Appendix 3 .......... 87

Appendix 3A: Chemistry 9 Lesson 3 (Boys): Atomic Theory........... 87

Appendix 3B: Chemistry 9 Lesson 3 (Girls): Atomic Theory........... 90

Appendix 4........... 93

Appendix 4A: Chemistry 9 Lesson 4 (Boys): Elements and the Periodic Table........... 93

Appendix 4B: Chemistry 9 Lesson 4 (Girls): Elements and the Periodic Table............ 96

Appendix 4C: Periodic Table Cards .......... 99

Appendix 5 Science 9 Chemistry Quiz #2........... 103

Appendix 6 Nonparametric Analysis of Quiz #2 Results.................................................................... 105

Appendix 7: Copy of the Human Research Ethics Board Certificate of Approval............. 108
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 6

BACKGROUND AND ORIENTATION TO RESEARCH TOPIC

Gender differentiated instruction has been a feature of teaching methodology since the time

of Aristotle (Gigi, 1997). However, by the time I began teacher training in 1999, it had fallen out

of vogue. Despite observed gender differences in learning styles, rates and behaviours, the lack of

discussion around how best to teach to girls and boys strengths left me puzzled as a novice

educator. Later, as a teacher in the British Columbian public high school system from 1999-2004, I

found that a gender-blind approach to teaching boys and girls was the assumed norm. Indeed,

attempts on my part to engage my colleagues in discussions around what works better for boys

versus girls, often brought uncomfortable silence or a lecture on how males and females have

equal abilities and must be taught in the same way. Yet, despite my colleagues discomfort with

what was perceived as a sexist viewpoint, my own classroom observations told me that certain

activities worked better for boys and others for girls in terms of engagement, learning rate and

retention. A one-size-fits-all pedagogy just didnt make sense.

In 2005 I began teaching at an all-girls private school, where recognition of gender

differences and discussions of how best to teach girls were encouraged. I was excited to be a part

of a group of educators who were not afraid to state that there were differences between boys and

girls learning styles and abilities. With the single-sex school network, I finally found colleagues

who believed as I did that gender differentiated instruction, far from being an antiquated and

sexist notion, was good pedagogy, grounded in solid research, and backed up with impressive

results.

During a professional development seminar in 2006, I was introduced to emerging brain

research data and some of the potential implications it had for education. I discovered scientists

had the ability to image peoples working brains as they processed information and performed
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 7

learning tasks. Their preliminary findings indicated significant brain gender differences in both

cerebral structure and cognitive functioning. Educational researchers are now just beginning to

gain a sense of what these findings might mean for how boys and girls learn. As opposed to

traditional psychological-cognitive testing, where results offer only indirect insight about the brain

and learning, imaging techniques offer tantalizing direct evidence for how brains actually work in

real time. As a high school science teacher and former medicinal chemist, I also found this

research field highly intriguing. I wanted to learn more on this topic to see if I could use the

research findings to improve my teaching. Thus from the summer through the fall of 2008, I

reviewed brain and gender-targeted instruction studies. The literature review that follows provides

a synopsis of my findings.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 8

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

Neuroscience research has expanded rapidly over the past decade with the use of more

sensitive imaging techniques to study the brain. This research has led to increased understandings

of how brains function and how they develop. Despite advances in knowledge, the diffusion of

brain study findings into the field of education has been slow, impaired by a lack of interaction

between the hard sciences and the social sciences. Thus, within the teaching population, the

awareness of brain research and its possible implications for pedagogy remains low. However,

this research has the potential to challenge what many educators believe about current best

practices. Research showing that boys and girls think and learn in different ways has encouraged

some school reformers to rethink the nature of our current education system. They believe the data

from neuroscience research offers intriguing possibilities for future innovation (Gurian & Stevens,

2004).

The discovery of both structural and cognitive gender differentiation within the brain could

have far reaching consequences for schools. Yet, how significant and valid are the actual

differences reported? How do they affect classroom learning and performance? Can educators

influence cerebral abilities and to what extent? And crucially, how might instructional models

(curricula, teaching methodologies, school environments, etc.) be adapted to take advantage of

what the research tells us about how children learn?

This literature review attempts to answer these questions drawing upon the

medical/scientific findings and from educational sources (including education databases:

Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), Journal Storage (JSTOR); medical/scientific

databases: The Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (DARE), American College of

 Gender, the Brain, and Education 9

Physicians (ACP -Ovid), and the Web of Science). However, bridging these two fields is not

without pitfalls. The potential for abuse and misunderstanding of the data is significant, as is the

risk of overconfidently stating research findings from a field that is still in its infancy.

Brain Research Findings

Structural Gender Differentiation

Researchers have studied the brain well before the invention of modern medicine. In

addition to cadaver research, data from neurosurgeons have also been invaluable for furthering the

understanding of cerebral structure and function. However, before the introduction of non-invasive

imaging techniques such as electroencephalography (EEG), functional magnetic resonance

imaging (fMRI) and positron emission topography (PET), it was difficult to perform large scale

studies on live, healthy individuals. Understandably, living people do not generally volunteer to

have pieces of their skull removed for the sake of science. Thus brain injured individuals were

treated experimentally, and data was slowly accumulated through trial and error. The combined

efforts of many decades of research have produced detailed structural models of the brain (for

instance, see Figure 1), and these cerebral structures are now widely associated with various

cognitive processing tasks.

Brain studies have also yielded considerable information on gender-related structural

differences. It is known that cerebral morphological differences begin in the womb, and are

relatively permanent after the fetus is 26 weeks old (Achiron, Lipitz & Achiron, 2001). These

structural differences do not seem to be affected to a significant extent by hormonal influences as

children mature, nor by innate racial differences (Diamond, 2001; Gurian & Stevens, 2004; Mack,

McGivern, Hyde & Denenburg., 1996; Rabinowicz, Petetot, Gartside, Sheyn, Sheyn & deCourten-
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 10

Myers, 2002; Shors & Miesegaes, 2002). Gender differences in physical structure include overall

cerebral volume differences (male brains are generally larger after correcting for body mass

differences), distribution percentage differences in gray and white matter found in different brain

structures, and many specific instances of cerebral regional size or thickness variations (Diamond,

2001; Good, Johnsrude, Ashburner, Henson, Friston. & Frackowiak, 2001; Haier, Jung, Yeo, Head

& Alkire, 2005).

Figure 1. Major brain structures.

Downloaded from: http://bama.ua.edu/~sprentic/672%20aggression-brain.jpg

Functional Gender Differentiation

Brain functional processing is related to, but different from, its structural morphology. A

large number of functional brain differences have been documented between the sexes.

Physiologically, female brains have been found to metabolize glucose at higher rates and to

experience greater blood flow in comparison to males (Gurian & Stevens, 2004; Rabinowicz,
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 11

Petetot, Gartside, Sheyn, Sheyn & deCourten-Myers, 2002). Navigation, fine and gross motor

skills are also managed in different brain structures for men and women (Gron, Wunderlich,

Spitzer, Tomczak & Riepe, 2000), as are many other specific tasks. In particular, differences in

how male and female brains process language tasks and spatial-mechanical activities garner a lot

of research attention.

Decades of psychometric testing, observation and imaging techniques have revealed that,

in general, female brains process language activities more easily, earlier and faster than males,

while males more readily excel at spatial-mechanical and gross motor skill tasks (Clements,

Rimrodt, Abel, Blankner, Mostofsky, Pekar, Denckla & Cutting, 2006; Kansaku & Kitazawa,

2001; Mack, McGivern, Hyde & Denenburg, 1996). Gurian and Stevens (2004), state that these

differences explain why girls outperform boys in reading and writing, and why boys tend to

gravitate toward physical activities and video games. These well-published brain and education

scholars state that certain skills are simply more hardwired in the brain. However, it seems that

this hardwiring can be changed. Many scholars (for instance Barnea, Rassis, & Zaidel, 2005;

Caine & Caine, 1990; Feng, Spence & Pratt, 2007; Garon & Moore, 2004) note that training and

practice can change the brains ability (ease/speed) to process tasks. Thus, when making

generalized statements regarding how brains function, the concept of neuroplasticity (the brains

ability to be trained) should never be ignored.

Imaging studies have led to the discovery of fascinating symmetry differences between

male and female brains. Contrary to popular notions, it is not correct to say that men are more left

brained (logical, objective) and women more right brained (intuitive, creative, and emotional). In

fact, both sexes use both hemispheres of their brains regularly (Phillips, Lowe, Lurito, Dzemidzic

& Mathews., 2001; Gur, Alsop, Glahn, Petty, Swanson, Maldjian, Turetsky, Detre, Gee & Gur,

2000). However, male brains frequently process information and perform tasks with greater
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 12

asymmetricality, in comparison to the generally more symmetrical processing seen in female

brains (Azari, Pettigrew, Pietrini, Murphy, Horwitz & Schapiro, 1995; Phillips et al., 2001; Gur et

al., 2000), although some exceptions apply (Clements et al., 2006). This asymmetric activity

(particularly with language tasks) is seen in the greater intrahemispheric activation magnitudes

seen during task processing in men (Gur et al., 2000; Phillips et al., 2001; Shaywitz & Shaywitz,

1995). Furthermore, the larger activation magnitude could explain why males tend to

compartmentalize learning, and can focus on a single enjoyable task, such as computer

programming, for longer periods of time than females (Havers, 1995). Moreover, a greater

regional activation magnitude could also explain why males have a more difficult time than

females in recovering from certain types of brain injuries that affect those regions (Phillips et al.,

2001).

Conversely, in several studies, females have been shown to exhibit greater overall

interhemispheric bilateral symmetry, using both halves of their brains to process tasks

particularly while performing language tasks (Clements et al., 2006; Gur et al., 2000; Phillips et

al., 2001; Shaywitz & Shaywitz, 1995). These activation symmetry differences provide evidence

that males and females think in different ways and draw from different brain regions to process the

same mental or physical tasks. Some cognitive researchers hypothesize that greater brain

activation symmetry explains why girls are (arguably) considered better multi-taskers, can link

more concepts together, and can transition faster between lessons compared to boys of the same

age (Havers, 1995). Figure 2 (from Phillips et al., 2001) illustrates these phenomena using fMRI

composites. The corpus callosum hemispheric bridge (see Figures 3 and 4), has commonly been

associated with the ease of bilateral brain processing. While there has been considerable debate

over whether there is a gender-related thickness difference in this white matter structure, it is

generally thought to be slightly thicker in females (as a percentage of overall brain matter), and
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 13

have a somewhat different shape (Achiron, Lipitz & Achiron, 2001; Gurian & Stevens, 2004;

Hwang, Ji, Lee, Kim, Sin, Cheon & Rhyu, 2004; Smith, 2005). In the fMRI diagrams in Figure 2,

the rightmost images also show greater corpus callosum activation in the female brain composite

during cognitive processing. Scientists have not reached consensus about what this means, but

several speculate that greater callosum thickness would allow for better cross talk between

hemispheres in the female brain (Gurian & Stevens, 2004, p. 22).

Figure 2. Male and female fMRI brain scans.

Combined subject fMRI activation data for 10 men (top row) and 10 women (bottom row) show both anterior and
posterior temporal lobe activation at a threshold of 10210 (see color bar, lower right). Men demonstrated markedly
asymmetric activation, whereas women tended to show more symmetric temporal lobe activation. Note: the right side
of each image corresponds to the left brain hemisphere, as individuals are positioned face up during scanning.

It has become a commonly held belief that men and women have equal general

intelligence. However, Johnson and Bouchards (2007a, 2007b) analysis of data from the

Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart project helped demonstrate that while men and women

appear to have equivalent general intelligence, they rely on different cerebral structures and

pathways to accomplish the same tasks. Their research led them to imply there is no single

structural and functional brain system that manifests as general intelligence (2007a, p. 24).

Rather, (they say), general intelligence is like a toolbox, containing a variety of tools that can be
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 14

chosen and used with varying skill for a particular task. Gender influences what tools are available

and the ease of tool use.

Figure 3. Corpus callosum side view (above left).

Downloaded from http://www.macalester.edu/psychology/whathap/UBNRP/Split_Brain/brmodelc.gif

Figure 4. Corpus callosum top view (above right)

Rendering from Grays Anatomy

Certain skills and tasks will be generally easier for one gender over another, although

training and experience can enhance a tool users skill. For example, mens larger activation

volume in the visual cortex and greater spatial-mechanical aptitude give them a performance

advantage over women when playing video games. However, it has been documented that women

who play a lot of video games can outperform men who do not often play video games when both

groups are presented with a new game (Feng, Spence & Pratt, 2007). Further, Feng, Spence, and

Pratt saw that significant gains in visual processing ability in both sexes can occur with a relatively

limited amount of training.

While there may be no single structural brain system that manifests as general intelligence,

a joint fMR imaging study between the University of California-Irvine and the University of New
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 15

Mexico on intelligence and gender has garnered considerable media attention. This study,

conducted by Haier, Jung, Yeo, Head & Alkire (2005), claims that the brain is made up of two

types of matter gray and white, and both types of brain matter contribute to intelligence quotient

(IQ). Gray matter is comprised of dendritic structures associated with processing power (like

computers), while white matter is made from myelinated fibres that act as connections between

gray matter structures (like network cables). Surprisingly, the researchers found that male brains

contain approximately 6.5 times more gray matter related to intellectual processing than female

brains. However, female brains contained nine times more white matter linked with intelligence

than males. Both groups of males and females in the study had comparable overall IQs, and had

similar results on the mathematics problem solving task that they completed during the brain

imaging scans. However, the activated areas of their brains showed up in different regions, with

different intensities, and used different amounts of white and gray matter, depending on the

subjects gender. This evidence suggests that there are two separate gender-related modes for

operating intelligence neither one with superiority over the other.

These findings by Haier et al. (2005) are intriguing, but have yet to be fully verified. Few

studies relating separate full scale intelligence quotient (FSIQ) factors to brain structure have

shown consistency with regard to sex (Narr, Woods, Thompson, Szeszko, Robinson, Dimtcheva,

Gurbani, Toga, and Bilder, 2007). Narr et al.s (2007) analysis reveals that greater intelligence is

associated with larger intracranial gray matter and to a lesser extent with white matter (p. 2163).

Positive correlations between certain brain structures and specific intelligences in men

(performance) and women (verbal) have been demonstrated, but Narr et al. were unable to

generalize brain structure to FSIQ. The authors admit that sex moderates regional relationships

that may index dimorphisms in cognitive abilities, overall processing strategies, or differences in

structural organization (p. 2163), but do not state that sex is the largest discriminating factor.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 16

Maturation Differences and Behaviour

Cerebral maturation-rate differences between boys and girls may explain observed learning

behaviours, as well as offer predictions about how children learn best. Gurian & Stevens (2006)

state that as of four days of age, girls tend to spend twice as much time as boys maintaining eye

contact with adults due to faster maturation within their visual cortices (p. 88). Lower oxytocin

levels (the primary human bonding chemical found in the brain) in male babies also affect bonding

and their desire to study faces. They are more interested in studying physical objects in their

surroundings than people (Taylor, 2002). Garon and Moores (2004) results on studying 69 three,

four and six year olds using a simplified version of the Iowa Gambling Task (a complex decision-

making game) revealed that not only did girls learn the game faster, but they also significantly

outperformed boys of the same age. This indicates faster development of the areas of their brains

involved in logical processing.

Gender differences in cognitive brain development are not limited to logical decision

making discriminators. In one of the largest and most carefully conducted studies of its type,

Hanlon, Thatcher and Clines (2000) EEG results on 508 children aged two months to 16 years

showed that the areas that process spatial rotation and targeting are not just superior in male

brains, but they also mature four years earlier in comparison to girls. On the other hand, they found

that the cerebral areas that process language, verbal-emotive, social cognition, and fine motor

skills develop six years earlier for girls. Boys advantages in spatial processing come with a cost,

however. The areas of the brain which process these skills take up greater cortical volume in

males, which gives them around half the brain space that females use for verbal-emotive

functioning (Gurian & Stevens, 2004, p. 23).

Another study by Barnea, Rassis, and Zaidel (2005) used EEG neurofeedback to study and

train the brains of children aged 10-12 years. They found that while both male and female brains
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 17

responded positively to the neurofeedback (increased neural activation in targeted regions), the

regional areas of the cortex that showed improved activity were different for boys and girls. This

research is important because it demonstrates the brains ability to be trained within a relatively-

short timeframe (four weeks).

As children age into adolescence, their brains undergo many fundamental changes that

affect boys and girls in different ways (Hanlon, Thatcher & Cline, 2000). In late childhood, the

brain kicks into a building spree over-producing dendritic branches (gray matter) and creating

more synapses than are required in adulthood. This is a period of intense learning and preparation

for the brain. Throughout adolescence, the synaptic pathways that have been well used

(predominantly in the cerebral cortex) are smoothed, while lesser used gray matter structures

remain rough or are pruned back significantly (Diamond, 2001; Gurian & Stevens, 2004; 2006;

Jausovec & Jausovec, 2005; Spinks, 2002; Wilson & Horch, 2002).

Marian Diamonds 2001 study on the effects of learning environments on rat brain

structure gives compelling graphic evidence for the consequences of effective education. Diamond

showed that when rats are placed in an enriched environment, they grow neural connections and

more dendritic branches in the cerebral cortex (See Figure 5). Rats that are placed in impoverished

environments, without much neural stimulation, shed dendritic structure. Furthermore, when rats

with pruned structures were later enriched, dendritic branches regrew, but never to the same levels

as rats who were enriched since birth. When these rat study results are extended to human brains,

implications of use it or lose it become of greater importance in and outside of the classroom. In

a recent Scientific American paper, Shors (2009) indicates that thousands of new cells are

generated in the human brain every day - particularly in the hippocampus, a structure involved in

learning and memory (p. 47). These new brain cells are developed when the brain thinks they
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 18

might be useful for processing difficult mental tasks, but are very quickly shed in a matter of

weeks if they are not used.

Figure 5. Dendritic brain structure in rats.

Dendritic brain structure composites of normal healthy rats are shown in A. In an enriched
environment rat dendritic structure become more branched over time (B and C). In an
impoverished environment (isolation) rats shed dendritic branches over time (D, E, and F).

Other changes in brain structure during adolescence have tremendous implications for

behaviour. Before imaging studies, it had been thought that the brain was more or less a finished

product after puberty. However, research has demonstrated that the prefrontal cortex (often called

the area of sober second thought or the brains CEO), does not reach full maturity until well into

adulthood (Gurian & Stevens, 2006; Killgore, Oki & Yurgelun-Todd, 2001; Spinks, 2002). In

decision making, the prefrontal cortex is thought to be partly mediated by the amygdala (see

Figure 1) the brains emotional centre (Goldberg, 2001, p. 143). It is the amygdala that first
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 19

responds to emotionally-charged and exciting situations involving feelings such as anger, fear,

happiness and sadness (Hariri, Bookheimer & Mazziotta, 2000). Dr. Joann Deak (2005) states that

as children age, they gain greater control over their emotional responses as their prefrontal cortex

develops. When brain maturation is complete, both brain structures are involved in decision

making. Thus, emotions and cognition cannot be separated and behaviour is the result of these

interactions.

The maturation of the prefrontal cortex proceeds differently for boys and girls. During

adolescence, girls prefrontal cortices are generally more active than boys and develop at earlier

ages (Gurian & Stevens, 2004, p. 22). This allows them to handle boredom better, have greater

attention spans, and display greater emotional intelligence (Davidson, Cave & Sellner, 2000;

Jausovec & Jausovec; Killgore, Oki & Yurgelun-Todd, 2001; Sax, 2006). Conversely, adolescent

boys amygdala volume is much greater than girls and continues to grow larger during puberty

(Jausovec & Jausovec; Wilson & Horch, 2002). Thus for boys, negative emotional responses are

said to be stuck in the amygdala; there is no change associated with maturation (Sax, 2006, p.

197). It is reasoned that the lesser ability of the prefrontal cortex to overrule the emotionally

excitable amygdala could explain the tendency for boys to take greater physical risks, be more

impulsive, and exhibit less emotional intelligence than girls of the same age (Killgore, Oki &

Yurgelun-Todd, 2001). Amygdalae volume (and the presence of excess testosterone) may also

help explain why stress has a positive effect on learning in males, but inhibits learning in females

(Sax, 2006; Shors & Miesegaes, 2002; Wood & Shors, 1998). For boys, stressful situations can be

highly stimulating.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 20

Cautions and Limitations of Brain Research Data

While brain research and its applications to education are potentially promising, this is still

a young field. Despite many advances in imaging techniques, scientists do not yet fully understand

the brain. Nor do researchers always agree with each others findings. There are many conflicting

studies some reveal cerebral structural and/or functional differences between the genders, and

some fail to find significant differences. Further muddying the waters in this field are the quasi-

scientific reports that blend good science with mere speculation, expressed as fact. Which studies

are correct and reliable? While meta-analyses are often a useful tool to deal with these kinds of

conflicts, it is challenging to perform reliable meta-analyses on these results, as evolving

techniques and instrumental innovations are constantly rendering old data suspect.

One study, by Sommer, Aleman, Bouma, and Kahn (2004), highlights this disparity in

outcomes. Their meta-analyses of similar language-task imaging studies conducted between 1995

and 2004, reveals that of 24 studies, only 11 reported statistically significant brain lateralization

differences between the genders. These discrepancies in the findings may not just be due to

differences in instrumental techniques. A major technical challenge remains to distinguish between

distributional data curves that overlap for both genders.

Figure 6, from Hyde (2005), highlights just this kind of technical difficulty. It is common

in humans that intra-gender differences are often greater than the inter-gender ones, and hence

effect sizes (standardized mean difference) can be small. Hydes (2005) meta-analysis of gender

differences in the performance and cognitive realms indicates that approximately 60% of the

reported differences (such as attribution of success to ability rather than effort, mathematics self-

confidence, and reading comprehension) had standardized effect sizes that were small (less than

0.2). As quoted in Hydes analysis, research from Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) concluded that

gender differences in performance were well-established in only four areas: verbal ability, visual-
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 21

spatial ability, mathematical ability, and aggression. When significant performance and brain

differences do exist, it may also be that other influences, such as inherent intelligence, language,

handedness and environment, may play greater roles in explaining these differences than gender

(Buckner, Raichle & Petersen, 1995; Diamond, 2001; Good, Johnsrude, Ashburner, Henson,

Friston & Frackowiak, 2001; Sommer, Aleman, Bouma & Kahn, 2004). Further, it is a fallacy to

think that the brains of all men and women are gender typical, differing only by individual

intelligence. As with almost all other natural phenomena, brain characteristics will fall on a

distribution curve (such as the one in Figure 6). However, the scientific literature appears to be

silent on what might be the percentages of men and women with gender-typical brains and what

the distribution curves look like. Certainly, this lack of information calls for further research.

Figure 6. Two normal distributions 0.21 standard deviations apart a 0.21 effect size.

Finally, rats and other animals are often used in brain studies in place of humans, partly

because their environments can be more effectively controlled, and unlike with humans, animals

can be later sacrificed to gather data. It is also believed that inter-species brain structures and
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 22

biological functioning have a great many similarities. However, while some aspects of animal

brains share commonalities with human ones, there is not always a perfect correlation. Thus rat

brain studies may provide a signpost for what happens in humans, but they do not guarantee the

same results. Hence, authors looking to animal brain studies as evidence to support gender

hypotheses must be particularly cautious to not over-state their claims.

Despite the debate over the validity of some reported structural differences, it is clear that

many differences are definitive and significant. However, it has not been fully proven that

differences in brain structure or cognitive processing can be linked directly to pedagogy. While the

connections between these might seem obvious, this is an area that remains controversial and must

be explored further. Despite the potential risks of misinterpreting research findings, a combination

of scientific evidence and educated speculation can lead us to consider alternate methods of

teaching children.

Implications and Applications for Schools

It is clear from the research that males and females have brain tissue and cognitive

processing differences. For educators, cerebral sexual dimorphism is of pedagogical concern as it

is thought to affect how children think, learn, and behave. This is also true in reverse; the actual

wiring of the brain is affected by school and life experiences (Caine & Caine, 1990, p. 66).

While this wiring is different for each gender, it is not correct to say that boys and girls are

opposites in their learning styles. There are many learning activities and teaching methods that can

be jointly beneficial for both boys and girls although perhaps for different reasons.

The following sections deal with ideas on how to provide a gender-specific education for

boys and girls. These sections are meant to be speculative, looking to collate brain research and
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 23

current best practice pedagogy particularly best practice techniques established by single-sex

school educators. While much has been published in this area, not all of the literature is peer-

reviewed. It remains to be seen if the causal relationships that are hypothesized to exist between

the brain and learning can ever be conclusively proven.

The Education of Boys

Many educators and parents agree that boys, in particular, are increasingly more at risk in

our current Canadian school climate. For example, results from the Programme for International

Student Assessment (PISA, 2000) show that males in all countries (and in all 10 Canadian

provinces) lag significantly behind females in most school subjects, with only math and science

showing small gender gaps (Statistics Canada, 2008). This does not necessarily mean that

achievement needs to be equal between boys and girls, but large performance differences indicate

systemic educational shortcomings. In addition to gender gaps in learning, Statistics Canada

reports that 15% of male Canadian students drop out of high school, compared to only 9% of

females (1999 data). Despite there being a call to address the failings of schools in girls

education less than a generation ago (e.g. Lee & Bryk, 1986), it is boys who currently seem to be

the most disadvantaged.

In addressing the apparent shortcomings of boys, the research provides a strong caution

about the limits of neuroplasticity (the brains ability to be altered). Science shows us that brains

develop thicker neural networks and greater dendritic connections with learning. With practice,

girls and boys can develop strengths that do not naturally come easily to their gender. However,

the gender of the human brain is not plastic. You cannot change the brain of a boy into the

brain of a girl (Gurian & Stevens, 2006, p. 91). Thus, we are left with the need to accommodate
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 24

gender differences without the hope of a universal education prescription for all brains. The

question is: how?

Educational literature is rich with books and articles about how best to address gender

differences through teaching methodology. In fact a Google search of brain AND teaching

strategies AND gender differences yielded 160 000 listings! While some of the methods

suggested in the literature may leave educators baffled (such as instructions to use pink in all-girls

classrooms and soft blue for all-boys classrooms), many of the brain-based gender strategies will

not seem particularly new, and have been in use within co-educational classrooms for some time.

Other strategies are significantly different for each gender and suggest the need for a gender-

specific education system.

The literature is clear that to address boys multivariate needs, one requires a multitude of

strategies. For instance, practically all educational theorists encourage teaching through the

provision of hands-on and experiential activities. For boys, this is particularly important because

their brains (with their innate spatial-mechanical and gross motor skills aptitude) are highly geared

toward the physical universe. When boys are engaged in kinaesthetic activities, such as using

manipulatives in mathematics or building a model of a fur trading fort in social studies, they will

not only be more interested in what they are doing, but they will also be strengthening neural

connections within the most active areas of their brains. However, hands-on activities can also be

designed to help improve boys fine motor skills, which are weaker than girls. Activities such as

beadwork, creating circuit boards in science, and detailed map sketching are engaging and will

improve their small muscle hand-eye coordination.

Where possible, key lesson ideas should be conveyed using diagrams, charts, maps,

symbols, analogy, and mental imagery to supplement verbal and written instruction (Gurian &

Stevens, 2004; Gurian & Stevens, 2006). Gurian and Stevens (2004) caution that the more words
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 25

teachers use, the more boys lose track of meaning and become bored (p. 23). During physical

activities teachers can ask boys to describe their experiences verbally and in writing. When

physical activities are connected to communication, it becomes easier for boys to express

themselves. This way the language areas of their brains that lag behind girls in development are

also stimulated. Sax (2006) states that verbal instructions should not be too long or too complex,

especially for younger boys. Sax also reports that teachers in all-boys schools have found that

verbal instructions should be delivered in a loud voice, since speaking softly puts boys to sleep,

and may even demonstrate weakness or inferiority.

A rationale to explain why boys have a difficult time transitioning between topics might be

their greater asymmetric brain activity. Gurian and Stevens recommend that teachers stick to one

key idea per activity or give enough wait time to allow boys brains to switch modes. For high

school-aged boys, a semester system may be more successful than linear ones, as it makes for

fewer transitions during the day and fewer subjects to focus on during the week. Furthermore,

increasing school day start times to begin a little later in the morning has been demonstrated to

have positive effects on both boys and girls attendance rates, academic success, and focus in

class (Wahlstrom, 2002).

The links between focus in class and academic success are easy to establish. One of the

reasons why boys make up around two thirds of the diagnosed learning disabilities (such as ADD

and ADHD) is because their brain physiology leads to lower attention spans, so they frequently

find it difficult to sit still and listen (Gurian & Stevens, 2004). While classroom instructional

methods are crucial to maintaining engagement and focus, attention to physical space and

environment within the classroom is also important. Ergonomic specialists have found that boys

learn better and stay more focussed when classrooms are kept cool. According to Sax (2006), a

temperature of 69F is ideal for boys (too warm and they fall asleep), compared to 75F for female
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 26

students a detail that he calls six degrees of separation. To maintain focus, boys should also be

given more opportunities for movement in the classroom (Gurian & Stevens, 2006). This might be

achieved through creating greater space between desks (for arms to swing out) or allowing

alternative seating arrangements, including the possibility of sitting and stretching out on the floor

during parts of the lesson. Repetitive pen tapping, leg swinging or arm flapping should not be

thought of too harshly by the teacher. Such small physical activities are often unconscious and can

actually help boys focus on lesson activities by engaging the spatial-mechanical areas of their

brains.

Encouraging healthy competition (through sport and academic opportunities) is another

good strategy for engaging boys energetic spirits. Males enjoy competing and can often be

spurred on to greater performance when there are reputations and pecking orders at stake. When

girls are seen performing some tasks at a much higher level, many boys see these activities as

games they cannot win. Hence, they may not even try (Pastor, 2008). From a physiological point

of view, competition allows boys to work out some of their aggressive behaviour needs, caused

jointly by testosterone and their growing amygdalae. Further, competition may be used to build

camaraderie and create powerful memories. Opponents who worry that competition begets stress

are reminded that brain studies indicate boys thrive under stress - at least manageable doses of it

(Sax, 2006).

Competition is only one aspect of creating bonding opportunities for boys within the

school environment. Forging emotional connections are crucial since relationship building is not

as easy for boys as it is for girls, due to boys lower cerebral oxytocin levels (Gurian & Stevens,

2006). Research also shows that many adolescent boys simply do not see the relevance school has

for their lives, especially when there are high paying jobs available that do not require high school

graduation (Draves & Coates, 2003). While improving their learning experience is one part of
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 27

solving male dropout problems, increasing their emotional connections to school will also help.

While the classroom teacher has an impact on student attitudes and commitment to academics, it is

important to note that many boys lack positive male role models in their lives. This is especially

true for younger children, as most elementary school teachers are female. One strategy to address

this lack of male presence in the classroom includes exposing boys regularly and purposefully to

male figures (other teachers, volunteers, and guest speakers), who can model healthy values,

attitudes, and behaviours. Not only can this provide boys with positive visual images, but having

same gender role models is thought to improve both attitudes toward school and academic success

(Lahelma, 2000; Mills, Martino, & Lingard, 2004). To create further personal connections boys

should also be given opportunities to individualize their work spaces (Gurian & Stevens, 2006).

This might include decorating cubbies and desks for elementary-aged children or personalizing

lockers for middle and high school-aged boys. Posting projects, art and pictures of boys and their

friends throughout the halls can also foster school ownership and pride.

Gender sensitivity might also require different discipline techniques for boys and girls.

When girls have behavioural problems, it is typically a successful course of action to begin by

asking them to express their feelings and explain their actions. In contrast, Sax (2006) states that

asking a 17 year old boy to discuss his feelings will garner about the same results as asking a six

year old the areas of the brain that deal with emotional intelligence and perspective taking are

simply not yet developed enough. Gurian and Stevens (2004) share the observations of an assistant

principal, who found a way to deal constructively with a young boy, who would act out

explosively and then run out of the classroom. Instead of talking with him in her office, the

assistant principal took him outside to bounce a ball. While passing the ball between them, she

asked the boy to explain what happened. The physical activity gradually calmed him down and

allowed him to articulate his frustrations.

 Gender, the Brain, and Education 28

The Education of Girls

Many of the strategies designed to improve boys achievement may also be good pedagogy

for teaching girls. Like boys, girls also need opportunities to foster school ownership and form

bonds. They too benefit from decorating their cubbies and seeing their art and pictures on the wall.

However, it is more important for girls than boys that learning objectives and activities are

connected to real life situations and problems. Theoretical concepts, without practical application

are of little interest to most girls. It is also of particular importance to girls to bond with their

teacher, as many girls will not take intellectual or emotional risks before those relationships are

established (Crosnoe, Johnson & Elder, 2004). To help establish trusting and caring relationships,

teachers should speak softly with girls (unlike with boys), smile often, and maintain eye contact.

Teachers should seek always to be positive and fair with both boys and girls. Special treatment

(both positive and negative) will distance children from the teacher and increase feelings of

distrust.

Bonding to classmates comes easier for girls than for boys, as their greater oxytocin levels

make them more socially motivated (Campbell, 2008; Gurian & Stevens, 2004; Wilson, 2006).

Most girls will readily look for ways of being part of a group. Within classroom small group

settings, even timid girls, whose voices are not always heard in a larger setting, can discuss their

ideas. Working together in this manner will strengthen the connections within female cortical

language regions and improve listening skills. Teachers should look to scramble group

compositions often so girls become used to leaving their comfort zones and gaining exposure to

new ideas. Shifting group dynamics will also create increased opportunities for leadership roles

and breaking out of established patterns of behaviour. Moreover, using small groups to break

down social barriers within the classroom may help prevent the pervasive girl-girl psychological

bullying that affects many females.

 Gender, the Brain, and Education 29

Girls need positive female role models in their lives. Meeting successful female

professionals, especially women in the sciences, can help to break down perceived barriers, and

lead to higher performance (Marx, 2002). In fact, while enrolment in the traditionally male-

dominated subjects of Physics and Calculus is generally lower for girls than boys at co-educational

schools, it is certainly not because of a lack of intelligence or aptitude for these disciplines. Lack

of confidence, low self esteem, and being inordinately critical of their own performance are some

of the major hurdles that prevent girls from choosing these subjects (Feingold, 1994). Moreover,

self-esteem tends to be lower for females in general, which is thought to be partly a mechanism of

the higher levels of serotonin released in female brains (Taylor, 2004). For instance, many

educators have stories of boys who get Bs and think theyre brilliant, while girls, who get Bs,

think theyre dumb. When this lack of confidence creates stress, brain studies show this inhibits

learning in girls. Furthermore, girls are more likely than boys to attribute academic difficulty to

lack of ability, rather than lack of effort - especially in mathematics (Lloyd, Walsh, & Yailagh,

2005). When girls are trained in the concepts of neuroplasticity (that the brain can grow greater

neural density and form more connections with increased effort), then attitudes, effort, and

performance have improved (Blackwell, Trzesniewski, & Dweck, 2007; Halpern, Aronson,

Reimer, Simpkins, Star & Wentzel, 2007; Utman, 1997). Thus teachers of Science and

Mathematics, in particular, need to be more patient with girls, work to boost their self confidence,

and focus on the concept of success through effort, rather than success through ability.

Physical games and activities should be used to supplement sedentary tasks so girls can

improve their gross motor skills, which lag behind males of the same age. These activities do not

have to take place only in Physical Education (P.E.) or on the sports field, but can also be a part of

academic classes. For instance girls can act out a scene from a story in English class or go outside

to estimate the height of trees through trigonometric triangulation in Mathematics class. Such
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 30

activities will improve the connections within the cortical regions that process spatial-mechanical

skills, which tend to be their least developed cerebral areas, in addition to providing meaningful

applications of learned skills. Through the use of puzzles (such as Rubiks Cube and tangrams),

and other hands-on spatial training activities, girls logical and abstract brain regions in both

hemispheres will also be strengthened (DeLisi & Wolford, 2002; Halpern, 2000). These same

neural connections help enhance the abstract/symbolic brain structures that process higher level

mathematical relationships so girls are more prepared for the rigours of high school and university

level science and mathematics in later years (Sorby, 2001).

Despite the results of pen and paper testing, some may also debate whether girls are truly

more successful than boys. How is this success measured best? By test scores, self-esteem levels,

or the percentage of girls who enter university? By job salaries or upper-level job titles? Many

would agree that success is multivariate and not always quantifiable. Regardless of the measuring

stick used, few believe that traditional school environments have been tailored to provide all of

girls needs.

Gender Training and Single-Sex Education

With the increased interest in gender-sensitive teaching models, thousands of teachers have

received some kind of training on brain-based and gender-differentiated instruction. Gurian and

Stevens (2004) explain that state-wide gender training in Alabama has resulted in improved

performance for boys in both academic and behavioural areas (p. 24). Other school districts that

received gender training as part of a study with the University of Missouri-Kansas also saw

increased achievement on state-wide tests. Defenders of co-educational classrooms will point out

that a number of the activities that are designed to brain-strengthen one gender can also be used for

the other. For instance, boys love physical activities and girls need greater exposure to these
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 31

activities, thus the same activity can accomplish two goals. However, many parents and educators

believe that to meet the separate needs of boys and girls there needs to be gender separation in

schools.

Single sex education is an old idea that has gained new relevance and support in light of

brain studies. Research findings increasingly show that boys and girls in single sex schools

outperform their peers in co-ed schools (Hamilton, 1985; Lee & Bryk, 1986; Sax. 2007; Shapka &

Keating, 2003). For instance, Sax (2007) reports on a three-year pilot project within a Florida

public school that separated students into three groups: co-ed, all girls, and all boys. All the groups

were roughly equal in terms of ethnicity, intellectual ability and socio-economic factors. At the

end of the project, the percentages of 4th Grade students who met grade proficiency on the Florida

Comprehensive Assessment Test were found to be: boys in co-ed classes 37%; girls in co-ed

classes 59%; girls in single-sex classes 75%; boys in single-sex classes 86%. This study clearly

shows significant advantages for children educated in a single-gender classroom. However, details

about the methods of instruction and whether they matched brain-based gender strategies were not

offered in Saxs analysis.

Beyond improved scholastic achievement, research findings highlight other benefits to

attending single-sex schools. Students at these schools describe feeling socially better adjusted and

happier with their educational environments. Furthermore, they often take on leadership roles that

go against gender stereotypes (Lee & Bryk, 1986; National Coalition of Girls Schools, 2006). At

single-sex schools boys and girls also tend to take more subjects that are traditionally gender-

biased such as physics for girls and foreign languages for boys (Stables, 1990). In addition,

studies on classroom conduct have shown that when boys and girls are separated, boys generate

fewer behavioural problems (Hutchinson, 2001). In separate environments boys and girls better

concentrate on their own education, without the social posturing and opposite sex distractions
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 32

common in coeducational schools (National Coalition of Girls Schools, 2006; Stables, 1990).

Furthermore, university professors have noted the self-esteem differences between co-ed and

single sex graduates at the post-secondary level, especially for girls. Robin Robertson, a former

professor, states that As a college professor I could identify students from girls schools with a 90

percent accuracy. They were the young women whose hands shot up in the air, who were not

afraid to defend their positions, and who assumed that I would be interested in their perspective

(National Coalition of Girls Schools, 2006, p. 7). The research on single sex schools has been so

promising that new laws in the U.S. have made it possible for public schools to offer single sex

education, and more schools are increasingly offering gender-separated classes within a co-

educational mainstream (Associated Press, 2006; Associated Press, 2008).

Literature Summary

Sex-based cerebral differences are real and permanent. These differences are not just

structural in nature, but also functional, and are directly related to perception and ability. While

men and women have equivalent general IQs, their intelligence is manifested through activation of

different cerebral structures. Female brains tend toward greater bilateral brain symmetry than male

brains, while males display greater intra-hemispheric localized activity during task processing.

These processing variations contribute to inherent gender-based strengths. For instance, girls tend

to naturally excel at activities that require multi-tasking, and boys tend to perform well at tasks

that require a more narrow focus. Brain maturation rate differences, such as those involving the

language-specialized and spatial-mechanical regions also affect boys and girls aptitudes and

readiness for learning. Furthermore, amygdala and prefrontal cortex interactions play large roles in

mediating behaviour especially in school-aged children. During adolescence, synaptic pathways

are strengthened and others are pruned back according to use. Thus, there are large implications
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 33

for the role of education in preparing the brains of children for adulthood. Since training has been

demonstrated to improve and broaden cognitive skill sets in both males and females, a solid

educational foundation is crucial for producing well-rounded individuals.

Due to their unique developmental needs, boys and girls benefit from gender-tailored

instructional methods to enhance enjoyment, target cerebral aptitudes, and improve the areas of

their brains that are weakest. It is not a one size fits all concept. For boys, physical tasks and

experiential learning should be used to stimulate interest and teach to their strengths. Kinaesthetic

activities can also be used to introduce tasks that develop weaker areas such as language and fine

motor skills. Visual methods of delivering instructional concepts (such as using maps, charts,

symbols, and models) are preferable. Providing opportunities for boys to become more

emotionally vested in school through competition, personalizing instructional spaces and the

introduction of positive male role models can help male students see school as relevant and

important. Environmental requirements such as room to move around, bell schedule adjustments,

fewer distractions, and cooler classroom temperatures are also important considerations in the

education of boys.

Group processes are thought to be critical for sustaining interest and creating opportunities

for leadership, bonding and idea exchanges when teaching girls. These interactions also strengthen

language and communication skills and serve to diminish barriers that can create tension.

Sedentary tasks should be supplemented with physical ones to improve gross motor skills. Puzzles

and other activities geared to stimulate the spatial-mechanical areas of girls brains are also

important, as these cognitive processing skills are highly trainable, despite most girls lagging

behind boys in this area. Since many girls suffer from lower self-confidence than boys, it is

particularly important for teachers to encourage girls to try activities and subjects that are

traditionally male-dominated, such as drafting, carpentry, Physics and Calculus. Emphasizing that
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 34

effort beats natural ability can be crucial for getting girls to stick with difficult material. For both

girls and boys, instructional concepts should be made as relevant as possible to their lives and to

society.

Drawing from best-practice experiences and the findings of brain researchers, it may be

possible to create mainstream schooling environments that can address the learning needs of both

sexes. However, the differential needs of girls and boys may be difficult to accommodate in a co-

ed environment especially in the context of overcrowded classrooms. Single-sex education, on

the other hand, is a compelling and viable means of providing gender-differentiated instruction

even in a public school milieu. It is clear that more studies need to be conducted to observe the

impact of brain-based and gender-differentiated education methods as they are introduced into

schools. Although promising, brain research should not be viewed as a panacea for fixing

educational problems. Its potential for impacting how children are taught must be explored further.

While much has been written about brain studies and its potential impact on the classroom,

most of the researchers who look to apply scientific data to the educational environment tend to be

scientists (including psychologists) or educators, but are rarely both. This is unsurprising since

there is often a divide between the hard sciences and the social sciences, and few people are fully

versed in both areas. Since this is a young field, the definitive research paper on this topic has not

yet been written. Much of the existing research relating brain studies to gender-targeted instruction

is speculative, containing little hard evidence to support statements of fact surrounding how

students learn. Other research is small scale, offering limited information for educators wishing to

diligently explore the topic. To explore this concept further, more studies need to be conducted

applying gender-targeted instructional strategies to students in real educational settings. To address

this need, one such gender-targeted instructional study, the focus of this project, is presented in the

sections that follow.

 Gender, the Brain, and Education 35

GENDER-TARGETED INSTRUCTION STUDY

Experiment Overview

After finding solid evidence in the literature of cognitive function differences between boys

and girls, I decided to investigate the impact gender-targeted instruction strategies has on learning

in a single-sex environment. It has been well-documented that the environment of a single-sex

class can positively affect student learning and behaviour. However, the use and impact of brain-

based, gender-tailored instruction within a single-sex class has not been studied in depth. Would

behaviour and achievement for girls in a single-gender class be different if they were taught with

strategies geared towards boys instead of those for girls?

To address this question, I first compiled a list of gender differentiated instructional

techniques suggested by the literature (see Table 1). Using this list, I wrote paired lesson plans for

a Science 9 Chemistry unit that would be given to two different Science 9 classes (see Appendices

1 - 4). Each lesson was written in duplicate, one with activities and techniques that were geared

toward girls learning styles, and the other toward boys styles. Each lesson, while differing in

approach, contained the same curricular content. The use of two classes in this research was

crucial. I wanted to investigate the effects on learning of the same material taught from two

different perspectives. It would not have made sense to teach the same material twice to the same

class.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 36

Table 1. Gender Differentiating Instructional Strategies Derived From the Literature

Instructional Strategies for Boys
Mannerisms
- Use a loud voice when speaking to class
- be directive, concise and brief with instructions
- minimize verbal and written instructions
- call on boys, rather than waiting for volunteers (slight pressure/stress enhances performance)
- question boys while they are doing an activity
- avoid lots of transitions and give adequate time to transition between topics
- when confronting a boy for a more serious talk, sit or stand beside them rather than in front of
them (less intimidating) or use a physical activity, such as passing a ball to mediate discussion
- foster ownership of learning by displaying boys work and personalizing material
- provide opportunities for boys to relate to male role models
Environment
- maintain a slightly cool temperature in the classroom
- ensure boys have enough physical space to move freely in classroom (e.g. arm swinging)
- provide an environment free from external distractions
Activities
- provide learning opportunities that are physical in nature
- provide activities that dont have too many things to focus on
- use games and other ways to build competition into lessons
- provide activities to build fine motor skills
- provide visual means of learning material (maps, diagrams, charts, models, etc.) when possible
- provide activities that promote male bonding between students and with teacher
Instructional Strategies for Girls
Mannerisms
- use a soft and gentle voice
- use body language that conveys openness and approachability including smiling and good eye
contact (crucial for girls to trust and bond with teacher)
- allow girls to volunteer answers without pressure (stress/pressure situations lessen performance)
- avoid creating high stress situations in class when possible
- be consistent and even-tempered
- seek privacy when confronting girls for behaviour
- provide opportunities for girls to relate to female role models
- provide connections between what girls are expected to learn and real life and/or their interests
- scramble group compositions so girls become used to working outside their circle of friend and so
they have different opportunities for leadership and followership
- be particularly supportive and encouraging when teaching science and math (girls can lack
confidence in these areas)
- teachers appearance is important for establishing relevance and respect following current
fashions is recommended
Environment
- maintain a slightly warm temperature in the classroom
- try to use materials that make the classroom more homely, such as plants and warm colours
Activities
- provide lots of opportunities for girls to work in small groups (cooperative learning is particularly
important for girls)
- make learning fun by providing girls an opportunity to join in non-competitive games and group
tasks
- provide hands-on activities that reinforce real world applications
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 37

The Science 9 Chemistry unit was chosen for a few key reasons. Science 9 does not have a

provincial exam, and as a Chemistry specialist teacher, I know the material very well. Science

classes also have the potential to offer a great range of activities and skills for lessons

(mathematical and logical reasoning, fine motor skill development from lab experiments, gross

motor skill activities, group work, writing, presenting, etc.). Finally, the Science 9 teacher at my

school (an all-girls private high school in British Columbia) was interested in my research and

willing to volunteer her two Science 9 classes to be tested with the lesson plans. She taught the

lessons using the lesson plans I developed, while I observed from the back of the room. My school

principal was also happy to give permission for this study, as it worked easily within the scope of

our schools professional development activities.

The two Science 9 classes (9X and 9Y) were ideal for this experiment for many reasons.

They were the same size (17 students in both classes), the classes met on the same days, and both

were single-sex (girls). Because our school is a private school, the classes were also very similar in

terms of socio-economic factors (middle upper middle class), ethnicity, language (approximately

30% English as a second language (ESL)), age range (all 14 or 15 years of age), and abilities (no

identified severe learning disabilities within the group). Furthermore, overall student achievement

in both classes was nearly identical, with 9X at 83% and 9Y at 84% before this study took place.

To reduce inherent biases and behaviour differences between the two classes, both Science

9 classes received two girl-design lessons and two boy-design lessons (see Table 2). This method

allowed greater quasi-experimental control, allowing me to more readily see which behaviours

were the result of activities, and which came from the inherent personalities of the students. It also

allowed me to compare achievement between the two cohorts after the lessons were completed.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 38

Table 2. Lesson Plan Delivery Schedule for Science 9X and 9Y

Boy Lesson Girl Lesson

Science Lesson 1 9X 9Y
Science Lesson 2 9X 9Y
Science Lesson 3 9Y 9X
Science Lesson 4 9Y 9X

My observations of the classes focussed on individual time-on-task measurements and on

student mood and willingness to engage in the lesson activities. I also noted spikes in interest level

or engagement at the class level. No individual students were identified during the data collection,

nor were any comments written that would allow their identification. My presence in the class was

not too remarkable for the students, as I have visited this class before and have observed their

lessons as part of my duties as the Head of the Science Department. The students took two quizzes

on the material taught during these lessons. The first was a safety quiz, based on Lesson 1. Quiz #2

followed after the lessons were completed and tested material from all four lessons. (see Appendix

5)

Methods Summary

Four sets of paired lesson plans were written for two Science 9 classes (17 girls each class).

For each pair, one lesson contained activities and teaching methods that were designed to

maximize boys learning, and the for girls learning. Both lessons had equivalent curriculum

content. The lessons were taught by the students regular teacher, while class behaviour and

responses to the lessons were observed. Two quizzes were written by each class based on the

material that was taught.

 Gender, the Brain, and Education 39

Ethical Review

An application for an ethical review of the study was made to the University of Victoria

Committee. Title and permission was granted in late February, 2009 for this study to take place

(protocol number 09-061). Permission to use deception on the classes by not informing students

ahead of time about the gender-targeted nature of the study was granted. A copy of the certificate

of approval is given in Appendix 7. Participation in the project was voluntary and no parents

requested their daughters be excluded from the study. Several wrote letters of support for the

study. No students asked to be removed from the study

Lesson Plan Design

The lesson plans used in this study can be found in Appendices 1 - 4. For each lesson, the

teacher was coached in how to use the distinguishing mannerisms (such as eye contact and

loudness of voice) and in how to control the environment (such as classroom temperature) in the

ways listed in Table 1. The teacher and I also discussed the importance of each activity in the

lesson and the relevance it had to gender-targeted instruction before each lesson was given to

students. Each lesson covered the same concepts and had many common elements, such as review,

questioning, direct instruction, guided practice, videos, lab experiments, and same or similar

homework assignments. However, there were also several activities that were designed to

preferentially differentiate between boy and girl learning styles. These differences are summarized

in Tables 3-6.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 40

Table 3. Lesson Plan 1 Boy/Girl Differentiation

Learning Boy Activity Girl Activity Explanation

Outcome
Respect for Teacher sets fire to Older students Both methods are visual, but the boy lesson required
the science lab bench come in and students to get up and move to watch. It grabbed
classroom demonstrate poor attention and conveyed information without a lot of
lab conduct. Girls verbal instructions. The girl activity was more social,
discuss what was involved peer modelling, and involved dialogue.
done.
Bad habits Student safety skits Group activity Boy method involved gross motor skill movement,
during lab analysing a picture teamwork and promoted bonding. The girl activity was
experiments of students doing more sedentary, but involved close inspection and
things wrong working together + sharing insights with other groups.
WHMIS Choose a chemical Flashcards Boy method encouraged students to gain a sense of
symbols and research ownership over their classroom and knowledge of what
meaning. is in chemical cupboard. It got students out of their seats.
Girl method encouraged students to test one another and
learn together in a non-threatening manner.
Homework Students can Reading and book Boy lesson allowed for more visual representation of
demonstrate questions. Students learning, rather than requiring paragraph answers. Girl
learning through can choose which homework played to general girl strengths (requires
illustrating a homework they do. reading and short answers) while allowing for more
comic. individual practice. Students are given some choice over
which homework could be done.

Table 4. Lesson Plan 2 Boy/Girl Differentiation

Learning Boy Activity Girl Activity Explanation

Outcome
What do The idea that The idea that The boy activity required students to stand up and
chemists do? science is an science leads to remain standing when answering the question giving
exciting career is fulfilling useful students another opportunity to move and a visual
explored. Images goals is explored. representation of peer participation. The male and
of male scientists Images of female female scientist images were shown for role modelling
are shown. scientists are purposes. Further, a national survey stated that girls want
shown. to know their careers will make a difference from a
humanitarian perspective.
Kinetic Students physically Students learn Boy activity required physical engagement and
Molecular model atom concepts from coordination with others - kinaesthetic rather than
Theory movement in video and discuss passive learning. Girl activity used a Brain Pop video,
different states major points after which students find interesting and fun to watch,
as a class. although it involves passive learning. The discussion
afterwards reinforced concepts and asked students to
synthesize information in their own words.
Atomic Model A video is used to Jigsaw and sharing Boy activity relied on recommended methods of
history of teach this concept activity. teaching using diagrams, charts, and other visual ways of
the atom conveying information. The girl activity involved
individual reading, followed by summarization in small
groups shared learning and distributed leadership.
Parts of an A diagram is used Notes on parts of Boy activity started from a diagram, which is more
atom instead of an atom are used visual and required less writing. Girl activity took a little
extensive notes. first, followed by a longer with notes and a more simple diagram.
simple diagram.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 41

Table 5. Lesson Plan 3 Boy/Girl Differentiation

Learning Boy Activity Girl Activity Explanation

Outcome
Bohr model of Physically acting Direct instruction Boy activity involved students actively and asked them
atom out the electron with board notes to work physically with a group of students, negotiating
orbitals of an atom, and diagrams. An physical space. Girls activity gave more time for guided
followed by notes online applet is practice with teacher. The demo with the black light
and guided used to add involved things girls are interested in (clothes, fabrics,
practice. An online interest. Energy money) and connected learning to real world
applet is used to levels reinforced applications such as solving crimes. Both classes got
add interest. with a hands on to look at an online applet showing whizzing electrons
participatory demo for all the elements so students could better visualize
involving clothes what is happening around an atom
and money.

Table 6. Lesson Plan 4 Boy/Girl Differentiation

Learning Boy Activity Girl Activity Explanation

Outcome
Review the Students from Students listen to and Boy activity created opportunity for competition,
development each different watch the illustrated bonding (through the use of the schools house system
of the house race each elements song. with the winner getting house points), and physical
Periodic Table other to solve Teacher then puts on movement. The activity reinforced the idea that each
(from the element a Periodic Table cape Periodic Table group has common characteristics. Girl
homework properties to wear for the rest of activity used a fun song and video to reinforce learning.
reading) pattern leading class. Teachers Periodic Table fashion statement is funny and
to the Periodic attention getting again playing to girls interests.
Table that
Mendeleev
realized.
Labelling the Students colour Students label The literature states that boys must be given greater
Periodic Table and personalize Periodic Tables opportunity to personalize their spaces and materials in
their Periodic briefly. They then order to connect with school and learning. In the boy
Tables while study the properties lesson, students learned the material while colouring and
listening to of the families from labelling their personal copies of the Periodic Table.
common their textbooks in This activity also helped improve memory retention. Girl
properties of anticipation of a lesson differentiated the same material through
each major Jeopardy quiz game. individual reading of the textbook on element group
family. characteristics in preparation for a full class Team
Jeopardy quiz a fun team-building and knowledge
testing game.
Generating Students get a Students learn about The boy activity layers learning on an application where
Hydrogen Gas demo as an observations and lab the students are physically surrounding the teacher. It
introduction to reports and then get applies meaning in context and minimizes notes. The
doing rewarded by a demo. girl activity conveys more detailed information. When
experiments. the demo is done, they are tested to see how well they
While watching had learned the information.
the demo they
learn about
taking
observations and
what goes into
lab reports.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 42

Lesson Observation Data

The sequential Science 9 lessons were observed in March, 2009 over a seven day period.

Lessons for Science 9X and 9Y occurred on the same day, taught by the same teacher. The

observation data are given in Tables 7 through 22.

Table 7. Notes on Lesson 1A (9X, Boy-designed)

Classroom temperature was kept cool (18C). Several students commented on wanting to turn
temperature up and asked to put coats on.
Teacher spoke to students loudly, and more formally than normal. Teacher randomly called on
students during questioning. No students were allowed to call out answers.
Students appeared to enjoy being called on, as this is not typical for this class. Teachers comment
after class is that she got more involvement from students who dont normally volunteer.
A good natured attitude from students was present throughout lesson.
This class is generally good at sitting and waiting for the next activity and does not need to be
reigned in after such a transition.
Spikes in interest are noted by positive changes in body posture and attention (body more upright,
students keenly focussed), obvious enjoyment and laughing.

Table 8. Notes on Lesson 1B (Girl-designed, 9Y)

Students seemed comfortable with the casual structure of class calling out answers, asking
questions, and interjecting. This casual structure; however, did mean that some students can get away
with never volunteering an answer or asking a question.
Teacher spoke to students softly and informally.
The classroom temperature was 22C (warm).
Students in the back of the room were a bit chatty, but also got work done and were on task at the
same time.
The class was good natured and naturally curious. A good rapport was evident between students and
teacher.
Spikes in interest are noted by positive changes in body posture and attention (body more upright,
students keenly focussed), obvious enjoyment and laughing.

Table 9. Notes on Lesson 2A (Boy-designed, 9 X)

The students are extremely well behaved; however, they only seem to enjoy the learning and have
fun when they are up out of their seats, watching a video or doing something other than the typical
Very nice class dynamic cooperative, good sense of humour between students and teacher
Classroom temperature was cooled to 19C. Some students commented on how it was chilly.
Teacher spoke to students loudly, and a bit more formally than normal. Teacher selected from raised
hands to answer questions or called on students. No students were allowed to call out answers.
Spikes in interest are noted by positive changes in body posture and attention (body more upright,
students keenly focussed), obvious enjoyment and laughing.
This was 9Xs 2nd boy lesson.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 43

Table 10. Notes on Lesson 2B (Girl-designed, 9Y)

Teacher mentioned that this is the more difficult of her two classes in terms of behaviour.
She felt that this class would do better with the boy lesson which they will get next class.
Classroom temperature was warm (23C).
Teacher spoke to students softly and informally. Students were allowed to call out answers.
Spikes in interest are noted by positive changes in body posture and attention (body more
upright, students keenly focussed), obvious enjoyment and laughing.
This was 9Ys 2nd girl lesson.

Table 11. Notes on Lesson 3A (Boy-designed, 9Y)

Overall, students appeared to be more on task for this lesson, especially considering this was the last
class of the day. This is perhaps even more significant because this lesson contained more board
work and more difficult concepts than the previous lessons.
Classroom temperature was cooled to 18C.
Teacher spoke to students loudly and more formally than usual. Students were called on for many
questions, although the teacher also chose from raised hands. No students were allowed to call out.
Spikes in interest are noted by positive changes in body posture and attention (body more upright,
students keenly focussed), obvious enjoyment and laughing.
9Y had 2 previous girl-designed lessons. This was their first boy lesson.

Table 12. Notes on Lesson 3B (Girl-designed, 9X)

9X had 2 previous boy-designed lessons. This was their first girl lesson.
This lesson had more board work and covered more difficult concepts than previous 2
lessons.
Overall, students appeared to be a little less on task for this lesson than previous.
Classroom temperature was warm.
Teacher spoke to students softly and warmly.
Students were allowed to call out, but most raised their hands.
Spikes in interest are noted by positive changes in body posture and attention (body more
upright, students keenly focussed), obvious enjoyment and laughing.

Table 13. Notes on Lesson 4A (Boy-designed, 9Y)

Classroom temperature was cooled to 18C.

Teacher spoke to students loudly and more formally than normal. Students were called on
for many questions, although the teacher also chose from raised hands. No students were
allowed to call out.
Spikes in interest are noted by positive changes in body posture and attention (body more
upright, students keenly focussed), obvious enjoyment and laughing.
This was 9Ys 2nd boy lesson.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 44

Table 14. Notes on Lesson 4B (Girl-designed, 9X)

This was the 2nd girl lesson for 9X

Classroom temperature was warm.
Teacher spoke to students softly and warmly.
Students were allowed to call out, but most raised their hands.
Spikes in interest are noted by positive changes in body posture and attention (body more upright,
students keenly focussed), obvious enjoyment and laughing.
The students did not struggle with the multiple transitions in this lesson. They seemed to follow well
and enjoyed multiple activities.

Table 15. Lesson #1A Observations (Boy-designed), Science 9X, 17 Students in Attendance

Time Activity Description # students spike in Comments

off task interest?
(# students)

8:15- Part A: Burning alcohol 0 Yes (all) Students were fascinated by the fire cool
8:18
8:18- Part B: safety video 0 Yes (all) Students watched video amusedly.
8:20
8:20- Part B: teacher personal 0 Yes (15 Several students laugh at story
8:22 anecdote students)
8:22- Part B: explaining skit 0 Yes (15 This was the first time the teacher started talking
8:23 expectations students) loudly and in a more formal way. Students seem a
little surprised by the loudness of teachers voice.
8:23- Part B: students rehearse 40 Yes (13 Most students collaborated and worked hard on
8:28 skits students) skits some students practiced in hall. A few
students took a bit more time to start working.
8:28- Part B: students perform 0 Yes (all) All students watched skits with interest. Some
8:39 skits while others watch students called out answers to what was done
wrong when skit was done. Students seemed to
enjoy this activity.
8:39- Part C: going over safety 03 After a couple of minutes of listening, some
8:47 rules students appeared not to be listening to the verbal
treatment of material. One student asked can we
light more things on fire?
8:47- Part D: Dividing students 0 Teacher used humour to explain the concept,
8:50 into groups and which students enjoyed.
explaining activity
expectations
8:50- Part D: Students work on 0 most of Students chatted amongst themselves when they
9:05 WHMIS activity in small the time (2 had finished activity. This activity didnt seem to
groups students off grab them. A few students opened up their
task briefly) chemical bottles out of curiosity to observe what
was inside.
9:06- Part E: Homework 60 Several students had to be urged to get down to
9:15 assigned and students work; however, they did work once asked. Teacher
given some time to get calls on each student not working to cause them
started on it. some embarrassment. Students seem startled by
this, but start working.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 45

Table 16. Lesson #1B Observations (Girl-designed), Science 9Y, 16 Students in Attendance

Time Activity Description # spike in Comments

students interest?
off task (#
students)
1:57 Part A: teacher begins 20 Students are a bit chatty in this class, but they start working when
with an explanation nagged by the teacher to do so.
about the topics to be
included in lesson
1:57- Part A: some grade 12 0 Yes (all) All students stopped chatting immediately
1:59 students burst in
1:59- Part A: Debriefing of 0 Yes (15) Students eagerly offered lots of opinions. A good discussion. One
2:01 what the older students student asked if they were going to get fire like the other class. The
did badly teacher explained that sometimes the lessons will be different and
they got a grade 12 performance instead.
2:01- Part B: safety video 0 Yes (all) Students laughed at the dumb teacher in the video
2:02 played`
2:02- Part B: explanation of 0 One student called out shotty not recorder. The role of recorder
2:03 activity seemed to be a least favourite.
2:03- Part B: discussion in 0 Students were able to discuss and correct one another with little
2:08 small groups guidance. They listened to each other well.
2:08- Part B: discussion of 0 Yes (14) Students casually called out answers. They seemed comfortable
2:11 what groups found with the casual structure of class; however, some students dont
volunteer answers.
2:11- Part C: going over safety 02 Lots of interjections and shared disaster stories were offered to
2:21 rules make this more interesting. Some of the girls deliberately read out
the opposite of the safety rule such as always drink the chemicals
but this is done to be funny, and not to be defiant. 2 girls chatted
in the back row and missed most of the discussion.
2:21- Part D: teacher 30 Still some sporadic chatting in the back row when teacher led the
2:23 introduces the WHMIS discussion. Students came up with creative alternative acronyms for
concept WHMIS
2:23- Part D: getting into 0 Yes (all) Students asked teacher to choose the groups to be different from the
2:25 groups first set of groups reason: they like variety and dont want to be
the ones to exclude others.
2:25- Part D: flashcards 0 Yes (all) Students quietly organized who is going to make what cards. They
2:38 seemed adept at rotating leadership. Students made the flashcards
and began testing each other. They turned it into a game and
enjoyed the activity.
2:38- Part E: House Fire 1 Some students shared textbooks. Everyone seemed to read
2:43 individual reading independently. Some students took longer than others. When
students finished, some started chatting while waiting for new
instructions. One student tried to sleep
2:43- Part E: students share in 1 Yes (14) Students enjoy talking to one another and share stories of house
2:45 pairs fires theyve heard about. One student had to be coaxed to get into a
group.
2:45- Part E: sharing with 0 Yes (all) Students liked hearing about the stories. The idea of their house
2:49 class burning down got their interest.
2:49- Part F: homework 0 Students expressed interest and surprise at being given an option
3:00 assigned (with choice about what homework to do. Many commented that they liked this.
options) and students
given time to get started
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 46

Table 17. Lesson #2A Observations (Boy-designed), Science 9X, 17 Students in Attendance

Time Activity Description # spike in Comments

students interest?
off task (#
students)
10:42- HW submission and 0 Students got down to task quickly and efficiently
10:45 updates
10:45- Part A: Students write 0 All students quietly wrote quiz. While quiz was being written,
10:57 safety quiz the teacher hung up the student comics (from homework)
around the room. Several students noticed their comic and
seemed happy they were on display.
10:57- Part B: What is 0 Yes (15) Students thought standing up to answer the question was fun.
11:00 Chemistry about? There seemed to be a lot of interest in coming up with
suggestions. They also liked being called on.
11:00- A PowerPoint of male 3 Students were not interested in the pictures no questions
11:02 scientist images is played asked about what the scientists had done. No students
in the background on commented that the pictures were all male. This is an
repeat while teacher interesting contrast to the other class, who definitely noticed
discusses uses of that the scientist pictures were all women. 2 students chatted,
chemistry while 1 student seemed to be tired and semi-dozed.
11:02- Part B #3 board notes 0 Students were quiet and took notes well.
11:06
11:06- Part C #1 Reading 0 Students read on task the entire time.
11:10
11:10- Part C #2 students model 0 Yes (all) The students loved this activity. They were able to model the
11:14 the KMT by acting out vibration without much direction from teacher. Everyone in
vibrational movement class got into it and were quite happy to act out the gas part.
Lots of giggling and comments such as that was fun!
11:14- Part C #3 notes on KMT 0 Students transitioned well back to taking notes quietly.
11:20
11:20- Part D #1 questions about 0 Teacher calls on individual students. Everyone offers an
11:21 what an atom is opinion when called on.
11:21- Part D #2 Brain Pop 0 Yes (all) Students love the Brain Pop videos
11:26 video Teacher passes out the summary handouts during the video.
11:26- Part D #3 handout 0 Students glance at handout, but without an activity or
11:27 questions about its content, they put it away in binders.
11:26- Part D #4 alchemists 0 Students had a lot of pre-knowledge on who the alchemists
11:28 were and what they did.
11:28- Part E #1 questioning 0 Students listen to other students well. Teacher calls on
11:30 about subatomic particles specific students, which seems to keep students more alert.
11:30- Part E #2 notes on 20 2 students were a bit slow to get notebooks out and start
11:35 subatomic particles copying down notes. Teacher calls out to students from front
of room to get moving. Peers turn around and look at
students, prompting them to start working.
11:35- Part E #2 h 0 Yes (all) Students fascinated by the concept that all matter is 99.9%
11:38 empty space.
11:38- Part E #3 Eureka video 0 Yes (all) Students enjoyed this quirky video and were mimicking
11:44 on atoms eureka!. Teacher writes up homework on board during the
video.
11:44- Part F Homework 0 Students copy homework into agendas
11:45 assigned
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 47

Table 18. Lesson #2B Observations (Girl-designed), Science 9Y, 17 Students in Attendance

Time Activity Description # spike in Comments

students interest?
off task (#
students)
9:21- Part A: Students write 0 Class quickly and quietly starts the quiz.
9:33 safety quiz
9:33- Homework and updates 7 A number of students didnt appear to be listening to the
9:36 updates. Some students disappointed that projects assigned
previous week were going to be presented that day.
9:36- Part B #1-2 4 0 Students in back row took a little while to get on task, but
9:40 eventually started listening and participating. Students
became more engaged as they started discussing the
applications of chemistry in regular life.
9:40- Part B #3 Students 5 0 Some students chatted among themselves about other
9:42 discuss with a partner things, rather than the topic at hand. 1 student didnt try to
what they would do with pick a partner. Teacher quietly reminds them to get on task.
the powers of a chemist. Students cooperatively get down to work immediately.
9:42- Part B #4 Images of 0 Yes (all) Even though teacher played these images in the background
9:45 young or famous female as a repeating PowerPoint, students immediately picked up
scientists shown. on them. Comments such as theyre all women! and
shes hot! Oh shes not. Were heard. Students wanted to
know more about what these women had done. Teacher
used their interest to discuss how the roles and expectations
for women in the sciences have changed in the last 50 years.
9:45- Part C Notes 0 Even the normally more chatty girls stopped to write notes.
9:49
9:49- Part D KMT Brain Pop 0 Yes (all) Students loved the Brain Pop video
9:54 video
9:54- Part D #2 reviewed video 0 Students raised hands to answer questions. They seemed to
9:56 and KMT through have fully understood the video concepts.
questioning. One student
volunteer takes notes for
the class on board.
9:56 Part D #3 KMT reading 3 Most students note the reading in agendas
assigned
9:56- Part E #1 What is an 0 Some students offer suggestions.
9:57 atom
9:57- Part E #2 Jigsaw on 03 Yes at Students engage more as they are separated into groups by
10:09 history of the atom first being numbered off. As the activity proceeds, some students
in 1 group have to be reminded to keep on task. Most
students did very well with the jigsaw task in their small
groups.
10:09- Part F #1 Questioning on 1 One student seems tired and has head on desk. Teacher
10:11 what students know explains after that this student often does this, but she is
about subatomic particles normally listening in this position.
10:11- Part F #2 Eureka video 0 Yes (all) All students rapt with attention at this quirky video. They
10:16 laughed happily at the pratfalls.
10:16- Part F #3 board notes on 0 Students do well with the structured written notes. No
10:20 subatomic particles talking during notes is observed.
10:21 Part G Homework 0 Students write homework down and wait for bell to ring.
assigned
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 48

Table 19. Lesson #3A Observations (Boy-designed), Science 9Y, 16 Students in Attendance

Time Activity Description # students spike in Comments

off task interest?
(# students)
1:56- Part A #1 Updates, 0
2:02 HW checks and
safety quizzes
returned
2:02- Part A #2 review and 1 Class a little fuzzy overall on the key
2:04 questions about people, ex Rutherford.
historical
development of the
atom
2:04- Part B #1 Notes on 0 Students take notes well.
2:07 the atom
2:07 Teacher tells some 0 Yes (all) A good class laugh
atom jokes
2:07- Notes continued 0 Students begin to understand the atom
2:25 concept
2:25- Part B #2 Student 0 Yes (all) Teacher took the students outside for this
2:30 Bohr model activity. They loved it and were able to
do the activity without much guidance.
Everyone wanted to join in the electron
dance.
2:30- Part B #3 Board 02 Some students start to lose focus
2:44 notes on Bohr perhaps as this is a more difficult
Models concept? Most students seem to
understand.
2:44- Part B #3(l) Davids 0 Yes (all) Students thought this very visual applet
2:49 Whizzys PT website was cool. Led to lots of questions from
shown students. They also wanted to try lots of
different elements.
2:49- Part C 0 Students worked quietly on homework
3:00 Homework/seatwork until the end of class.
assigned
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 49

Table 20. Lesson #3B Observations (Girl-designed), Science 9X, 16 Students in Attendance

Time Activity Description # students spike in Comments

off task interest?
(# students)
9:20- Part A #1 Updates, 0 Students arrive promptly to class and get
9:23 HW checks and safety down to business without distractions
quizzes returned
9:23- Part A #2 0 A few students called answers out. Most
9:25 Questioning/Review students didnt appear to remember who was
responsible for which atomic development.
9:25- Teacher tells personal 0 Yes (all) Students loved the anecdotal story
9:26 story related to what (connections to real life)
students are learning.
9:26- Part B #1 Notes on the 0 Students in this class are good listeners and
9:31 neutral atom take notes well.
9:31- Part B #1 e joke told 0 Yes (all) Students laugh. One student tells a related
9:33 atom joke.
9:33- Part B #1 continued 20 2 students a little slow to get back to note
9:43 taking.
9:43- Part B #2 seatwork 4 0 Some students a little slow to get textbook
9:50 questions assigned open and start working. Teacher reminds
students quietly to get on task.
9:50- Part B #3 Bohr model 0 Teacher uses a PowerPoint shes written to
9:59 notes guide this section.
9:59- Part B #3f Davids 0 Yes (all) Students appear fascinated by the applet
10:03 Whizzy PT applet
10:03- Part B #4 Black light 0 Yes (all) Students thought this demo was really
10:10 demo interesting. Led to lots of conversations and
discussions about applications.
10:10- Part B #5 Bohr model 10 Most students seem to understand concept.
10:20 guided practice
10:20- Part C HW assigned 0 Students were generally well focussed.
10:25 and students given
time to start on it
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 50

Table 21. Lesson #4A (Boys), Science 9Y, 16 Students in Attendance

Time Activity Description # students spike in Comments

off task interest?
(# students)
9:20- Part A Updates, HW 20 1 student late to class. Another student
9:21 check didnt seem to be listening at first.
9:21- Part B Seatwork 0 Students got down to work quickly and
9:27 review questions quietly. This may be a good way to start
lessons in the future for this cohort.
9:27- Part C #1 a,b 0 Some students asked clarifying questions
9:28 Questioning
9:28- Part C #1c 0 Yes (all) Students got into the competition, and
9:34 Discovering the PT crowded around their house
competition representatives. Teacher colour coded
the paper to their house colours. One
student tried to cheat by looking at the
PT. No one was able to solve the
mystery in the time given.
9:34- Part C #1 d,e 0 Some students remembered Mendeleev
9:39 Questioning and from the reading.
board notes
9:39- Part C #2 0 Students colour and label their PTs
10:00 while listening to element family
characteristics. Brief notes on
characteristics are taken right on PTs
10:00- Part C #3 Generating 0 Yes (all) Teacher does the demo first, which grabs
10:22 hydrogen gas (demo) attention. Students answer questions as
teacher goes through the process of what
observations would be appropriate for
the reaction.
10:22 Part D Homework 0 Students write homework down before
assigned. bell rings.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 51

Table 22. Lesson #4B (Girls), Science 9X, 17 Students in Attendance

Time Activity Description # students spike in Comments

off task interest?
(# students)
10:43- Part A Updates, HW 20 1 student late to class. Another student didnt
10:44 check seem to be listening at first.
10:44- Part B Review questions 0 Students who finished early were asked to write
10:52 from text their answers on the board.
10:52- Part B teacher reviews 0 Some students help each other understand. ESL
10:55 answers and concept students explain terms in their own language.
10:55- Part C #1 a, b Element 0 Yes (all) Students loved the song and were trying to hum
10:56 song played along
10:56 Part C #1 c Teacher puts 0 Yes (all) Students call her chemgirl. Lots of giggling
on the PT cape and struts and banter.
around the class
pretending to be
Mendeleev
10:56- Part C #1 e Review of 0
10:58 Mendeleevs
contributions
10:58- Part C #1 f book PT 0 Some students flip to book page and look at the
10:59 highlighted PT there with illustrations
10:59- Part C #1 g board notes 0 Students are quiet and take notes
11:02
11:02- Part C #2 a students 0 Yes (all) Student excitedly recognize Brain Pop
11:07 watch Brain Pop video
11:07- Part C #2 b-e students 0 Quiet, focussed students
11:12 briefly label their PTs
and listen to teacher
11:12- Part C #2 f students 20 Students read quietly. 2 chatting students are
11:17 cram for the Jeopardy prompted to start reading. This cramming seems
quiz game too quick to absorb the info needed.
11:17- Part C #3 jeopardy game 2-3 Yes (~10) Students play game. Some are more enthusiastic
11:30 than others. They have no real reason to root for
the team they are on, which is based on where
they are sitting. This game was cut short to move
on to the demo.
11:30- Part D a,b observations 02 Teacher and students discuss how to perform
11:36 in the chem. lab - labs. Without the demo to start (as in boy lesson)
instructions 2 students lose interest and chat.
11:36- Part D c demo 0 Yes (all) When the demo is done, all students are instantly
11:43 riveted not knowing if the explosion will be big
or little. Several students volunteer quality
observations about the reaction, indicating good
understanding of the concepts that the teacher has
just discussed.
11:43- Part E homework 0 Students discuss the demo as they write down
11:45 assigned homework. They were told by teacher that Chem
11 has a huge explosion and are excitedly
commenting that they cant wait to take this
course.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 52

Observations Summary and Analysis

In general, the students in both Science 9 classes behaved well and participated

cooperatively in all activities. Some activities were more engaging than others. Students appeared

to enjoy videos, physical and/or hands-on activities, and personal/humorous stories the most.

Taking notes and individual seatwork were enjoyed the least, though these activities led to some of

the best on-task behaviour. Group work seemed to be enjoyed somewhere in the middle. However,

depending on the circumstances and structure of the group work, this kind of activity had greater

risks for allowing students to meander off task.

The raw observation data (Tables 7 - 22) do not upon first inspection yield strong patterns

of gender-biased responses from the students. Nor did the literature strategies for teaching boys

and girls (Table 1) always accurately predict student responses to activities and stimuli. Student

off-task behaviour data in Tables 15 - 22 (odd numbered) gives the impression that the boy-

designed lessons were possibly slightly better for achieving and maintaining student focus during

the lessons. However, the data also indicate that both lesson styles created roughly equal numbers

of spikes in interest for both classes.

One of the variables manipulated in this study was the impact of stress on learning. Some

literature indicates that stress inhibits learning in females (Diamond, 2001; Shors & Miesegaes,

2002). However, students seemed to respond very positively to being called on and didnt seem to

mind being put on the spot for an answer. In fact, this type of teacher behaviour seemed to cause

more students to pay greater attention during questioning. This was a new technique tried by the

teacher, and one student commented to her surrounding peers that they couldnt get away with not

thinking about the questions now, as they didnt know who the teacher would call on. As a

teaching technique, it seems this style of questioning might be a good one for teachers of girls to
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 53

adopt at least occasionally. Along these lines, the reaction to the Jeopardy activity in Lesson 4

was mixed. Some students enjoyed testing their knowledge in this public, potentially stressful

manner. Other students were not as interested in the activity. However, these responses may be

more related to individual or group personality than gender.

Some aspects of student behaviour in this study agree with observations in the literature

regarding preferred gender teaching strategies summarized in Table 1. As studies suggest, the girls

certainly preferred the warm classroom over the cooler alternative, and had no problem staying

alert. When the teacher told personal anecdotes the girls were always attentive. Girls in both

classes did well, in terms of behaviour, with multiple transitions between activities. They also

seemed to understand and follow the lessons well, despite large numbers of activity transitions in

each lesson. Indeed, it seemed that the greater the number of activities and transitions, the more

successful the lesson was at maintaining student interest.

The importance of showing girls positive images of women doing important work was

demonstrated in Lesson 2. When the students were shown a PowerPoint with pictures of female

scientists, they became immediately interested and began commenting and asking about the

pictures. This reaction was in spite of the fact that the pictures were played in the background and

the teacher did not call attention to them. However, when students were shown images of male

scientists in the boy-designed lesson, they appeared to not even notice. No comments were made

at all. When the pictures were pointed out by the teacher (In the PowerPoint, Ive put up some

pictures of famous scientists who have contributed to this field), students looked at the images,

but still did not ask any questions or make comments. They were uninterested. It is also interesting

that no student commented that the pictures were only of males, whereas they certainly noticed in

the other class that the images were all female. As approximately 30% of the students in this class

are from parts of Asia and Mexico, does this indicate how ingrained the male scientist is as a
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 54

stereotype across cultures? Could it be reflective of cultures where women are not typically seen in

professional roles?

Working with both 9X and 9Y revealed that class character can often be a function of the

personalities and leadership (positive or negative) of a minority of individuals, who can greatly

influence peer responses to an activity. The 9X students seemed in general more enthusiastic,

easily led, and less chatty (more on task) than 9Y students. The popular peer leaders in the 9X

class asked questions, were attentive, and demonstrated positive attitudes toward learning. Thus,

their peers followed suit with similar behaviours. This class appeared to be better suited, in

comparison to students in the 9Y class, to the kinds of group work typified by girl-designed

activities. They were also more responsive to the low pressure, casual teaching style, and soft-

voiced tactics employed by the teacher.

In the 9Y class, the peer leaders appeared to be a bit more easily distracted, prone to call

out, and leaned toward attention seeking behaviour. This, however, does not mean that these

students were poorly behaved or less intelligent. As students in 9Y were given girl-designed

lessons at first, it was predicted that their nature seemed better suited to the boy-designed lesson

plans, which would keep them more physically active, and allow for fewer opportunities to act

out or be off task. This prediction was also independently suggested by their teacher. When the

9Y class received their boy-targeted lessons (Lessons 3 and 4), these predictions about behaviour

appeared to be true. The students were more focussed and seemed to enjoy themselves more

during the activities. There were also fewer outbursts than before.

After the observation period was over, the gender-targeted nature of this study was

revealed to the Science 9 students. The girls were curious about which lessons were boy ones. The

9Y students specifically wanted to know if the Bohr student model activity conducted outside in

the field (Lesson 3A #2) was a boy activity because it was their favourite. When told that it was,
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 55

several girls asked for more activities like this, as it was really fun. One insightful student in 9Y

asked if the gender study was the reason why they were shown the pictures of those women

scientists. The students in 9X decided that their favourite activity was the black light demo

(Lesson 3B, Part B#4), which was a girl-designed activity.

Quiz Results and Analysis

Two quizzes were given to the students after lessons 1 and 4 were taught to provide

numerical benchmarks for learning. Quiz #1 was a safety quiz based solely on the safety and

WHMIS material of the first lesson for the students. The results are given in Table 23. From the

data, it can be seen that students in 9Y slightly outperformed those in 9X; however, the difference

between the two class results is fairly negligible.

Table 23. Quiz #1 (Appendix 5A) Overall Student Results

9X (boy lesson) 9Y (girl lesson)

Safety Quiz Class Average 83.8% 87.5%

Quiz #2 tested the learning from all four lessons in this series used multiple choice and

matching questions. A source of error for this data is that in the 9X class one student missed a

class, but wrote Quiz #2 anyhow. In the 9Y class, one student missed three classes out of the four,

and consequently did not write the quiz. The class results per question are summarized in Table

24.

The data in Table 24 offers interesting information. Questions 1-4, 13 and 15 tested

concepts that were taught in gender differentiated ways over the first two lessons. While some

results between the two classes were equivalent (or nearly so), it can be seen that students in the
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 56

9Y class (given girl lessons) clearly outperformed the 9X group for these concepts. Differences of

over 20% can be seen for questions 1 and 15. Examining how the concepts were taught may shed

light on why the differences were so large.

Table 24. Per Question Quiz #2 Results For 9X and 9Y (17 students in 9X and 16 students in 9Y wrote)

Question Learning Outcome Lesson # 9X Average on 9Y Average on

(Targeted Gender) Question Question
(number of students (number of students
with correct answer) with correct answer)
1 WHMIS symbols 1 (Boys) 58.8% (10/17)
1 (Girls) 81.3% (13/16)
2 KMT 2 (Boys) 88.2% (15/17)
2 (Girls) 87.5% (14/16)
3 KMT 2 (Boys) 88.2% (15/17)
2 (Girls) 87.5% (14/16)
4 History of Atomic 2 (Boys) 64.7% (11/17)
Model 2 (Girls) 68.8% (11/16)
5 Mendeleev and 3 HW (Boys) 50% (8/16)
Periodic Table 3 HW (Girls) 58.8% (10/17)
6 Organization of 3 (Boys) 81.3% (13/16)
Subatomic Particles 3 (Girls) 82.4% (14/17)
7 Organization of the 4 (Boys) 43.8% (7/16)
Periodic Table 4 (Girls) 41.2% (7/17)
8 Properties of Main 4 (Boys) 75.0 % (12/16)
Group Elements 4 (Girls) 64.7% (11/17)
9* The Neutral Atom 3 (Boys) 87.5% (14/16)
3 (Girls) 88.2% (15/17)
10 Bohr Model 3 (Boys) 81.3% (13/16)
3 (Girls) 88.2% (15/17)
11* Atomic Number 3 (Boys) 100% (16/16)
3 (Girls) 94.1% (16/17)
12 Properties of Main 4 (Boys) 100% (16/16)
Group Elements 4 (Girls) 94.1% (16/17)
13 WHMIS acronym 1 (Boys) 100% (17/17)
1 (Girls) 100% (16/16)
14* Subatomic Particles 2 (Boys) 100% (17/17)
2 (Girls) 93.8% (15/16)
15 History of Atomic 2 (Boys) 64.7% (11/17)
Model 2 (Girls) 87.5% (14/16)
Note: * indicates material taught the same way (the teaching activity was not gender
differentiated)
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 57

In the first quiz, both classes achieved relatively similarly scores on the WHMIS and safety

concepts (see Table 23). However, one week later, the same content was tested in Quiz #2

(questions 1 and 13) and the 9Y classs scores clearly demonstrated that the students remembered

the WHMIS symbols better than 9X students. It is possible that the key distinguishing factor for

9Ys longer memory retention was the use of flashcards (a social peer teaching activity), as

opposed to the 9X hands-on activity where the students received their own bottles of chemicals.

Similarly, question 15s concepts were learned by the 9Y class through a jigsaw peer-teaching

activity, whereas the equivalent information was conveyed to the 9X class using a fun video and

summary handouts plus a teacher-led review. Therefore, this study indicates that peer teaching

activities are particularly effective for enhancing girls learning.

Questions 5-8, 10, and 12 tested concepts that were taught in lessons 3 and 4, where the 9Y

students received boy lessons, and 9X were taught girl lessons. These questions showed less of a

performance differential compared to questions covering the first two lessons. This lack of

difference may be a factor of how recently the students learned the material (short term memory).

In question 5, the 9X class outperformed 9Y by 9%, however, the 9Y class outperformed the 9X

class by 10% and 6% in questions 8 and 12 respectively. Question 5 on Mendeleev was by no

means a mastered concept for either class. However, it is surprising that 9X (girls lesson) had

greater achievement on this concept. The 9Y class had a direct hands-on competition game about

Mendeleev and how he came up with the Periodic Table. It actively involved all students in the

class, and was clearly engaging. The 9X class had a video that briefly mentioned his name, which

was subsequently reinforced by the Periodic Table outfit worn by the teacher in Mendeleevs

honour.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 58

Table 25 shows the Quiz #2 summary data. The overall class mean scores on the quiz are

given (along with standard deviations). Class averages were also filtered to show performance on

questions linked to boy and girl targeted lessons. The questions that were not taught in gender

differentiated ways were removed from these calculations.

Table 25. Quiz #2 (Appendix 5B) Overall Student Results

Overall Class Average on Class Average and Class Average and Standard
Quiz + Standard Deviation Standard Deviation on Deviation on Questions
(SD) Questions Taught Using Taught Using Girl Methods
Boy Methods
9X (Lessons 1 & 2: questions 1-4, 13, 15) (Lessons 3 & 4: questions 5-8, 10, 12)
(17
students Average: 78.4% 77.5% average 72.5% average
wrote) SD: 18.7% 22.8% SD 26.8% SD

9Y (Lessons 3 & 4: questions 5-8, 10, 12) (Lessons 1 & 2: questions 1-4, 13, 15)
(16
students
Average : 81.7% 71.9% average 85.4% average
wrote) SD : 16.4% 21.0% SD 19.4% SD
Note: questions connected to learning outcomes that were taught in the same way (non gender-
differentiated) were omitted from this analysis.

From this analysis, it can be seen that students in 9Y did slightly better on the quiz (81.7%

average) than students in 9X (78.4%). Looking at the results testing the material covered in the

first two lessons, it can also be inferred that the 9Y class understood the concepts from these

lessons significantly better than 9X. Alternatively, the students in 9X performed slightly better

overall than the students in 9Y on the material from Lessons 3 and 4. That is to say in both cases,

the students who received the girl targeted lessons performed better on the corresponding

questions than those who were taught using the boy-targeted approaches. This numerical evidence

is particularly compelling since both classes have consistently tested within 1 percent of one

another. Further, these results are surprising, as the 9Y class clearly enjoyed the boy-designed
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 59

lessons the most. While teacher training and current pedagogy promote good lessons as those

containing entertaining, fun and hands-on curricular experiences, it seems these do not necessarily

achieve the best results for learning. Engaging and entertaining lessons can certainly be

motivational, but clearly such activities must be supported by ones that encourage reflection,

individual practice, and deep learning.

While this study is mainly qualitative, the quantitative aspects of the quiz data also lend

themselves to a nonparametric statistical analysis of the results. A chi-squared test for

independence was chosen for this analysis, and the results are presented in Appendix 6.

Summary

Research shows that cognitive brain differences between the sexes can result in learning

differences between boys and girls. Many authors have used brain research to speculate on the

instructional strategies and types of learning activities best suited to teach boys and girls. As brain

studies demonstrating gender differences in learning activities are so recent, many of the teaching

strategies that may exploit gender differences have not been tested in the classroom, let alone in

the single-sex classroom. This study was meant to provide some evidence to support or reject these

strategies in the context of an all-girls science class. While this study is limited in terms of time

and scope, it did provide some interesting insights into how girls preferred to learn and the

possibility that gender focused instruction can improve achievement.

While it is possible to isolate and image specific brain processing in individuals, it is most

likely impossible to create teaching activities that are exclusively targeted to girls or to boys.

Certainly, our brains have been shown to be quite adaptive to learning in a variety of situations,

and some students can learn, even when instruction is poor. Thus, activities in this experiment
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 60

were chosen because they contained strong elements of the gender-related variables I wished to

explore. One source of error in this type of empirical study is that some activities may fit equally

well into both boy or girl-designed lessons, depending on a persons point of view or the variable

under exploration.

The experimental evidence, based on the quiz data, suggests that the girl-designed lessons

were slightly more successful in terms of achieving the desired learning outcomes. This is not too

big a surprise, as these lessons were designed to cater to an all-girl audience, and this is what they

got. What is surprising was how engaged the girls were during the boy-designed lessons. Indeed,

there were several activities in the boy-targeted lessons that students found particularly enjoyable.

However, many of the true outcomes of gender-based instruction may not be easily quantifiable on

a test. For instance, girls who were shown pictures of female scientists became immediately

engaged, and interested in what these scientists had done. It was obvious that deep associations

were being made in these students minds relating to the subject matter and to their own future

potential. These motivational aspects of gender-targeted instruction, which are more

phenomenological in nature, could have the greatest impact on students lives and learning, while

not showing up at all with standardized testing. Tables 28 and 29 provide a summary of the

specific conclusions and recommendations resulting from this study.

A minor theme in this study turned out to be one of the entertainment value derived from

the instruction versus true learning. Todays high school students have been increasingly fed a diet

of cell phones, television, Internet websites, video games, i-pods, and social networking. They are

used to receiving information from a variety of sources - often simultaneously. Many students will

study while texting, listening to mp3s, watching television, and surfing the net behaviour that

less than a generation ago may have been labelled as symptomatic of attention deficit disorder

(ADD).
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 61

Table 28. Most Effective Activities For Girls In Estimated Descending Order of Impact

Activities Best for Learning (based on engagement and achievement)

1. Peer teaching opportunities (e.g. flashcards and jigsaw)
2. Direct instruction (e.g. board notes and guided practice)
3. Physical activities involving gross motor skills (e.g. acting out concepts)
4. Demonstrations
5. Hands-on activities involving fine motor skills (e.g. lab experiments)
6. Individual practice and homework
7. Videos (e.g. Brain Pop) and other visual media (e.g. interesting websites)
8. Group work (e.g. discussion groups)
9. Stories, anecdotes, and analogy

Table 29. Most Effective Teacher Behaviours to Support Student Attention and Learning

Teachers should:

have good eye contact with students

smile, be friendly, open and personable
alternate calling on students randomly with choosing from raised hands when
questioning
tell personal anecdotes or stories related to curriculum
address poor behaviours and other matters with students quietly so as not to call
attention or embarrassment
reinforce positive images of women doing important related work
pay attention to how they are dressed girls really notice and care about what teachers
wear
display student work when possible
where possible build choice into homework assignments
keep the classroom temperature warm
provide connections to real world phenomena to explain the importance of what students
are learning
scramble group compositions during group activities to prevent the same students from
always working with one another
use diagrams and visual means of representing information where appropriate

Because students have adapted to multi-tasking, this cannot help but reshape their neural

networks and impact the ways they learn. Students may be more engaged and entertained when

there are frequent changes of activity especially activities which are not perceived as being

work. Conversely, students are becoming bored more quickly than in the past when asked to sit
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 62

and listen or take notes. However, as shown in the quiz results from this study, entertainment and

enjoyment do not always yield the most thorough learning at least in terms of performance on

tests. The amount of time, work, and dedicated focus students place on their studies may possibly

be the most crucial elements for learning.

A few theoretical hypotheses about how girls learn are not supported by the findings of this

study. One is that teachers should speak softly to girls. During the lessons the teacher moderated

the volume of her voice, using softer/quieter tones for the girl lessons and louder ones for the boy

lessons. Students did not appear to notice the difference. Nor was the impact of smiling or eye

contact easy to distinguish. The moderation of these variables may have been less effective in this

particular study as the students knew the teacher well. Perhaps if the teacher was unknown to the

students, voice level, eye contact and smiling would have a greater impact on student behaviours.

Finally, the stress variable and its impact on learning were explored in the boy-designed

lessons by putting students on the spot to answer questions. The students were also required to

stand when they gave their answers. However, when this was done, several students were observed

to become more actively involved in questioning than normal. Many students found the standing

fun or at least funny, which would tend to negate the stressful nature of the activity. If this

requirement of standing to give answers was continued until its novelty was lost, the student

enjoyment and response to the activity would most likely change; however, there was not enough

time in this study to observe this eventuality. Likewise with the Jeopardy activity, some students

really enjoyed being put on the spot, while others were not as engaged. It is not known how much

or what form of stress would be required to noticeably decrease learning for girls, while improving

it for boys.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 63

Limitations and Future Research

This study was limited in several ways. Time, scope and access to students were all

barriers to achieving the ideal experimental design. For instance, to test long term retention it

would have been interesting to give the same Quiz #2 to students several weeks later and see if

their performance matched their first attempt. I would also have liked to report on the two classes

performances on their chemistry unit test. However, as this test will not be given until after my

report deadline this information is not available. Looking at several grade levels of girls in my

school would also have been beneficial to factor out specific cognitive development and

behavioural issues. Girls in Grade 9 are very different from ones in Grade 6 or 12 (for example),

since there are important developmental differences that change behaviour and brain responses to

learning as girls age and mature.

While I wished to test whether boys and girls learn differently, my experiment was only

able to give evidence for girls learning responses in one particular setting. An extension of this

research would be to deliver the same dual lesson approach in an all-boys setting, as well as in a

co-educational one. It is suspected that a much larger discrepancy in behaviour and performance

between classes would have been seen if this study was conducted using co-ed or single-sex boys

classes. This would also provide a sufficiently large number of participants to be able to analyze

the results with more parametric statistical tests to determine whether the results are statistically

significant.

As this was mainly a qualitative study, there is additional exploratory quantitative work

that might be done for gender-based instruction. For instance, it should be noted that the quizzes

given to students in this study were simple models of the kinds of questions that would be asked

on typical end of unit tests. As such, the questions focussed on Ministry of Education Science 9
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 64

learning outcomes, and really only tested a few categories of learning. In contrast, the well-known

cognitive theorist R. Gagne (1985), identifies five major categories of learning: verbal

information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. As different internal

and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning, these have the potential to be

categories for future quantitative gender studies. Such studies would help differentiate the

effectiveness of gender-based instruction on different types of learning outcomes. For instance,

gender-based instruction may turn out to have less of an impact in the area of verbal information,

but more on attitudes and cognitive strategies. A well-designed study with a sufficiently large

population size could contribute to our understanding of these learning mechanisms in much

greater detail.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 65

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 Gender, the Brain, and Education 73

Appendices
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 74

Appendix 1

Appendix 1A. Chemistry 9 Lesson 1 (Boys): Chemical Safety

Reminder: for all Boy lessons talk simply, in a loud, and authoritative tone. Avoid too much eye contact
unless you want to challenge an individual student. Ensure the classroom temperature is slightly cool. Dont
wait for volunteers. Tell students that you will pick someone at random. Dont let students opt out of
answering easily. Give them a bit of a hard time (boys strive under small amounts of stress and like
competition). Have very high expectations. Behaviour issues should be dealt with immediately and sternly
in front of student peers to show that you expect no misbehaviour. When asking questions and
transitioning between topics, give a little bit longer for boys to answer. When possible, verbal and written
instructions should be minimized in favour of diagrams and other visual presentations.

Resources and Materials:

Textbook: BC Science 9 (McGraw Hill Ryerson, 2007)

BC Science 9 Workbook
Alcohol and match
Internet projection capability
8 bottles of chemicals with different WHMIS symbols on them place on back counter

Overview and Objectives

This approximately 60 minute lesson is geared to teach students about lab and chemical safety.

By the end of this lesson students will know

a. Safe procedures during experiments and when using the lab environment
b. WHMIS symbols and their meanings
c. What to do in case of an accident

Assessment

Formative assessment will be made through observation, and homework. Summative assessment of these
objectives will be made with a safety quiz.

Lesson Plan

A. Danger in the Science Lab (5-10 min)

a. Pour a small amount of ethanol or better, a heavier alcohol (30 ml?) in a straight line along one of
the desks right before students come into the room.
b. See if anyone notices the liquid and touches it or smells it.
c. Touch the liquid yourself. Show students that your hand is ok so it isnt acid. Is this how we test
unknown liquids? How can we identify unknown liquids? What could they do?
d. Turn off the lights and light the alcohol on fire.
e. Ask the class if anyone knows how to put out such a fire?
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 75

f. Discuss how there are often unknown liquids or dangers in a science lab particularly in chemistry.
There are set procedures for staying safe.

B. Bad Habits in Science Lab (25-30 minutes)

a. As an intro, play the video at : http://www.bcscience.com/bc9/pgs/videos_007_safety_bad.html

b. Divide students into groups appropriate for the safety skits (Appendix 1C) which they will have to
perform for the class (they will have max of 5 min to read and plan who is going to do what role,
and 2 min for each skit)
c. As students perform their skits, other students should pay attention to all the bad things that are
taking place.
d. After each skit, students are called upon (teacher selected) to explain what was bad and what
should have been done differently. Dont let someone get away with passing and dont allow other
students to help. Debriefing should take approx. 15 minutes.

C. Safety Rules (10 minutes)

a. Bring out the safety rules for conducting a lab experiment (Appendix 1D)
b. Clarify meaning if needed.
c. Discuss location of safety material (e.g. eye wash station, fire extinguisher, fire blanket, etc.) if
needed. Physically show students.
d. Show students some of the WHMIS symbols on the computer (google WHMIS images). Ask
students if theyve ever seen these before and on what?
e. Introduce the concept of WHMIS and what it stands for and why it was created.
- workers health management information system
- to protect people from doing dumb stuff
- to help people know what to do if theres been a chemical accident

D. WHMIS (10-15 min)

a. Divide students into groups of 2 or 3.

b. Each group should elect one person to go to chemical cabinet at the back of the room and take 1
bottle that has WHMIS symbols on it.
c. Students should write out the name of the chemical and draw the WHMIS hazard symbols on it.
d. Students should then use the guide on p. 12 of the textbook to determine the meaning of the
chemical hazard(s) that are on the bottle.
e. Students should compare their symbol with at least 2 other groups. Which group had a container
with the most symbols? (competition).
f. If time, students should test themselves on WHMIS symbols using the Reading Check on p. 13

E. Homework

a. Announce quiz on safety rules and WHMIS symbols next day (read handout and p. 12)
b. Design a short comic out of a scene where students are doing something wrong in the science lab.
Label the comic in a way that makes it clear that this is what NOT to do.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 76

Appendix 1B: Chemistry 9 Lesson 1 (Girls) Chemical Safety

Reminder: for all girls lessons, speak in a softer tone. Use eye contact and smile a lot. Make sure classroom
is on the warm side. Ask for volunteers to answer questions, but call on students if there arent enough
volunteers. Allow them to get help from a partner or ask for another volunteer. If girls dont feel
comfortable answering a question, dont make a big deal about it. Conversations about behaviour issues
should be private with the individual.

Resources and Materials:

Textbook: BC Science 9 (McGraw Hill Ryerson, 2007)

BC Science 9 Workbook
Senior student volunteers
Index cards (set of 14 for each group)

Overview and Objectives

This approximately 60 minute lesson is geared to teach students about lab and chemical safety.

By the end of this lesson students will know

a. Safe procedures during experiments and when using the lab environment
b. WHMIS symbols and their meanings
c. What to do in case of an accident

Assessment

Formative assessment will be made through observation, and homework. Summative assessment of these
objectives will be made with a safety quiz.

A. Danger in the Science Lab (5-10 minutes)

a. Get some senior students to enter classroom with loud music, giggling, texting, fooling around, etc.
b. Have a previously set up battery electricity experiment on a student desk (not actually live).
c. One student starts to play with the experiment. Pretends to lick their fingers and touches the
electrodes. The student then collapses. Another student reaches for her friend and then is also
knocked unconscious. The third student runs out of the classroom.
d. Excuse the senior students from the room (thank them for volunteering)
e. Ask the grade 9 students to discuss what the seniors did wrong.

B. What Not To Do (5-10 minutes)

a. As an intro: Play the video: http://www.bcscience.com/bc9/pgs/videos_007_safety_bad.html

b. Then ask students to get into a group of 3 or 4 students. One person in the group should be the
recorder.
c. Students should look at the diagram (p. 4 BC Science 9 workbook)
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 77

d. Students should verbally discuss all the problems in the diagram. The recorder should make a brief
list of the problems seen.
e. Take a survey to find out which group found the most faults.
f. Ask for a few comments from each group about what they found.

C. Safety Rules (10-15 minutes)

a. Hand out the safety rules list (Appendix 1D) and discuss the rules ask for volunteers to read out
each line and another volunteer to explain the rules that arent necessarily obvious.
b. Discuss location of safety material (e.g. eye wash station, fire extinguisher, fire blanket, etc.) if
needed.

D. WHMIS (20 minutes)

a. Introduce the concept and purpose of WHMIS symbols

o Ask students what they think this stands for,
o Tell them it is workers health management information system
o Why do we have it?
to protect people from doing dumb stuff
to help people know what to do if theres been a chemical accident
b. Students should get into a different group or 3 or 4 (make sure at least at least 1 person is different
from previous group builds empathy and different opportunities for leadership when group
compositions change).
c. Take 14 index cards (provided). Create a set of flashcards by drawing all of the symbols of the
hazard symbols found on p. 12. Put the names or meanings of the symbols on the other side. Split
up the work, then test each other using your flashcards. Keep going until everyone has all the
symbols correct.

E. House Fire (10 minutes)

Think-pair-share (tps):
a. students should read p. 14 quietly to themselves and think about questions 1-3 (5 minutes)
b. students should then pair up with another student and share answers
c. Class discussion? Has anyone ever been in a house fire? Share some of the answers students came
up with.

F. Homework

a. Read pp. 8-11

b. Choice: Either
do p. 15 #1, 3, 6, + handout (p. 4 from student workbook) or
do handouts p. 5 and 7 from student workbook

c. Lab safety rules and WHMIS quiz next class.

 Gender, the Brain, and Education 78

Appendix 1C: Safety Skit Scenarios

Skit #1: Fooling around in the science lab (for 4 or 5 students)

Fooling around in the lab (also called horseplay) is a bad idea. People get hurt, chemicals get knocked over
and sensitive glassware can be destroyed. Your groups goal is to act out what not to do when starting a lab
experiment. This skit should take no more than 2 minutes and should be improvised.

Roles: One person play being the teacher. The rest of you are students

Teacher: Tell the students that they are going to perform a lab with acid and they are going to have to be
really careful when working with this substance.

Students:

Ignore the teacher when she is talking instead talk about your weekend plans
Then get up, grab lab glasses, and start the lab. Except instead of getting your lab materials together,
pretend to take notice of another demo or experiment set up in the room. Start touching it. One person
should push the other, and then you should pretend to knock over the experiment and break everything.

Teacher: put fake notes on the board and completely ignore what the students are doing.

Skit #2: Electricity (for 3-4 students)

This skit is meant to show the wrong way to plug in a electrical cord and what the dangers are when
working with electricity in an unsafe way. You will have 5 min to plan this skit, which should be 2 min
long. You will need a hot plate or other electrical cord device as a prop for this skit.

The scene:

Student 1 says that they are going to get a hotplate for the experiment. When the student finds the hotplate,
the student should notice and state that the cord looks frayed and old. A second student should grab the
hotplate from the first saying who cares, lets just start the lab. The first student should get mad and leave
the room.

The second student should plug in the hotplate, holding the frayed wire and get electrocuted. The student
should hang onto the plug and collapse over the table. A third student should reach for their unconscious
friend and also become electrocuted. This student should collapse next to their friend, still touching some
part of their body. If another student is involved in the skit, they should also touch the pile of bodies to
shake their friends and become electrocuted too.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 79

Skit #3: Not wearing appropriate clothing (for 2-3 students with longer hair)

This skit is meant to show others how important it is to wear appropriate clothing and eyewear during an
experiment. You may want to use some beakers or other glassware as props. You will also need some
books and loose paper.

You and your lab partner should pretend to be working on an experiment. Your hair should be in front of
your face and you shouldnt have goggles on. You should have a messy work area (take a few pieces of
scrap paper or your books to do this). Pretend to be doing an experiment surrounded by your paper and
books. Let your hair get in the way so you cant see what youre doing. One person should pretend to get
acid splashed into your eyes. Exclaim oww my eyes or something like that. The other lab partner(s)
should do nothing to help maybe tell them to find some water. This skit should take no longer than 2
minutes to perform and should be improvised.

Skit 4: Fire in the Science Lab (2-3 students)

This skit is meant to show what not to do when you create a fire. You will need a Bunsen burner as a prop
and some loose paper. You will have 5 minutes to plan and your skit should be around 2 min. long.

Stand at a desk with and partner or 2 and pretend you are working with a Bunsen burner (it produces fire).
Have some loose paper surrounding your work area. Make comments such as look at the pretty fire. You
should all leave the Bunsen burner running and go get something on the other side of the lab. When you
come back you start to freak out because the Bunsen burner has lit your table on fire. Choose some really
dumb things to do about this situation (such as run around, panic, fan the flames, etc.) One of your lab
partners should then pretend to get burned.

Skit 5: Chemical Spills (3-4 students)

This skit is meant to show what not to do when you spill chemicals or see a spill. You will have only 5
minutes to plan who does what and 2 min to perform your skit.

You and your lab partners should pretend to be doing an experiment. Student 1 should something like I
wonder what that puddle of liquid over there is? Students 2 and 3 just shrug it off who cares, lets
finish, the bell is about to go.

One of you should pretend to spill your chemicals on the counter and all over your lab partner. Another
student oh dont worry, its mostly water, youre not going to die

Continue working and then pretend to hear the bell ring. You all decide to leave the spill lying all over the
counter. One student says lets just leave the spill someone will clean it up. Then everyone leaves the
room except for the student that has been covered with chemicals.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 80

Appendix 1D: Lab Safety Rules

1. Protect your own safety and that of others. Listen carefully to the teachers instructions and beware the
dangers, if any, of the experiment you are about to perform.
2. Always wear lab goggles or glasses when working with chemicals. Personal glasses do not provide as
much protection, but your teacher may allow you to wear these instead of lab goggles, depending on the
experiment.
3. Before you do any experiment, be familiar with where to find the safety equipment, such as the safety
shower, fire blanket, eye wash stations, fire extinguishers and sand buckets.
2. Rushing and running in the lab will not be permitted.
3. Friends from other classes are not allowed to visit you during a lab experiment.
4. You are not to leave the lab without permission from the teacher during an experiment.
5. Never carry hot equipment or dangerous chemicals through a crowd of people. Get them to step aside.
If you think an object is hot, gently place your hand near the object and see if it radiates heat.
6. Never hide an accident. Report any injury or spill to your teacher immediately, no matter how minor
you think it is.
7. No laboratory work should be carried on without your teachers permission or supervision.
8. Never assume a spill is just water. Spills are the responsibility of everyone in the lab. Make your
classmates clean up their mess or you will have to do it for them.
9. Leave all personal items that arent necessary for the lab in the designated areas to avoid contamination
or cluttering up the lab area.
10. When making a dilute acid solution, add acid to the water, not the other way around.
11. Never put chemicals back into the main chemical jar. Take just enough for your experiment. Dispose
of excess chemicals according to your teachers instructions.
12. Ask permission if chemicals are to be poured down the sink. Keep the water running to flush the drains
thoroughly.
13. Never taste chemicals or drink from laboratory glassware. When handling chemicals keep your hands
away from your face, especially your mouth and eyes. Wash your hands after handling chemicals. If
you need to smell a chemical, gently waft the odours toward your nose.
14. If any area of your body or clothing has been touched by acid or other harmful chemical, flush it with
lots of water. If any gets in your eye, use the eye wash station continuously for 10 minutes. Get a
friend to inform your teacher.
15. Major chemical spills on your body: use the chemical shower outside the classroom.
16. If you must identify a chemical by smelling it, never breathe deeply over it. Instead, carefully waft the
vapor with your hands in the direction of your nose.
17. Learn to use the Bunsen burner correctly before you light it. Never lean over it while lighting it or
while it is burning. Never leave a lighted burner unattended. Remember the blue flame can almost be
invisible, so never reach over a burner. Sleeves and hair must be kept well back.
18. When you are unplugging an electrical cord, pull the plug (hard bit at end), not the cord. Report frayed
cords to your teacher. Bare electrical wires can be extremely dangerous.
19. Report sharp edges on mirrors, metal plates, and glassware to your teacher. Do not work with glass that
has jagged edges.
20. Place broken glassware in the sharps or broken glass bin. Never leave broken glass on benches or in
sinks and never place broken glassware in the waste paper basket.
21. Before taking a chemical, read the label to make sure you are using the correct one.
22. Let your teacher know if you wear contact lenses before every chemical experiment.
23. At all times exercise caution when in the science laboratory. When in doubt: ASK FOR HELP!
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 81

Appendix 2

Appendix 2A: Chemistry 9 Lesson 2 (Boys): Investigating Matter

Reminder: for all Boy lessons talk simply, in a loud, and authoritative tone. Avoid too much eye
contact unless you want to challenge an individual student. Ensure the classroom temperature is
slightly cool. Dont wait for volunteers. Tell students that you will pick someone at random. Dont
let students opt out of answering easily. Give them a bit of a hard time (boys strive under small
amounts of stress and like competition). Have very high expectations. Behaviour issues should be
dealt with immediately and sternly in front of student peers to show that you expect no
misbehaviour. When asking questions and transitioning between topics, give a little bit longer for
boys to answer. When possible, verbal and written instructions should be minimized in favour of
diagrams and other visual presentations.

Resources, Materials, and Prep:

Textbook: BC Science 9 (McGraw Hill Ryerson, 2007)

BC Science 9 Workbook
Internet projection capability
Pictures of Male scientists preloaded on computer
Log in to Brain Pop account (www.brainpop.com login: qmsfaculty password: brainpop)

Overview and Objectives

This 60 minute lesson will introduce students to the concept of matter and its states. A brief
overview of the historical development of atomic theory will be explored and students will learn
about the basic subatomic particles.

By the end of this lesson students will know

d. What matter is
e. The key points of the Kinetic Molecular Theory
f. The major historical developments in the history of the atom from the early Greeks
through to Rutherfords Gold Foil experiment.

Assessment

Formative assessment will be made through observation, homework, and a quiz. Summative
assessment of these objectives will be made with a unit test.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 82

Lesson Plan

A. Safety and WHMIS quiz (10-15 min)

B. What is Chemistry all about? (5-10 min)
1. survey what students think chemistry is all about
2. Open question: What do chemists do?
- When a student offers a suggestion, have them stand up and remain standing.
- Offer suggestions if they dont think of enough things to get them thinking to add to
the list (e.g. look for soil contamination, food chemists, pharmaceuticals, work with
lasers, mining uranium and gold, coming up with alternate products for petroleum,
making plastics, etc.)
- Reinforce ideas such as chemists are really useful to industry and get paid pretty
well. Their jobs can be exciting.
- Project pictures of male scientists doing field work etc. in the background during
this discussion. Dont make a big deal about the pictures being male see if
students notice and respond that there arent female pictures
- Mention that in fact everything they have touched, worn, and eaten has most likely
been the product of some sort of chemical process or inspection.

3. Board definitions: Matter is everything you can touch or see (anything with mass and
volume).
- Chemistry is the study of matter, its properties and its reactions.
- Matter is made up of atoms and compounds/molecules (explain these terms)

C. Kinetic Molecular Theory (10 min)

1. Students should read about the KMT on pp. 19 and 20 of the text then look at the diagrams
(3 minutes).
2. Demonstration: How are state and temperature and energy related?
- Pick 4 volunteers to get up and model how atoms in a solid behave according to the
KMT (make sure they are vibrating in place, but packed closely). Ask students to
describe how their actions fit what solids do (using physical activity to reinforce
vocabulary).
- Ask students what happens when solids warm up? What is the temperature where
solids turned into liquids called? (melting point)
- Pick another 4 volunteers to model how atoms/molecules of a liquid behave (make
sure they are vibrating and the students are moving slightly, but close to one
another).
- Same types of questions as above.
- Get the whole class to model how gas molecules behave (let them go a little crazy.
Prompt them to use the vertical space of the classroom too).

3. Board Notes
- summarize the key points of the KMT in their notes
- state how temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of a substance.
When the temperature increases, particles have more freedom to move.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 83

D. Atomic Theory (8-10 minutes)

1. Weve talked a bit about how atoms behave depending on temperature, but what exactly is
an atom? What is an element? Take ideas and discuss.
2. Play the Brain Pop video: Atomic Model.
3. Hand out photocopies of p. 14/15 of the workbook as a video summary.
4. Discuss who the alchemists were and why they couldnt be successful (they didnt realize
that atoms couldnt be further divided, concepts of nuclear reactions, etc.). Ignore Bohr for
now.

E. Parts of an Atom (15 min)

1. Questions: see what students already know

a. What are the pieces of an atom?
b. Where do the subatomic particles go?
c. What is big and small relatively?
d. How big are atoms can we see them with a microscope?

2. Subatomic particles (board notes)

a. Start with a diagram of where things go in an atom.

b. Define the subatomic particles (electrons, protons and neutrons) next to the
diagram.
c. Point to p. 32 table 1.2 as a good summary.
d. Draw a big round circle on the board and put a dot in the middle representing the
nucleus and another dot on the circumference that represents the electron. Tell
students that a single electron can be anywhere inside the sphere at a given time,
but if you stopped time, it would only be an insignificant speck. Therefore the atom
is 99.99% empty space. Everything around us that looks solid actually isnt.
e. The nucleus is dense, tiny and highly positive. Electrons are attracted to the nucleus
like planets are to the sun.

3. Play the Eureka video on electrons:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZB7B_796mVs&feature=PlayList&p=05838CEE514F
300D&playnext=1&index=1 (quite good, 5 min long)

F. Homework

1. Read about liquid crystals p. 26 and answer questions 1-3

2. Photocopy p. 17 from workbook and assign all questions
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 84

Appendix 2B: Chemistry 9 Lesson 2 (Girls): Investigating Matter

Reminder: for all girls lessons, speak in a softer tone. Use eye contact and smile a lot. Make sure
classroom is on the warm side. Ask for volunteers to answer questions, but call on students if there
arent enough volunteers. Allow them to get help from a partner or ask for another volunteer. If
girls dont feel comfortable answering a question, dont make a big deal about it. Conversations
about behaviour issues should be private with the individual.

Resources, Materials, and Prep:

Textbook: BC Science 9 (McGraw Hill Ryerson, 2007)

BC Science 9 Workbook
Internet projection capability
Pictures of attractive female scientists (chemists) preloaded on computer
Log in to Brain Pop account (www.brainpop.com login: qmsfaculty password: brainpop)

Overview and Objectives

This 60 minute lesson will introduce students to the concept of matter and its states. A brief
overview of the historical development of atomic theory will be explored and students will learn
about the basic subatomic particles.

By the end of this lesson students will know

a. What matter is
b. The key points of the Kinetic Molecular Theory
c. The major historical developments in the history of the atom from the early Greeks
through to Rutherfords Gold Foil experiment.

Lesson Plan

A. Safety and WHMIS quiz (10-15 min)

B. What is Chemistry all about? (5-10 min)

1. Discuss the kinds of things that chemists do. Offer suggestions such as food chemists,
pharmaceuticals, work with lasers, mining uranium and gold, coming up with alternate
products for petroleum, making plastics, etc. In particular, focus on the humanitarian work
that chemists can do such as improving ways to inexpensively clear up water and get rid
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 85

of soil contamination for villages in developing nations. Save fishes from toxic heavy
metal poisoning. Creating new ways of making antibiotics so it is cheaper for the poor, etc.
2. Project some internet pictures of chemists from around the world including pictures of
young female chemists and famous female scientists - images of successful chemist role
models that girls can identify with are important
3. Tell them that with chemistry they are at the beginnings of a journey that could allow them
to change the world someday. Mention that in fact everything students have touched, worn,
and eaten today has most likely been the product of some sort of chemical process or
inspected by chemists
4. Ask students to think about these things. Have them pick a partner and discuss what they
would do if they had the ability to make anything like a chemist. What kinds of things
would they do? Where would their interests lie?

C. Matter (5 min)

1. Board definitions: Matter is everything you can touch or see (anything with mass and
volume).
2. Chemistry is the study of matter, its properties and its reactions.
3. Matter is made up of atoms (made from elements) and compounds/molecules (made from
chemically combining different elements)

D. Kinetic Molecular Theory (10 min)

1. Brain Pop video: States of Matter

2. Review the key points of the KMT through questioning have a student take short notes
for class on the board.
Ask students to state something they learned from the Brain Pop video take a few
answers
what state has the particles moving the fastest?
How do molecules move from one state to the next?
What is it called when molecules move from solid to liquid? Liquid to gas? Draw a
diagram on the board and label the processes.

3. Tell students that the Kinetic Molecular Theory is summarized in their textbook on pages
19 and 20 and they are responsible for knowing this material.

E. Atomic Theory (15 min)

1. Weve talked a bit about how atoms behave depending on temperature, but what exactly is
an atom? What is an element? Suggestions? (rhetorical if students dont answer)

2. Jigsaw: Number students 1-4 to create 4 groups of 4 + a few extras if needed. Each group
must have at least 1 person of each number. Each person will read their assigned scientist,
and then tell the other people in the group about what they read. They will get 4 min to
read and 2 min to talk about what they read.
a. Person 1 reads pp.28 and 29 to find out about Aristotle and the Alchemists
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 86

b. Person 2 reads pp. 29 and 30 on John Dalton

c. Person 3 reads p. 30 on J.J. Thomson
d. Person 4 reads p. 31 on Ernest Rutherford

3. Hand out pp. 14/15 from workbook as a summary after the activity. Students will have to
look this over for homework. Note: Bohr will be covered later.

F. Parts of an Atom (15 min)

1. Questions: see what students already know

a. What are the pieces of an atom?
b. Where do the subatomic particles go?
c. What is big and small relatively?
d. How big are atoms can we see them with a microscope?

2. Play the Eureka video on electrons:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZB7B_796mVs&feature=PlayList&p=05838CEE514F
300D&playnext=1&index=1 (quite good, 5 min long)

3. Board Notes: Subatomic particles

a. Define the subatomic particles (electrons, protons and neutrons)

b. Draw a simplified diagram of where things go (P and N in nucleus, electrons in
orbitals on the outside).
c. Draw a big round circle on the board and put a dot in the middle representing the
nucleus and another dot on the circumference that represents the electron. Tell
students that a single electron can be anywhere inside the sphere at a given time,
but if you stopped time, it would only be an insignificant speck. Therefore the atom
is 99.99% empty space. Everything around us that looks solid actually isnt.
d. The nucleus is dense, tiny and highly positive. Electrons are attracted to the nucleus
like planets are to the sun.

G. Homework

1. Read about liquid crystals p. 26 and answer questions 1-3

2. Photocopy p17 workbook and assign all questions.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 87

Appendix 3

Appendix 3A: Chemistry 9 Lesson 3 (Boys): Atomic Theory

Reminder: for all Boy lessons talk simply, in a loud, and authoritative tone. Avoid too much eye
contact unless you want to challenge an individual student. Ensure the classroom temperature is
slightly cool. Dont wait for volunteers. Tell students that you will pick someone at random. Dont
let students opt out of answering easily. Give them a bit of a hard time (boys strive under small
amounts of stress and like competition). Have very high expectations. Behaviour issues should be
dealt with immediately and sternly in front of student peers to show that you expect no
misbehaviour. When asking questions and transitioning between topics, give a little bit longer for
boys to answer. When possible, verbal and written instructions should be minimized in favour of
diagrams and other visual presentations.

Resources, Materials, and Prep:

Textbook: BC Science 9 (McGraw Hill Ryerson, 2007)

BC Science 9 Workbook
Access to an open floor space
Periodic Table handout

Overview and Objectives

This approximately 60 minute lesson introduces the organization of electrons and protons
according to the Bohr atomic model.

By the end of this lesson students will know

g. where protons, neutrons and electrons go in an atom
h. that the number of protons equals the number of electrons in a neutral atom
i. how to fill up energy levels with the correct number of electrons

Assessment

Formative assessment will be made through observation, homework and a quiz. Summative
assessment of these objectives will be made with a unit test.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 88

Lesson Plan

A. Review and Updates (5-10 min)

1. HW and updates.

2. Review Questioning (allow volunteers to answer) (1 min)

a. Which scientist discovered the electron? (Thomson) The proton? (Rutherford)

b. What do we call the big chart on the wall (point at Periodic Table)
c. What is the charge on an electron? Proton? Neutron?
d. Where do protons belong in an atom?
e. The atom is mostly what? (space)

B. Atomic Theory

4. Board Notes The Neutral Atom (10 min)

a. Qu: How is the Periodic Table useful for telling us numbers of protons and
electrons? (review from grade 8)
b. Hand out a copy of the Periodic Table for each student
c. Define atomic number (# protons).
d. A neutral atom has equal numbers of protons and electrons. Their charges cancel
one another to make an atom neutral. They can have different numbers of neutrons,
which just add mass, but not charge to the atom.
e. Joke: A neutron walks into a bar. He orders a glass of milk. He asks the
bartender how much money do I owe you? The bartender replies for you no
charge!
f. The atomic mass is an average mass of the atom. Mass comes mostly from protons
and neutrons, which basically weigh the same. Electrons are so puny, they weigh
almost nothing.
g. Examples
Which neutral element has 19 electrons?
How many protons does carbon have?
Which is heavier, an atom of silver or an atom of lead?
h. Define an ion as a charged atom or group of atoms
i. Tell students you can only gain or lose electrons (not protons nuclear reaction!).
Ask them to think about whether you end up with a positive or a negative charge if
an atom gained electrons. Lost electrons?
j. E.g. An ion has 30 protons and 28 electrons. What is its charge? How do you write
the symbol of this atom with its charge?

5. Student Bohr Model (10 min)

a. take students outdoors or to an open space area

b. ask for a volunteer to stand in the center to act out the nucleus
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 89

c. ask students how they think 10 electrons would fit around the nucleus of an atom
have 10 volunteers attempt to act out being an electron around the nucleus (dont
give them any directions)
d. tell them good try, but atoms are fussy. Electrons fill up in specific orders in rings
around the nucleus. Place 2 volunteer students orbiting the first orbital (have them
revolve around the nucleus). Place the remaining 8 volunteers in a 2nd orbital.
e. Ask students why they think 2 electrons can fit in the first orbital, but 8 in the 2nd
orbital
f. Tell them that the 2nd orbital is now full. What if 11 electrons needed to be filled.
Where would the next electron go? Keep going until all the students in the class are
spinning around your nucleus at the center.

6. Board Notes: Bohr Energy Levels: (15 minutes)

a. Scientist Niels Bohr theorized that electrons go into specific energy levels around
the nucleus. When these levels fill up, a new level has to be started. Direct students
to p. 32 diagram top left
b. Electrons fill up energy levels (aka orbitals, aka shells, aka rings) in a specific
pattern. There are a maximum number of allowed electrons in each orbital
c. The pattern is 2, 8, 8, 18, 18 filling up from the closest to the nucleus first.
d. Do an example using an element like sodium. How many protons? electrons?
Where do they go? Draw the diagram.
e. Ask the students to think about this 3-dimensionally. Electrons are spread out in
clouds within their orbit. Direct students to think about airline traffic as an
analogy planes can circle an airport at different altitudes. Electrons do the same.
f. Do a few sample Bohr Diagram examples, such as carbon, lithium, etc. dont put in
the neutrons, but mention theyre there.
g. Do the Bohr Diagram for Li and for Neon. Ask students to look at the electron
arrangement and guess which atom is more stable.
h. Have students label the Nobel Gases on their periodic table. Define these as being
very stable and unreactive because their valance orbitals are full.
i. Define valence orbital as the last orbital ring.
j. Show the students where the 2 8 8 18 18 pattern comes from (number of elements
in each row of the periodic table)
k. Show that every element in the same family has the same number of electrons in
their valence shells
l. Pull up the applet and show them some of the elements with their whizzing
electrons:
http://www.colorado.edu/UCB/AcademicAffairs/ArtsSciences/physics/PhysicsIniti
ative/Physics2000/applets/a2.html

C: HW

- Questions p. 63 of text # 3-5, 9, 10-12, 14

- Read p. 52 about Dmitri Mendeleev and then p. 62 for Peculiar Periodic Tables
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 90

Appendix 3B Chemistry 9 Lesson 3 (Girls): Atomic Theory

Reminder: for all girls lessons, speak in a softer tone. Use eye contact and smile a lot. Make sure
classroom is on the warm side. Ask for volunteers to answer questions, but call on students if there
arent enough volunteers. Allow them to get help from a partner or ask for another volunteer. If
girls dont feel comfortable answering a question, dont make a big deal about it. Conversations
about behaviour issues should be private with the individual.

Resources, Materials, and Prep:

Textbook: BC Science 9 (McGraw Hill Ryerson, 2007)

BC Science 9 Workbook
Handouts: Periodic Table
Internet and projection
Black light and some bank notes (e.g. $5 bill)
Desk lamp

Overview and Objectives

This approximately 60 minute lesson introduces the organization of electrons and protons
according to the Bohr atomic model.

By the end of this lesson students will know

a. where protons, neutrons and electrons go in an atom
b. that the number of protons equals the number of electrons in a neutral atom
c. how to fill up energy levels with the correct number of electrons

Assessment

Formative assessment will be made through observation, homework and a quiz. Summative
assessment of these objectives will be made with a unit test.

Lesson Plan

A. Review and Updates (5-10 min)

1. HW and updates.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 91

2. Review Questioning (allow volunteers to answer) (1 min)

a. Which scientist discovered the electron? (Thomson) The proton? (Rutherford)
b. What do we call the big chart on the wall (point at Periodic Table)
c. What is the charge on an electron? Proton? Neutron?
d. Where do protons belong in an atom?
e. The atom is mostly what? (space)

B. Atomic Theory

1. Board Notes The Neutral Atom (10 min)

a. Qu: How is the Periodic Table useful for telling us numbers of protons and
electrons? (review from grade 8)
b. Hand out a copy of the Periodic Table for each student
c. Define atomic number (# protons).
d. A neutral atom has equal numbers of protons and electrons. Their charges cancel
one another to make an atom neutral. They can have different numbers of neutrons,
which just add mass, but not charge to the atom.
e. Joke: A neutron walks into a bar. He orders a glass of milk. He asks the
bartender how much money do I owe you? The bartender replies for you no
charge!
f. The atomic mass is an average mass of the atom. Mass comes mostly from protons
and neutrons, which basically weigh the same. Electrons are so puny, they weigh
almost nothing.
g. Examples
Which neutral element has 19 electrons?
How many protons does carbon have?
Which is heavier, an atom of silver or an atom of lead?
h. Define an ion as a charged atom or group of atoms
i. Tell students you can only gain or lose electrons (not protons nuclear reaction!).
Ask them to think about whether you end up with a positive or a negative charge if
an atom gained electrons. Lost electrons?
j. E.g. An ion has 30 protons and 28 electrons. What is its charge? How do you write
the symbol of this atom with its charge?

2. Have students do questions p. 63 of text # 3-5, 9, 10-12, 14 (5-10 min to get started)

3. Board Notes: Bohr Energy Levels: (20 minutes)

a. Scientist Niels Bohr theorized that electrons go into specific energy levels around
the nucleus. When these levels fill up, a new level has to be started. Direct students
to p. 32 diagram top left
b. Electrons fill up energy levels (aka orbitals, aka shells, aka rings) in a specific
pattern. There are a maximum number of allowed electrons in each orbital
c. The pattern is 2, 8, 8, 18, 18 filling up from the closest to the nucleus first.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 92

d. Do an example using an element like sodium. How many protons? electrons?

Where do they go? Draw the diagram.
e. Ask the students to think about this 3-dimensionally. Electrons are spread out in
clouds within their orbit. Direct students to think about airline traffic as an
analogy planes can circle an airport at different altitudes. Electrons do the same.
f. Pull up the applet and show them some of the elements with their whizzing
electrons:
http://www.colorado.edu/UCB/AcademicAffairs/ArtsSciences/physics/PhysicsIniti
ative/Physics2000/applets/a2.html

4. Demo: Electron Energy Levels (5 min)

a. get a volunteer who is wearing a white shirt

b. turn off the lights and shine the desk lamp on their light no big deal
c. ask students if they have ever played with a black light
d. shine the black light on the students white shirt
e. explain what is happening is the electrons in her shirt are being fed a lot more
energy than they get with normal light. Normally electrons sit in their happy energy
levels. But given higher energy uv light, the electrons jump up to a higher orbital
and then have to fall back home. When they fall back home it releases a photon of
light depending on how far it is to fall, in some materials this creates
fluorescence.
f. Ask students how this fluorescence can be used in real life apart from dances. E.g.
finding blood splatters (CSI)
g. Show students how bank notes have hidden dyes that fluoresce under black light
alternate desk lamp and uv light.

5. Board Notes: Bohr Model Practice (10 min)

a. Do a few sample Bohr Diagram examples, such as carbon, lithium, etc. dont put in
the neutrons, but mention theyre there.
b. Do the Bohr Diagram for Li and for Neon. Ask students to look at the electron
arrangement and guess which atom is more stable.
c. Have students label the Nobel Gases on their periodic table. Define these as being
very stable and unreactive because their valance orbitals are full.
d. Define valence orbital as the last orbital ring.
e. Show the students where the 2 8 8 18 18 pattern comes from (number of elements
in each row of the periodic table)
f. Show that every element in the same family has the same number of electrons in
their valence shells

C. HW:
a. finish assigned work on p. 63.
b. Read p. 52 about Dmitri Mendeleev and then p. 62 for Peculiar Periodic Tables
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 93

Appendix 4

Appendix 4A: Chemistry 9 Lesson 4 (Boys): Elements and the Periodic Table

Reminder: for all Boy lessons talk simply, in a loud, and authoritative tone. Avoid too much eye
contact unless you want to challenge an individual student. Ensure the classroom temperature is
slightly cool. Dont wait for volunteers. Tell students that you will pick someone at random. Dont
let students opt out of answering easily. Give them a bit of a hard time (boys strive under small
amounts of stress and like competition). Have very high expectations. Behaviour issues should be
dealt with immediately and sternly in front of student peers to show that you expect no
misbehaviour. When asking questions and transitioning between topics, give a little bit longer for
boys to answer. When possible, verbal and written instructions should be minimized in favour of
diagrams and other visual presentations.

Resources, Materials, and Prep:

Textbook: BC Science 9 (McGraw Hill Ryerson, 2007)

Internet and projection
Element cards
Materials for Lab 2-1B on p. 48 text

Overview and Objectives

This 60 minute lesson continues with atomic theory and the organization of the Periodic Table of
Elements. Students will do their first lab experiment in the chemistry unit.

By the end of this lesson students will know

a. the contributions of Mendeleev to the modern organization of the Periodic Table
b. the major families of the Periodic Table and some of their characteristics
c. how to take observations in the chemistry lab and the correct format for lab reports

Assessment

Formative assessment will be made through observation, homework and a quiz. Summative
assessment of these objectives will be made with a unit test.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 94

Lesson Plan

A. Updates (2 min)
B. Review / Seatwork (5-10 min)

- Students should do p. 71 #13 as a review exercise warm up

C. The Periodic Table (PT)

1. History of the PT (5-10 min)

a. Currently we have the PT with approximately 116 known elements.

b. But how did we get this PT arrangement? The PT arrangement of elements is the
work of many scientists trial and error + luck and insight
c. Get 3 volunteers from different houses to come to the front. Place three sets of the
sticky PT cards (from Appendix 4C) with some of the elements physical properties
on them and the atomic mass randomly on the board. Tell students that this is the
puzzle (but even larger) that faced scientists. How to arrange the elements. See who
can do this the fastest on the board (race/competition for house points). Make sure
they cant see the PT.
d. Ask: Who can tell me from the reading how Mendeleev solved this puzzle of how
to arrange elements to form the PT
e. Board Notes: The Periodic Law when elements are arranged in order or
increasing atomic number, regular and repeating patterns of similar physical and
chemical properties occur for elements in the same family.

2. Groups of the PT (15-20 min)

a. Provide felt pens, pencil crayons or prompt the students to use and share their own.
b. Get students to label the PT nicely (so they can keep it all year long and add to it
creating ownership) in the following ways (you may wish to model this on the
smartboard or tablet PC at the same time)
use a strong colour to divide the metals from the non-metals. Label both regions
somehow. As you do this, ask students what they remember about how metals
and non-metals differ. Discuss conductivity and shininess. P. 55 of the textbook
has a good summary.
use another colour to box the Alkali metals and label this group, also call them
group 1. state a few properties from p. 56 of the book verbally (reinforce vocab
with activities for boys)
label the Alkaline Earth metals (group 2) stating properties (p. 56), and repeat
for the metalloids (aka semi-metals see p. 54 text). The closer the metals get to
the staircase, the less metallic they get. The semi-metals are a hybrid.
Point out the rare earth metals (lanthanide and actinide series). State that all
elements after uranium are man-made, unstable, and radioactive.
Lastly do the Halogens and the Nobel Gases. Remind students that when they
did their Bohr diagrams they saw that the electron orbitals of Nobel Gases were
full. This aspect makes all Nobel Gases very stable.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 95

3. How to Perform Chemistry Experiments (15 min)

a. Demo of hydrogen gas production (mirroring lab on p. 48 text) student volunteers can
assist with demo while class learns how to take notes on what happens
b. During the demo, the teacher discusses how to observe chemical reactions, including
physical properties (such as state, colour, temperature, mass, volume) and chemical
properties (describing how and with what a substance reacts). Good observations should
involve both types of descriptions. Observations before (of reactants), during (of the
reaction), and after the reaction (products) are needed for completeness.

D. Homework

a. p. 72 #6, 17-19, 28
b. quiz in 2 classes
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 96

Appendix 4B: Chemistry 9 Lesson 4 (Girls): Elements and the Periodic Table

Reminder: for all girls lessons, speak in a softer tone. Use eye contact and smile a lot. Make sure
classroom is on the warm side. Ask for volunteers to answer questions, but call on students if there
arent enough volunteers. Allow them to get help from a partner or ask for another volunteer. If
girls dont feel comfortable answering a question, dont make a big deal about it. Conversations
about behaviour issues should be private with the individual.

Resources, Materials, and Prep:

Textbook: BC Science 9 (McGraw Hill Ryerson, 2007)

Internet and projection
Access to Brain Pop login: qmsfaculty password: brainpop
Jeopardy powerpoint written for this lesson and webhosted on http://magon-
downloads.wikispaces.com/Science
Periodic Table outfit
Materials for Lab 2-1B on p. 48 text

Overview and Objectives

This approximately 60 minute lesson continues with atomic theory and the organization of the
Periodic Table of Elements. Students will do their first lab experiment in the chemistry unit.

By the end of this lesson students will know

a. the contributions of Mendeleev to the modern organization of the Periodic Table
b. the major families of the Periodic Table and some of their characteristics
c. how to take observations in the chemistry lab and the correct format for lab reports

Assessment

Formative assessment will be made through observation, homework and a quiz. Summative
assessment of these objectives will be made with a unit test.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 97

Lesson Plan

A. HW and Updates (2 min)

B. Review (5 10 min)

- Students should do p. 71 #13

C. The Periodic Table (PT)

1. History of the PT (5 min)

a. Currently we have the PT with approximately 116 known elements.

b. Play the youtube video:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ssaUusY6hWM&feature=related (element song
animated)
c. While the song is playing, slip on the PT cape outfit for the rest of class. Mention
Mendeleev and how his work led to this stunning fashion statement.
d. But how did we get this PT arrangement? The PT arrangement of elements is the
work of many scientists trial and error + luck and insight
e. Ask: Who can tell me from the reading what was Mendeleevs contribution to the
modern PT?
f. Remind students of the nice looking PT in their textbook that shows pics of the
elements in their natural unreacted states p. 60/61
g. Board Notes: The Periodic Law when elements are arranged in order or
increasing atomic number, regular and repeating patterns of similar physical and
chemical properties occur for elements in the same family.

2. Groups of the PT (15 min)

a. Play the Brain Pop video called Periodic Table of elements (4.5 min)
b. Have students take out their PTs and point out the staircase that divides metals and
non metals. Ask them what this staircase it means.
c. Get students to label the main groups: Alkali metals (refer to them also as group 1),
Alkaline Earth metals (group 2), the Halogens and the Nobel Gases. (the transition
metals will be talked about later during naming). Point out the rare earth metals
(lanthanide and actinide series). State that all elements after uranium are man-made,
unstable, and radioactive.
d. Have students turn to p. 54 in their textbooks. Point out the metalloids and discuss
how these are hybrids acting in some ways like metals and other ways like non
metals.
e. Transition: but what are the general properties of metals and non metals? What are
some of the characteristics of the main families?
f. Tell students that they will be playing jeopardy in 5 minutes that will ask them
about properties of the main groups of the PT. They will play in table teams and the
top table finishers will get housepoints for each person at the table. They should
read over pp. 55-57 to get a sense of the chemical properties of these families.
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 98

3. Jeopardy (10 min)

a. After labeling the PT, have students form teams (keep them at existing tables) to
play the jeopardy PT game.
b. Students can use their own PTs.
c. On rotation, each team will be directed a question and have 10 seconds to answer
exclusively. If they miss it, the other teams have a chance to steal by picking a
number between 1 and 10 and being the closest to the teachers pick.

D. How to Perform Chemistry Experiments (20 min)

a. Discuss how to observe chemical reactions. Include a brief description of the

difference between physical properties (such as state, colour, temperature, mass,
volume) and chemical properties (describing how and with what a substance
reacts). Good observations should involve both types of descriptions. Observations
before (of reactants), during (of the reaction), and after the reaction (products) are
needed for completeness.
b. Discuss lab report formats (lab rubric) and expectations
c. Demo of hydrogen gas production (mirroring lab on p. 48 text) student
volunteers can assist with demo. Students are individually questions about what
kinds of observations they would make based on what theyve just been taught.

E. Homework

a. p. 72 #6, 17-19, 28
b. Notice: quiz in 2 classes
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 99

Appendix 4C: Periodic Table Cards

Sodium

Dull, oxide coating

Soft metal cut with a knife
Reacts violently with water

Mass = 23.0
Potassium

Dull, oxide coating

Soft metal cut with a knife
Reacts violently with water

Mass = 39.1
Rubidium

Dull, oxide coating

Soft metal cut with a knife
Reacts violently with water

Mass = 85.5
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 100

Magnesium

Brittle metal
Burn if heated
Reacts with water to form alkaline
solutions
Mass = 9.0
Calcium

Brittle metal
Burn if heated
Reacts with water to form alkaline
solutions
Mass = 9.0
Strontium

Brittle metal
Burn if heated
Reacts with water to form alkaline
solutions
Mass = 40.1
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 101

Aluminum

Dull metal but polishes up shiny

silver
Loses 3 electrons to form ions
Forms acidic ions in solution
Mass = 27.0
Unknown Element

Should be a dull metal that polishes

up shiny silver
Loses 3 electrons to form ions
Forms acidic ions in solution
Mass should be between 66-73
Indium

Dull metal but polishes up shiny

silver
Loses 3 electrons to form ions
Forms acidic ions in solution
Mass = 114.8
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 102

Silicon

A semi conductor
Dull and not very malleable
Metal poor

Mass = 28.1
Germanium

A semi conductor
Dull and not very malleable
Metal poor

Mass = 72.6
Tin

A semi conductor
Dull and not very malleable
Metal poor

Mass = 118.7
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 103

Appendix 5

Science9ChemistryQuiz#2

MultipleChoice.(1markeach)

1. Which of the following hazard label symbols warn that the chemical is poisonous?

A. B.

C. D.

2. Which theory explains the relative energy and movement of particles based on their state
A. the vibrational impact theory
B. the atomic molecular theory
C. the kinetic molecular theory
D. the energetic movement theory

3. The more energy that particles have

A. the faster they move
B. the slower they move
C. the higher the mass of the object
D. the more likely they are to form a solid

4. Which scientist discovered the proton?

A. Rutherford
B. Thomson
C. Mendeleev
D. Bohr

5. Which scientist came up with the idea to organize the Periodic Table according to
increasing atomic mass?
A. Rutherford
B. Thomson
C. Mendeleev
D. Bohr

6. Which best describes the nucleus?

A. contains protons and electrons; electrically neutral
B. contains protons and electrons; positively charged
C. contains protons and neutrons; positively charged
D. contains neutrons and electrons; negatively charged
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 104

7. What is a period in the Periodic Table?

A. a vertical column
B. a horizontal row
C. a family of elements with similar properties
D. the mass of the protons and neutrons

8. What do the noble gases He and Kr have in common?

A. They are both unstable
B. The same number of valence electrons
C. Filled valence energy levels
D. The same number of protons

9. An atom has 11 protons, 12 neutrons and 10 electrons. What is the element and what is
its charge?
A. sodium, -1
B. sodium, +1
C. magnesium, -1
D. magnesium, +1

10. The following diagram shows a partial Bohr model diagram of a neutral atom. The
electrons only are shown. Which atom is it?

A. Arsenic
B. Silicon
C. Phosphorus
D. Sulfur

Matching.

Matchthetermontheleftwiththebestdescriptorontheright.Eachdescriptormaybeusedonly
once.Youwillnotuseallthedescriptors.(1markeach)

Term Descriptor

A. triedtoturnleadintogold
_____ 11. atomicnumber
B. thenumberofprotonsinanatom
_____ 12. Noblegases C. WorkandHomeMaterialsInformationSource
D. reactsviolentlywithwater
_____ 13. WHMIS
E. anegativelychargedparticle
_____ 14. electron F. themassofanaverageatomofanelement
G. familyofchemicallyunreactivegases
_____ 15. alchemist H. WorkplaceHazardousMaterialsInformationSystem
I.containstheelementfluorine

J.apositivelychargedparticle

 Gender, the Brain, and Education 105

Appendix 6: Nonparametric Analysis of Quiz #2 Results

A Chi-square ( 2 ) test for independence on each question on Quiz #2 was performed

(with questions 9, 11, and 14 removed), and the results are given, along with probability values in

the last column of Table 1.

Table 1. Per Question Quiz #2 Results For 9X and 9Y (17 students in 9X and 16 students in 9Y wrote)

Question Learning Outcome Lesson # 9X Average on 9Y Average on Chi-

(Targeted Gender) Question Question square
(number of students (number of students (p
with correct answer) with correct answer)
value)
1 WHMIS symbols 1 (Boys) 58.8% (10/17) 3.06
1 (Girls) 81.3% (13/16) (0.08)
2 KMT 2 (Boys) 88.2% (15/17) 0.004
2 (Girls) 87.5% (14/16) (0.95)
3 KMT 2 (Boys) 88.2% (15/17) 0.004
2 (Girls) 87.5% (14/16) (0.95)
4 History of Atomic 2 (Boys) 64.7% (11/17) 0.061
Model 2 (Girls) 68.8% (11/16) (0.81)
5 Mendeleev and 3 HW (Boys) 50% (8/16) 0.26
Periodic Table 3 HW (Girls) 58.8% (10/17) (0.26)
6 Organization of 3 (Boys) 81.3% (13/16) 0.007
Subatomic Particles 3 (Girls) 82.4% (14/17) (0.93)
7 Organization of the 4 (Boys) 43.8% (7/16) 0.02
Periodic Table 4 (Girls) 41.2% (7/17) (0.88)
8 Properties of Main 4 (Boys) 75.0 % (12/16) 0.41
Group Elements 4 (Girls) 64.7% (11/17) (0.52)
10 Bohr Model 3 (Boys) 81.3% (13/16) 0.31
3 (Girls) 88.2% (15/17) (0.58)
12 Properties of Main 4 (Boys) 100% (16/16) 0.97
Group Elements 4 (Girls) 94.1% (16/17) (0.32)
13 WHMIS acronym 1 (Boys) 100% (17/17) 0
1 (Girls) 100% (16/16)
15 History of Atomic 2 (Boys) 64.7% (11/17) 2.3
Model 2 (Girls) 87.5% (14/16) (0.13)
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 106

As can be seen from the results in Table 1, only questions 1 and 15 had probabilities that

indicated significant learning attainment differences between the two class results. However, as

differences can sometimes accrue gradually, additional statistical analyses were performed on the

overall student results for each section (separated by boy/girl targeted instruction). The summary

performance data is given here again in Table 2. Tables 3 and 4 give the resultant matrices for

the 2 analysis, and Table 5 gives the 2 results.

Table 2. Quiz #2 Overall Student Results

Overall Class Average on Class Average and Class Average and Standard
Quiz + Standard Deviation Standard Deviation on Deviation on Questions
(SD) Questions Taught Using Taught Using Girl Methods
Boy Methods
9X (Lessons 1 & 2: questions 1-4, 13, 15) (Lessons 3 & 4: questions 5-8, 10, 12)
(17
students Average: 78.4% 77.5% average 72.5% average
wrote) SD: 18.7% 22.8% SD 26.8% SD

9Y (Lessons 3 & 4: questions 5-8, 10, 12) (Lessons 1 & 2: questions 1-4, 13, 15)
(16
students
Average : 81.7% 71.9% average 85.4% average
wrote) SD : 16.4% 21.0% SD 19.4% SD
Note: questions 9, 11, and 14 (non gender-differentiated) were omitted from this analysis.

Table 3. Chi-Square Analysis of Combined Results for Questions 1-4, 13, and 15

Number of Number of Total

Correct Incorrect
Answers Answers
9X (17 students) 79 23 102
9Y (16 students) 82 14 96
total 161 37 198

Table 4. Chi-Square Analysis of Combined Results for Questions 5-8, 10, 12

Number of Number of Total

Correct Incorrect
Answers Answers
9X (17 students) 73 29 102
9Y (16 students) 69 27 96
total 142 56 198
 Gender, the Brain, and Education 107

Table 5. Chi-Square Results From Overall Student Performance

2 Result Probability

Questions 1-4, 13 and 15 2.06 0.15

Questions 5-8, 10, and 12 0.002 0.96

We establish (by statistical convention):

H0: There is no difference in performance between the two classes on Quiz #2 questions 1-4, 13,

and 15 and

H1: Students in 1 class outperformed the students in the other class on Quiz #2

Thus, we see from the 2 probability results in Table 5 that only for the first set of

questions (1-4, 13 and 15) is there a small amount of evidence supporting a difference in quiz

performance using this nonparametric test as a measuring stick. That is to say, there is some slight

statistical evidence that we are certain students in 9Y, who received the girl-targeted instructional

material for these learning outcomes, outperformed the students in 9X, who received boy-targeted

instruction. However, the chi-square analysis does not account for past performance history of

these two student groups. Historical evidence supports that 9X and 9Y class averages have been

close to identical the entire year on quizzes and tests. Yet, the class averages for the first set of

questions were 85.4% and 77.5% for 9Y and 9X respectively. Thus, I feel that a performance

difference of nearly 8% over the first set of questions is significant in this context, and indicates a

positive correlation between girl-targeted instruction and girl performance results.

 Gender, the Brain, and Education 108

Appendix 7: Copy of the Human Research Ethics Board Certificate of Approval