QuickStart Computing

Computational Introducing algorithms

thinking Logical reasoning

How do we think In both of these examples, the thinking that is

undertaken before starting work on a computer is

about problems known as computational thinking.

Computational thinking describes the processes

so that computers and approaches we draw on when thinking about
problems or systems in such a way that a computer

can help? can help us with these.

Computational thinking is not thinking about

computers or like computers. Computers dont think
Computers are incredible devices: they extend for themselves. Not yet, at least!
what we can do with our brains. With them, we can
do things faster, keep track of vast amounts of
Computational thinking is about looking at a problem
information and share our ideas with other people.
in a way that a computer can help us to solve it.

When we do computational thinking, we use the

What is computational following processes to tackle a problem:

thinking? Logical reasoning: predicting and analysing

(see pages 810)
Getting computers to help us to solve problems is a Algorithms: making steps and rules (see pages
two-step process: 1012)
Decomposition: breaking down into parts
1. First, we think about the steps needed to solve a (see pages 1214)
Abstraction: removing unnecessary detail
problem.
(see pages 1415)
Patterns and generalisation: spotting and using
2. Then, we use our technical skills to get the
similarities (see pages 1516)
computer working on the problem. Evaluation: making judgements

Take something as simple as using a calculator to

solve a word problem in maths. First, you have to
understand and interpret the problem before the What can you do with
calculator can help out with the arithmetic bit.
computational thinking?
Similarly, if youre going to make an animation, you
need to start by planning the story and how youll Although computational thinking describes the sort
shoot it before you can use computer hardware and of thinking that computer scientists and software
software to help you get the work done. developers engage in, plenty of other people think
in this way too, and not just when it comes to using

6
 Computational thinking

computers. The thinking processes and approaches curriculum, but as pupils learn to use these in their
that help with computing are really useful in many computing work, you should find that they become
other domains too. better at applying them to other work too.

For example, the way a team of software engineers You will already use computational thinking in many
go about creating a new computer game, video editor different ways across your school.
or social networking platform is really not that When your pupils write stories, you encourage
different from how you and your colleagues might them to plan first: to think about the main events
work together to put on a school play, or to organise and identify the settings and the characters.
an educational visit. In art, music or design and technology, you will
ask pupils to think about what they are going to
In each case: create and how they will work through the steps
you take a complex problem and break it down necessary for this, by breaking down a complex
into smaller problems process into a number of planned phases.
its necessary to work out the steps or rules for In maths, pupils will identify the key information
getting things done in a problem before they go on to solve it.
the complexity of the task needs to be managed,
typically by focusing on the key details
the way previous projects have been Where does computational
accomplished can help.
thinking fit in the new
computing curriculum?
How is computational thinking
used in the curriculum? The national curriculum for computing puts
computational thinking right at the heart of its
Ideas like logical reasoning, step-by-step approaches ambition. It states:
(algorithms), decomposition, abstraction and
generalisation have wide applications to solving A high-quality computing education equips pupils
problems and understanding systems across (and to use computational thinking and creativity to
beyond) the school curriculum. There are many ways understand and change the world.1
to develop these in school beyond the computing
1
National Curriculum in England, Computing Programmes of Study 7
(Department for Education, 2013).
QuickStart Computing

Whilst programming (see pages 1829) is an important Further resources

part of the new curriculum, it would be wrong to
see this as an end in itself. Rather, its through the Barefoot Computing, Computational Thinking,
practical experience of programming that the insights of available at: http://barefootcas.org.uk/barefoot-
computational thinking can best be developed. primary-computing-resources/concepts/
computational-thinking/ (free, but registration
Computational thinking shouldnt be seen as just a required).
new name for problem-solving skills. It does help to Berry, M., Computational Thinking in Primary
solve problems and it has wide applications across Schools (2014), available at: http://milesberry.
other disciplines, but its most obviously apparent, and net/2014/03/computational-thinking-in-primary-
probably most effectively learned, through the rigorous, schools/.
creative processes of writing code as discussed in the Computer Science Teachers Association,
next section. CSTA Computational Thinking Task Force and
Computational Thinking Resources, available
at: http://csta.acm.org/Curriculum/sub/
Classroom activity ideas CompThinking.html.
Computing At School, Computational
Ask your pupils to write a recipe for a sandwich, Thinking, available at: http://community.
thinking carefully about each step that needs computingatschool.org.uk/resources/252.
to be carried out. Point out that the step-by- Curzon, P., Dorling, M., Ng, T., Selby, C. and
step sequence of instructions is an algorithm. Woollard, J., Developing Computational Thinking
Ask them to share each others recipes and spot in the Classroom: A Framework (Computing At
patterns in them (this is called generalisation). School, 2014), available at: http://community.
Read a range of recipes and discuss the layers computingatschool.org.uk/files/3517/original.pdf.
of simplification (abstraction) present in even Google for Education, Exploring Computational
relatively simple recipes, such as for pizza. Thinking, available at: www.google.com/edu/
Plan a traditional design, make and evaluate computational-thinking/index.html.
project for design and technology, drawing out Wing, J., Computational Thinking and Thinking
the parallels with computational thinking. For about Computing (The Royal Society, 2008),
example, plan the process for making a musical available at: http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.
instrument. Tell the pupils to break this complex org/content/366/1881/3717.full.pdf+html.
problem down into smaller stages, such as:
planning their design (an abstraction a simplified
version capturing the key elements of this)
sourcing their materials (using decomposition
to identify the different components)
Logical reasoning
assembling the materials to create the
instrument (a systematic, step-by-step Can you explain why
approach an algorithm)
evaluating (testing) the instrument. something happens?
Challenge older pupils to work individually or
collaboratively on more complex projects, for If you set up two computers in the same way, give them
example researching and writing up aspects of a the same instructions (the program) and the same
curriculum topic such as the Viking invasion, or input, you can pretty much guarantee the same output.
putting together an assembly or a class play. In
each case ask them to note down the individual Computers dont make things up as they go along
steps needed for the task and to think about what or work differently depending on how they happen
they have left out to make the subject fit their brief. to be feeling at the time. This means that they
are predictable. Because of this we can use logical
reasoning to work out exactly what a program or
computer system will do.

Children quickly pick this up for themselves: the

experience of watching others and experimenting

8
 Computational thinking

for themselves allows even very young children to In science, pupils should explain how they have
develop a mental model of how technology works. A arrived at their conclusions from the results of
child learns that clicking the big round button brings their experiments.
up a list of different games to play, or that tapping In history, pupils should discuss the logical
here or stroking there on the screen produces a connections between cause and effect; they
reliably predictable response. should understand how historical knowledge is
constructed from a variety of sources.
This process of using existing knowledge of a
system to make reliable predictions about its future
behaviour is one part of logical reasoning. At its Where does logical
heart, logical reasoning is about being able to explain
why something is the way it is. Its also a way to reasoning fit in the new
work out why something isnt quite as it should be.
computing curriculum?
How is logical reasoning In the computing curriculum, key stage 1 pupils are
expected to use logical reasoning to predict the
used in computing? behaviour of simple programs. This can include the
ones they themselves write, perhaps with a floor
Logic is fundamental to how computers work: deep turtle, or simple movement commands on screen
inside the computers central processing unit (CPU), in a program like Scratch, but it might also include
every operation the computer performs is reduced to predicting what happens when they play a computer
logical operations carried out using electrical signals. game, or use a painting program.

Its because everything a computer does is At key stage 2, pupils are expected to use logical
controlled by logic that we can use logic to reason reasoning to explain how some simple algorithms
about program behaviour. work and to detect and correct errors in algorithms
and programs.2
Software engineers use logical reasoning all the
time in their work. They draw on their internal
mental models of how computer hardware, the Classroom activity ideas
operating system (such as Windows 8, OS X) and
the programming language theyre using all work, Provide pupils with floor turtles and ask them to
in order to develop new code that will work as they make predictions of where the robot will end up
intend. Theyll also rely on logical reasoning when when the go button is pressed. Then ask them
testing new software and when searching for and to explain why they think that. Being able to give
fixing the bugs (mistakes) in their thinking (known a reason for their thinking is what using logical
as debugging see page 17) or their coding when reasoning is all about.
these tests fail. In their own coding, logical reasoning is key to
debugging (finding and fixing the mistakes in
their programs). Ask the pupils to look at one
How is logical reasoning used anothers Scratch or Kodu programs and spot
bugs. Encourage them to test the programs to
across the curriculum? see if they can isolate exactly which bit of code
is causing a problem. If pupils programs fail to
There are many ways that children will already use work, get them to explain their code to a friend
logical reasoning in their computing lessons and or even an inanimate object (e.g. a rubber duck).
across the wider curriculum. Give pupils a program of your own or from the
In English, pupils might explain what they think Scratch or Kodu community sites and ask them to
a character will do next in a novel, or explain the work backwards from the code to work out what
characters actions in the story so far. it will do.
Ask pupils to think carefully about some school
rules, for example those in the schools computer
2
National Curriculum in England, Computing Programmes of Study
(Department for Education, 2013). 9
 QuickStart Computing

Acceptable Use Policy. Can they use logical turn right. You can think of this as an algorithm
reasoning to explain why the rules are as they are? as a sequence of instructions to get you to your
There are many games, both computer-based chosen destination. There are plenty of algorithms
and more traditional, that draw directly on the (i.e. routes) that will accomplish the same goal; in
ability to make logical predictions. Organise for this case, there are even algorithms (such as in your
the pupils to play noughts and crosses using satnav) for working out the shortest or fastest
pencil and paper. As they are playing, ask them route.
to predict their opponents next move. Let them
play computer games such as Minesweeper,
Angry Birds or SimCity, as appropriate. Ask them How are algorithms used
to pause at certain points and tell you what they
think will happen when they move next. Consider in the real world?
starting a chess club if your school doesnt
already have one. Search engines such as Bing or Google use
algorithms to put a set of search results into order,
so that more often than not, the result were looking
Further resources for is at the top of the front page.

Barefoot Computing, Logic: Predicting and Your Facebook news feed is derived from your
Analysing, available at: http://barefootcas.org. friends status updates and other activity, but it only
uk/barefoot-primary-computing-resources/ shows that activity which the algorithm (EdgeRank)
concepts/logic/ (free, registration required). thinks youll be most interested in seeing. The
Computer Science for Fun, The Magic of recommendations you get from Amazon, Netflix and
Computer Science, available at: www.cs4fn.org/ eBay are algorithmically generated, based in part on
magic/. what other people are interested in.
Computer Science Unplugged, Databases
Unplugged, available at: http://csunplugged.org/ Given the extent to which so much of their lives is
databases. affected by algorithms, its worth pupils having some
McOwan, P. and Curzon, P. (Queen Mary University grasp of what an algorithm is.
of London), with support from EPSRC and Google,
Computer Science Activities With a Sense of Fun,
available at: www.cs4fn.org/teachers/activities/ How are algorithms used
braininabag/braininabag.pdf.
The P4C Co-operative, a co-operative providing across the curriculum?
resources and advice on philosophy for children,
available at: www.p4c.com/. Helping pupils to get an idea of what an algorithm
PhiloComp.net, website highlighting the strong is neednt be confined to computing lessons. You
links between philosophy and computing, available and your pupils will already use algorithms in many
at www.philocomp.net/. different ways across the school.

A lesson plan can be regarded as an algorithm for

Algorithms teaching a lesson.

There will be a sequence of steps pupils follow for
many activities, such as getting ready for lunch or
going to PE.
Whats the best way to In cookery, we can think of a recipe as an
algorithm.
solve a problem? In English, we can think of instructional writing as
a form of algorithm.
An algorithm is a sequence of instructions or a set of In science, we might talk about the method of an
rules to get something done. experiment as an algorithm.
In maths, your approach to mental arithmetic (or
You probably know the fastest route from school many computer-based educational games) might
to home, for example, turn left, drive for five miles, be an implementation of a simple algorithm.

10
 Computational thinking

An example of this might be: go through the planning stage of writing a program,
repeat ten times: it is good practice for pupils to write down the
ask a question algorithm for a program, perhaps as rough jottings,
wait for a response a storyboard, pseudocode (a written description
provide feedback on whether the response of how a program will operate) or even as a flow
was right or wrong. chart (see below). This makes it far easier for them
to get feedback from you or their peers on their
algorithms before implementing these as code on
Where do algorithms fit their computers.

in the new computing Repeat 10 times:

curriculum? Ask a maths question
If the answer is right then:
Say well done!
The computing curriculum expects pupils in key
stage 1 to have an understanding of what algorithms Else:
are, and how they are used in programs on digital Say think again!
devices. An example of pseudocode.

There can be many algorithms to solve the same

problem, and each of these can be implemented
using different programming languages on different Start
computer systems: it can be useful for pupils to
compare how they draw a square with a floor turtle
and how they would do this on screen in Logo or
ScratchJr. Ask a question

Pupil
responds

Is the
No Say thats
answer
correct? wrong

Yes

Say thats right

Scratch Jnr programming for drawing a square.
An example of a flow chart.
Key stage 2 builds on this: pupils are expected to
design programs with particular goals in mind, which
will draw on their being able to think algorithmically,
as well as using logical reasoning (see pages 810) Classroom activity ideas
to explain algorithms and to detect and correct
errors in them. To practise this, encourage pupils to Talk to the pupils about what makes one
carry out the steps for an algorithm: to follow the algorithm better than another. In early
instructions themselves rather than writing these programming work, pupils will come to realise
as code for the computer. Errors and inconsistencies that a Bee-Bot program which uses fewer steps
should become apparent! than another to get to the same place is quicker
to type and quicker to run.
Whilst programming languages like Scratch and Kodu Play the classroom game Guess my number to
(see pages 2122) can make it seem unnecessary to demonstrate this. Tell the pupils that you have

11
 QuickStart Computing

chosen a number between 1 and 100 and they are Cormen, T., Algorithms Unlocked (MIT Press,
to guess what it is. Tell them that they can ask 2013).
you questions about the number but that you can Peyton Jones, S. and Goldberg, A. (Microsoft
only answer yes or no, and that they can only Research), Getting from A to B: Fast Route-
ask you one question per pupil. Finding Using Slow Computers, available at: www.
For the first go, ask the pupils to guess ukuug.org/events/agm2010/ShortestPath.pdf.
numbers randomly. Slavin, K., How Algorithms Shape Our World,
Next, using a new number, ask the pupils to available at: www.ted.com/talks/kevin_slavin_
guess the number sequentially from one, e.g. Is how_algorithms_shape_our_world?language=en.
the number one? and so on. Explain that this Steiner, C., Automate This: How Algorithms Came
is called a linear search. Allow them to have as to Rule Our World (Portfolio Penguin, 2013).
many goes as needed to guess the number.
Finally, using a new number again, explain how
to use a binary search. Explain to the learners
that they already know the number is less than
100, so suggest they ask, Is it less that 50?
Decomposition
then, Is it less than 25? or Is it less than 75?
depending on the answer. Tell the pupils to How do I solve a problem by
keep halving the section they are searching in
until the number is found. breaking it into smaller parts?
Afterwards, talk about which approach found
the number quicker. When they are familiar The process of breaking down a problem into smaller
with using a binary search method, replay the manageable parts is known as decomposition.
game using a number between 1 and 1000. Decomposition helps us solve complex problems and
Organise the pupils to sort a set of unknown manage large projects.
weights into weight order using a simple pan
balance, thinking carefully about the algorithm This approach has many advantages. It makes the
theyre following to do this, and then to think of a process a manageable and achievable one large
quicker way to accomplish the same activity. See problems are daunting, but a set of smaller, related
http://csunplugged.org/sorting-algorithms for a tasks are much easier to take on. It also means that
demonstration of this. the task can be tackled by a team working together,
Explain to the pupils that not all algorithms are each bringing their own insights, experience and
made of sequences of instructions: some are rule skills to the task.
based. Introduce rule-based algorithms by writing a
number sequence on the board, e.g. 3, 6, 9, 12 or
2, 4, 8, 16. Ask the pupils to work out the rule for the How is decomposition
sequence (adding 3, or doubling the number) and to
predict the next number. Explain that the rule for the used in the real world?
sequence is the algorithm and the process by which
they worked it out was logical reasoning. Decomposing problems into their smaller parts is
not unique to computing: its pretty standard in
engineering, design and project management.
Further resources
Software development is a complex process, and
Bagge, P., Flow Charts in Primary Computing so being able to break down a large project into
Science, available at: http://philbagge.blogspot. its component parts is essential think of all the
co.uk/2014/04/flow-charts-in-primary- different elements that need to be combined to
computing-science.html. produce a program, like PowerPoint.
Barefoot Computing, KS2 Logical Number
Sequences Activity, available at: http:// The same is true of computer hardware: a
barefootcas.org.uk/programme-of-study/use- smartphone or a laptop computer is itself
logical-reasoning-explain-simple-algorithms- composed of many components, often produced
work/ks2-logical-number-sequences-activity/ independently by specialist manufacturers and
(free, but registration required). assembled to make the finished product, each

12
 Computational thinking

under the control of the operating system and

applications. How is decomposition used
across the curriculum?
You and your pupils will already use decomposition in
many different ways across the curriculum.
In science or geography, labelling diagrams
to show the different parts of a plant, or the
different nations which make up the UK.
In English, planning the different parts of a story.
In general project planning, planning a research
project for any subject or working collaboratively
to deliver a group presentation. Technology can
help with this sort of collaborative group work, or
can even be a focus for it, and great collaborative
tools are available in Office 365 and other cloud-
A tablet can be broken down (decomposed) into smaller components. based software.
With thanks to iFixit.com In maths, breaking down a problem to solve it.

How is decomposition Where does decomposition

used in school? fit in the new computing
Youll have used decomposition to tackle big projects
curriculum?
at school, just as programmers do in the software
industry. The computing curriculum expects that key stage 2
Delivering your schools curriculum: typically pupils learn to solve problems by decomposing
this would be decomposed as years and subjects, them into smaller parts3; it also expects pupils to
further decomposed into terms, units of work design and create a range of systems with particular
and individual lessons or activities. Notice how goals in mind (here, system implies something with a
the project is tackled by a team working together number of interconnected components).
(your colleagues), and how important it is for the
parts to integrate properly. As pupils plan their programs or systems, encourage
Putting on a school play, organising a school trip them to use decomposition: to work out what the
or arranging a school fair. different parts of the program or system must do,
and to think about how these are inter-related.
For example, a simple educational game is going to
Staffing Consent need some way of generating questions, a way to
letters check if the answer is right, some mechanism for
recording progress such as a score and some sort of
Book TRIP TO user interface, which in turn might include graphics,
FARM animation, interactivity and sound effects.
coach
Plan opportunities for pupils to get some experience
Check of working as a collaborative team on a software
weather Resources development project, and indeed other projects
in computing. This could be media work such as
animations or videos, shared online content such as
A task such as organising a school trip can be decomposed into a wiki, or a challenging programming project such as
smaller chunks. making a computer game or even a mobile phone app.

3
National Curriculum in England, Computing Programmes of Study
(Department for Education, 2013).
13
 QuickStart Computing

Classroom activity ideas Abstraction

Organise for the pupils to tackle a large-
scale programming project, such as making a How do you manage
computer game, through decomposition. Even
for a relatively simple game the project would complexity?
typically be decomposed as follows: planning,
design, algorithms, coding, animation, graphics, For American computer scientist Jeanette Wing,
sound, debugging and sharing. A project like this credited with coining the term, abstraction lies at
would lend itself to a collaborative, team-based the heart of computational thinking:
approach, with development planned over a
number of weeks. The abstraction process deciding what details
Take the case off an old desktop computer and we need to highlight and what details we can
show the pupils how computers are made from ignore underlies computational thinking.4
systems of smaller components connected
together. Depending on the components involved, Abstraction is about simplifying things; identifying
some of these can be disassembled further what is important without worrying too much
still, although its likely to be better to look at about the detail. Abstraction allows us to manage
illustrations of the internal architecture of such complexity.
components.
Organise for the pupils to carry out a We use abstractions to manage the complexity of
collaborative project online, for example through life in schools. For example, the school timetable is
developing a multi-page wiki site. For example, an abstraction of what happens in a typical week: it
pupils could take the broad topic of e-safety, captures key information such as who is taught what
decompose this into smaller parts and then work subject where and by whom, but leaves to one side
collaboratively to develop pages for their wiki, further layers of complexity, such as the learning
exploring each individual topic. The process of objectives and activities planned in any individual lesson.
writing these pages can be further decomposed,
through planning, research, drafting, reviewing
and publishing phases. How is abstraction used
across the curriculum?
Further resources
Abstraction is such a powerful way of thinking
Apps for Good, available at: www.appsforgood. about systems and problems that it seems worth
org/. introducing pupils to this whilst theyre still at
Barefoot Computing, Decomposition, available primary school. This doesnt have to be just in
at: http://barefootcas.org.uk/sample-resources/ computing lessons.
decomposition/ (free, but registration required). In maths, working with word problems often
Basecamp (professional project management involves a process of identifying the key
software) can be used by teachers with their information and establishing how to represent
class (free), available at: https://basecamp.com/ the problem in the more abstract language of
teachers. arithmetic, algebra or geometry.
Gadget Teardowns, available at: www.ifixit.com/ In geography, pupils can be helped to see a
Teardown. map as an abstraction of the complexity of the
NRICH, Planning a School Trip, available at: environment, with maps of different scales
http://nrich.maths.org/6969. providing some sense of the layered nature of
Project Management Institute Educational abstraction in computing.
Foundation, Project Management Toolkit for In history, pupils are taught world history
Youth, available at: http://pmief.org/learning- or national history as an abstraction of the
resources/learning-resources-library/project- detail present in local histories and individual
management-toolkit-for-youth. biographies, which are themselves abstractions
of actual events.

14 4
Computational thinking and thinking about computing
(The Royal Society, 2008).
 Computational thinking

In music, the piano score of a pop song might be

thought of as an abstraction for that piece of Further resources
music.
Barefoot Computing, Abstraction, available at:
http://barefootcas.org.uk/barefoot-primary-
Where does abstraction computing-resources/concepts/abstraction/
(free, but registration required).
fit in the new computing BBC Bitesize, Abstraction, available at: www.
curriculum? bbc.co.uk/education/guides/zttrcdm/revision.
BBC Cracking the Code, Simulating the
Experience of F1 Racing Through Realistic
The national curriculum for computing leaves Computer Models, available at: www.bbc.co.uk/
abstraction until key stage 3, although it is part of programmes/p016612j.
the overarching aims of the subject, which seeks to Google for Education, Solving Problems at Google
ensure that all pupils: Using Computational Thinking, available at: www.
youtube.com/watch?v=SVVB5RQfYxk.
can understand and apply the fundamental The Art of Abstraction Computerphile,
principles and concepts of computer science, available at: www.youtube.com/
including abstraction, logic, algorithms and data watch?v=p7nGcY73epw.
representation.5

In computing lessons, pupils can learn about the

process of abstraction from playing computer games,
Patterns and
particularly those that involve interactive simulations
of real world systems (see Classroom activity ideas). generalisation
Encourage pupils curiosity about how things work,
helping them to think about what happens inside the
computer or on the internet as they use software or How can you make things
browse the web.
easier for yourself?
When pupils put together a presentation or video
on a topic they know about, theyll need to focus on In computing, the method of looking for a general
the key information, and think about how this can be approach to a class of problems is called generalisation.
represented, whilst leaving to one side much of the By identifying patterns we can make predictions, create
detail of the subject: this too involves abstraction. rules and solve more general problems. For example,
in learning about area, pupils could find the area of a
particular rectangle by counting the centimetre squares
Classroom activity ideas on the grid on which its drawn. But a better solution
would be to multiply the length by the width: not only
Encourage pupils who are learning to program is this quicker, its also a method that will work on all
to create their own games. If these are based on rectangles, including really small ones and really large
real world systems then theyll need to use some ones. Although it takes a while for pupils to understand
abstraction to manage the complexity of that this formula, once they do its so much faster than
system in their game. In a simple table tennis counting squares.
game, e.g. Pong, the simulation includes the balls
motion in two dimensions and how it bounces
off the bat, but it ignores factors such as air
resistance, spin or even gravity. Ask your pupils
How are patterns and
to think really carefully about what detail they generalisation used in the
need to include, and what can be left out when
programming a similar game.
national curriculum?
Pupils are likely to encounter the idea of generalising
5
National Curriculum in England, Computing Programmes of Study patterns in many areas of the primary curriculum.
(Department for Education, 2013).
15
 QuickStart Computing

From an early age, theyll become familiar M. C. Escher website, available at:
with repeated phrases in nursery rhymes and www.mcescher.com.
stories; later on theyll notice repeated narrative
structures in traditional tales or other genres.
In music, children will learn to recognise repeating
melodies or bass lines in many musical forms.
How does software
In maths, pupils typically undertake investigations
in which they spot patterns and deduce get written?
generalised results.
In English, pupils might notice common rules for As well as the above processes, there are also a
spellings, and their exceptions. number of approaches that characterise computational
thinking. If pupils are to start thinking computationally,
then its worth helping them to develop these
Classroom activity ideas approaches to their work, so they can be more effective
in putting their thoughts into action.
In computing, encourage pupils to always look
for simpler or quicker ways to solve a problem or Tinkering
achieve a result. Ask pupils to explore geometric There is often a willingness to experiment and
patterns using turtle graphics commands in explore in computer scientists work. Some elements
languages like Scratch, Logo or TouchDevelop of learning a new programming language or exploring
to create crystal flowers (see pages 2627). a new system look quite similar to the sort of
Emphasise how the use of repeating blocks purposeful play thats seen as such an effective
of code is much more efficient than writing approach to learning in the best nursery and
each command separately, and allow pupils to reception classrooms.
experiment with how changing one or two of
the numbers used in their program can produce Open source software makes it easy to take
different shapes. someone elses code, look at how its been made
Organise for the pupils to use graphics software and then adapt it to your own particular project
to create tessellating patterns to cover the or purpose. Platforms such as Scratch and
screen. As they do this, ask them to find quicker TouchDevelop positively encourage users to look at
ways of completing the pattern, typically by other programmers work and use this as a basis for
copying and pasting groups of individual shapes. their own creative coding.
Help the pupils to create rhythmic and effective
music compositions using simple sequencing In class, encourage pupils to play with a new piece of
software in which patterns of beats are repeated. software, sharing what they discover about it with
Ask the pupils to experiment with number one another, rather than you explaining exactly how
patterns and sequences using Scratch or other it works. Also, look for ways in which pupils can use
programming languages. Can they work out a others code, from you, their peers, or online, as a
general program which they could use to generate starting point for their own programming projects.
any linear number sequence?
Creating
Programming is a creative process. Creative work
Further resources involves both originality and making something of
value: typically something that is useful or at least
Barefoot Computing, Patterns, available at: fit for the purpose intended.
http://barefootcas.org.uk/barefoot-primary-
computing-resources/concepts/patterns/ Encourage pupils to approach tasks with a creative
(free, but registration required). spirit, and look for programming tasks that allow
Isle of Tune app, available at: http://isleoftune.com. some scope for creative expression rather than
Laurillard, D., Teaching as a Design Science: Building merely arriving at the right answer.
Pedagogical Patterns for Learning and Technology
(Routledge, 2012). Encourage pupils to reflect on the quality of the
Pattern in Islamic art, available at: work they produce, critiquing their own and others
www.patterninislamicart.com. projects. The process of always looking for ways to

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 Computational thinking

improve on a software project is becoming common Many see pair programming as a particularly
practice in software development. Look for projects effective development method, with two
in which artistic creativity is emphasised, such as programmers sharing a screen and a keyboard,
working with digital music, images, animation, virtual working together to write software. Typically one
environments or even 3D printing. programmer acts as the driver, dealing with the
detail of the programming, whilst the other takes
Debugging on a navigator role, looking at the bigger picture.
Because of its complexity, the code programmers The two programmers regularly swap roles, so both
write often doesnt work as its intended. have a grasp of both detail and big picture. Working
in a larger group develops a number of additional
Getting pupils to take responsibility for thinking skills, with each pupil contributing some of their own
through their algorithms and code, to identify and particular talents to a shared project. However, its
fix errors is an important part of learning to think, important to remember that all pupils should develop
and work, like a programmer. Its also something to their understanding of each part of the process,
encourage across the curriculum: get pupils to check so some sharing of roles or peer-tutoring ought
through their working in maths, or to proofread their normally to be incorporated into such activities.
stories in English. Ask pupils to debug one anothers
code (or indeed proofread one anothers work),
looking for mistakes and suggesting improvements. Further resources
Theres evidence that learning from mistakes is a
particularly effective approach, and the process of Barefoot Computing, Computational Thinking
pupils debugging their own or others code is one way Approaches, available at: http://barefootcas.
to do this. Keep an eye on the bugs that your pupils do org.uk/barefoot-primary-computing-resources/
encounter, as these can sometimes reveal particular computational-thinking-approaches/ (free, but
misconceptions that you may need to address (see registration required).
pages 2829). Briggs, J., Programming with Scratch Software:
The Benefits for Year Six Learners (Bath Spa
Persevering MA dissertation, 2013), available at: https://
Computer programming is hard. This is part of slp.somerset.gov.uk/cypd/elim/somersetict/
its appeal writing elegant and effective code Computing_Curriculum_Primary/Planning/MA_
is an intellectual challenge requiring not only JBriggs_Oct2013.pdf.
an understanding of the ideas of the algorithms DevArt: Art Made with Code, available at: https://
being coded and the programming language youre devart.withgoogle.com/.
working in, but also a willingness to persevere with Dweck, C., Mindset: How You Can Fulfil Your
something thats often quite difficult and sometimes Potential (Robinson, 2012).
very frustrating. Carol Dwecks work on growth Education Endowment Foundation toolkit,
mind-sets suggests that hard work and a willingness available at: http://
to persevere in the face of difficulties can be key educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/toolkit/.
factors in educational outcomes. Encourage pupils Papert, S. and Harel, I., Situating
to look for strategies they can use when they do Constructionism (Ablex Publishing Corporation,
encounter difficulties with their programming work, 1991), available at: www.papert.org/articles/
such as working out exactly what the problem is, SituatingConstructionism.html.
searching for the solution on Bing or Google (with
the safe search mode locked), KidRex or Swiggle, or
asking a friend for help.

Collaborating
Software is developed by teams of programmers and
others working together on a shared project. Look
for ways to provide pupils with this experience in
computing lessons too. Collaborative group work has
long had a place in primary education, and computing
should be no different.

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